Chapter 1

In carrying out the gas–oil separation process, the main target is to try to achieve the
following objectives:
1. Separate the C1 and C2 light gases from oil
2. Maximize the recovery of the intermediate components
3. Save the heavy group components in liquid phase

Two methods for the mechanics of separation are com-pared:

1. Differential or enhanced separation
2. Flash or equilibrium separation
In differential separation, the pressure of the well-effluent is reduced in many series
stages so light gases (light group) are gradually and almost completely separated
from oil.
Differential separation is characterized by the fact that light gases are separated as
soon as they are liberated (due to reduction in pressure).
For flash separation, on the other hand, gases liberated from the oil are kept in
intimate contact with the liquid phase. As a result, thermodynamic equilibrium is
established between the two phases and separation takes place at the required
pressure.
Comparing the two methods, one finds that in differential separation, the yield of
heavy hydrocarbons (intermediate and heavy groups) is maximized and oil-volume
shrinkage experienced by crude oil in the storage tank is minimized. This could be
explained by the fact that separation of most of the light gases take place at the earlier
high-pressure stages; hence, the opportunity of loosing heavy components with the
light gases in low-pressure stages is greatly minimized. As a result, it may be
concluded that flash separation is worse than differential separation because the
greater losses of heavy hydrocarbons that are carried away with the light gases due to
equilibrium conditions. Differential separation is very costly and is not a practical
approach because of the many stages required. This would rule out differential
separation, leaving the flash process as the only viable scheme to affect gas–oil
separation using a small number of stages. A close approach to differential separation
is reached by using four to five flash separation stages.

The conventional separator is the very first vessel through which the well- effluent
mixture flows.
The essential characteristics of the conventional separator are the following:
1. It causes a decrease in the flow velocity, permitting separation of gas and liquid by
gravity.
2. It always operates at a temperature above the hydrate point of the flowing gas.

Functional Components of a Gas–Oil Separator:

1. Section A: Initial bulk separation of oil and gas takes place in this section. The
entering fluid mixture hits the inlet diverter. This causes a sudden change in
momentum and, due to the gravity difference, results in bulk separation of the gas
from the oil. The gas then flows through the top part of the separator and the oil
through the lower part.
2. Section B: Gravity settling and separation is accomplished in this section of the
separator. Because of the considerable reduction in gas velocity and the density
difference, oil droplets settle and separate from the gas.
3. Section C: Known as the mist extraction section, it is capable of removing the very
fine oil droplets which did not settle in the gravity settling section from the gas
stream.
4. Section D: This is known as the liquid collection section. Its main function is
collecting the oil and keeping it for a sufficient time to reach equilibrium with the gas
before it is discharged from the separator.

Commercial Types of Gas–Oil Separator

HORIZONTAL SEPARATORS
Horizontal separators are used most commonly in the following conditions.
• Large volumes of gas and/or liquids.
• High-to-medium gas/oil ratio (GOR) streams.
• Foaming crudes.
• Three-phase separation.
ADVANTAGES
• Require smaller diameter for similar gas capacity as compared to vertical vessels.
• No counterflow (gas flow does not oppose drainage of mist extractor).
• Large liquid surface area for foam dispersion generally reduces turbulence.
• Larger surge volume capacity.
DISADVANTAGES
• Only part of shell available for passage of gas.
• Occupies more space.
• Liquid level control is more critical.
• More difficult to clean produced sand, mud, wax, paraffin, etc.

VERTICAL SEPARATORS
These separators are used in the following conditions.
• Small flow rates of gas and/or liquids.
• Very high or very low GOR streams or when the total gas volumes are low.
• Plot space is limited.
• Ease of level control is desired.

ADVANTAGES
• Liquid level control is not so critical.
• Have good bottom-drain and clean-out facilities.
• Can handle more sand, mud, paraffin, and wax without plugging.
• Less tendency for entrainment.
• Has full diameter for gas flow at top and oil flow at bottom.
• Occupies smaller plot area.
DISADVANTAGES
• Require larger diameter for a given gas capacity, therefore, most competitive for
very low GOR or very high GOR or scrubber applications.
• Not recommended when there is a large slug potential.
• More difficult to reach and service top-mounted instruments and safety devices.

SPHERICAL SEPARATORS
Spherical separators were originally designed to have, theoretically, the best
characteristics of both horizontal and vertical separators. In practice, however,
these separators actually experienced the worst characteristics and are very difficult
to size and operate. They may be very efficient from a pressure containment
standpoint, but because (1) they have limited liquid surge capability and (2) they
exhibit fabrication difficulties, they are seldom used in oil field facilities.
OTHER SEPARATORS CONFIGURATIONS:
Filter Separators:
A filter separator usually has two compartments.
The first compartment contains filter-coalescing elements. As the gas flows through
the elements, the liquid particles coalesce into larger droplets and when the
droplets reach sufficient size, the gas flow causes them to flow out of the filter
elements into the center core. The particles are then carried into the second
compartment of the vessel (containing a vane-type or knitted wire mesh mist
extractor) where the larger droplets are removed. A lower barrel or boot may be
used for surge or storage of the removed liquid.

DOUBLE-BARREL HORIZONTAL SEPARATOR

A double-barrel horizontal separator, which is a variation of the horizontal separator.
Double-barrel horizontal separators are commonly used in applications where there
are high gas flow rates and where there is a possibility of large liquid slugs, e.g., slug
catchers.
Single-barrel horizontal separators can handle large gas flow rates but offer poor
liquid surge capabilities and difficulty in handling large liquid slug. The double-barrel
horizontal separator partially alleviates this short-coming. In these designs the gas
and liquid chambers are separated. The flow stream enters the vessel in the upper
barrel and strikes the inlet diverter. The gas flows through the gravity settling
section, where it encounters the baffle type mist extractors en route to the gas
outlet.
SLUG CATCHER:
A “slug catcher,” commonly used in gas gathering pipelines, is a special case of a
two-phase gas-liquid separator that is designed to handle large gas capacities and
liquid slugs on a regular basis. Since the gathering systems are designed to handle
primarily gas, the presence of liquid restricts flow and causes excessive pressure
drop in the piping. Pigging is periodically used to sweep the liquids out of the
gathering lines, large volumes of liquids must be handled by the downstream
separation equipment. The separators used in this service are called slug catchers.
Slug catcher design is a special application of gas-liquid separator design. Performing
these calculations is a combination of pipeline multiphase hydraulics and separator
sizing. There are two main types of slug catchers, vessel and pipe.
Two kinds of slug catchers, manifolded piping and inlet vessels. The most difficult
part of a slug catcher design is the proper sizing. Sizing requires knowledge of the
largest expected liquid slug, as liquid pump discharge capacity on the slug catcher
will be trivial compared with the sudden liquid influx.

MANIFOLDED PIPING
One reason piping is used instead of separators is to minimize vessel wall thickness.
This feature makes piping attractive at pressures above 500 psi (35 bar). The
simplest slug-catcher design is a single-pipe design that is an increased diameter on
the inlet piping. However, this design requires special upon the required volume and
operating pressure. Also, some designs include a loop line, where some of the
incoming gas bypasses the slug catcher. Primary separation occurs when the gas
makes the turn at the inlet and goes down the pipes. Liquid distribution between
pipes can be a problem, and additional lines between the tubes are often used to
balance the liquid levels. In harp designs, the pipes are sloped so that the liquid
drains toward the outlet.
Gravity settling occurs as the gas flows to the vapor outlet on the top while the liquid
flows out the bottom outlet. Pipe diameters are usually relatively small (usually less
than 48 inches [120 cm]), so settling distances are short.
Because manifolded piping is strictly for catching liquid slugs, demisters are usually
installed downstream in scrubbers. Likewise, liquid goes to other vessels, where
degassing and hydrocarbon−water separation occurs.

Advantages of the pipe design include the fact that design specifications are based
upon pipe codes instead of vessel codes. Also, the slug catcher can be underground,
which reduces maintenance costs and insulation costs if the slug catcher would
otherwise need to be heated.

INLET VESSELS
These slug catchers, commonly called inlet receivers, are simply gas−liquid
separators that combine slug catching with liquid storage. They are usually employed
where operating pressures are relatively low or where space is a problem. Horizontal
vessels are preferred, unless area is limited (as on offshore platforms), because they
provide the highest liquid surface area. Usually two or three vessels are manifolded
together to permit larger volumes and to allow servicing of one vessel without plant
disruption.
Length-to-diameter ratios are typically 3:1 to 5:1 to maintain a low gas velocity
through the gravity-settling section.
With their large volume, inlet vessels usually act as primary storage for inlet liquids
as well. The vessels can accommodate demisters, so additional separation may be
unnecessary before the gas goes to compression.

COMPARISON OF SLUG CATCHER CONFIGURATIONS

Below is a comparison of piping, vertical vessels, and horizontal vessels for slug
catching according to various considerations:
• Land or surface requirements. If no land constraints apply, piping is attractive. If
constraints are severe, as on offshore platforms, vertical vessels are preferred.
Otherwise horizontal vessels are the best choice.
• Operating pressure. If inlet pressures are greater than about 500 psi (35 bar),
significant savings in material costs can be achieved by use of the smaller diameter
piping slug catcher.
• Gas−liquid separation capability. Horizontal vessels provide the best separation,
whereas piping provides the least because its main function is to catch liquid slugs.
The large liquid surface area of horizontal vessels provides the best degassing. Piping
has the shortest gas residence time when liquid levels are properly maintained in the
vessels.
However, with piping, small diameter gas scrubbers can be used for demisting.
• Liquid storage. Horizontal vessels can act as primary liquid storage, whereas liquids
from vertical vessels and piping must be sent to another vessel. Regardless of slug
catcher used, liquids will go to low-pressure flash drums to recover light ends.
Gas plants routinely receive gas from more than one inlet line. In many cases, the
inlet line pressures differ. To minimize required compression on the gas that leaves
inlet receiving, slug catchers operate at each of the inlet line pressures.

SCRUBBER OR KNOCKOUT:
Free-Water Knockouts (FWKO)
Most well streams contain water droplets of varying sizes. If they collect together
and settle out rapidly, they are called free water.
A free-water knockout (FWKO) is a pressure vessel used to remove free water from
crude oil streams. They are located in the production flow path where turbulence
has been minimized. Restrictions such as orifices, and fittings create turbulence in
the liquids that causes emulsions.
Factors affecting design include retention time, flow rate (throughput),
temperature, oil gravity (as it influences viscosity), water drop size distribution, and
emulsion characteristics. Abnormal volumes of gas in the inlet stream may require
proportionately larger vessels as these gas volumes affect the throughput rate. A
simple “field check” to determine retention time is to observe a fresh sample of the
wellhead crude and the time required for free water to segregate.
In installations where gas volumes vary, a two-phase separator is usually installed
upstream of the free-water knockout. The two-phase separator removes most of
the gas and reduces turbulence in the free-water knockout vessel. The free-water
knockout usually operates at 50 psig (345 kPa) or less due to the vessel’s location in
the process flow stream (it's located after low pressure separator).
 Typical vertical knock out drum

Scrubber
An equipment used to remove any particles from gas by aid of liquid.
HYDRATE SEPARATOR
The Hydrate Separator can be used to separate hydrates and liquids from natural
gas without using chemicals. Hydrates are melted using heating coils. A Hydrate
Separator in combination with Twister (Cyclonic separation) is used to condense and
separate water and heavy hydrocarbons from natural gas and it ensures a compact
and low weight design with a high separating efficiency. Further benefits include the
elimination of chemical logistics, storage, regeneration and environmental emission
recovery systems. The simplicity and reliability of a static device, with no rotating
parts, operating without chemicals, ensures a simple facility with a high availability
and these benefits result in significant capital and operating cost savings as well as
safety and environmental performance improvements, particularly for offshore
applications.
Applications
 Gas dehydration
 Hydrocarbon dew pointing
 Natural Gas Liquids (NGL) extraction

Flash Tank:
A vessel used to separate the gas evolved from liquid flashed from a higher pressure
to a lower pressure

Design Considerations
The following factors must be determined before beginning separator design.
1) Gas and liquids flow rates (minimum, average, and peak).
2) Operating and design pressures and temperatures.
3) Surging or slugging tendencies of the feed streams.
4) Physical properties of the fluids, such as density, viscosity, and
compressibility.
5) Designed degree of separation (e.g., removing 100% of particles greater than
10 μm).
6) Foaming tendency of the crude oil.
7) Corrosion tendency of liquids or gases
8) Presence of impurities ( sand – paraffin - … )

Holdup and surge times. Holdup is defined as the time it takes to reduce the liquid
level from normal (NLL) to low (LLL) while maintaining a normal outlet flow without
feed makeup. Surge time is defined as the time it takes for the liquid level to rise
from normal (NLL) to high (HLL) while maintaining a normal feed without any outlet
flow.
Holdup time is based on the reserve required to maintain good control and safe
operation of downstream facilities, whereas surge time is usually based on
requirements to accumulate liquid as a result of upstream or downstream variations
or upsets, for e.g., slugs. In the absence of specific requirements, surge time may be
taken as one-half of holdup time.

SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

1) Leaking pipelines. Leaks present a danger of fire if an ignition source is
available and of poisoning if the gas contains high hydrogen sulfide
concentrations. Respirators may be required for work in a sour gas field.
2) COX and NOX emissions. They must be treated.
3) Plugged pipelines. Plugs can be caused by hydrates. Clearing a hydrate plug
should be done by depressurization of both sides of the plug.
4) The impact of liquid slugs on the piping. Wall thickness should be checked to
ensure the unit can handle the increased pipe stresses induced by potentially
larger slugs of liquid.
DETERMINING SEPARATOR OPERATING PRESSURES
A minimum pressure for the lowest-pressure separator would be in the 25- to 50-
psig range. The higher the operating pressure, the smaller the compressor needed
to compress the flash gas to sales. Increasing the low-pressure separator pressure
from 50 psig to 200 psig may decrease the compression horsepower required by
33%. However, it may also add backpressure to wells, restricting their flow, and
allow more gas to be vented to atmosphere at the tank. Usually, an operating
pressure of between 50 and 100 psig is optimum.
The operating pressure of the highest-pressure separator will be no higher than the
sales gas pressure.
An approximation of the intermediate separator operating pressures can be derived
from

R = (Pd / Ps)(1/n)
where
R = ratio per stage,
Pd = discharge pressure, psia,
Ps = suction pressure, psia,
n = number of stages.

POTENTIAL OPERATING PROBLEMS

1) Foaming
2) Paraffin
3) Sand
4) Liquid carry over
5) Gas blowby
6) Liquid slugs

Foamy Crude
The major cause of foam in crude oil is the presence of impurities, other than water,
such as CO2.

The foaming tendencies of any oil can be determined with laboratory tests. The
amount of foam is dependent on the pressure drop to which the inlet liquid is
subjected. Increasing the operating temperature for low API gravity crude (heavy
oils) with low GORs or for high API crude (light oils) with high GORs, decreases the
oils’ foaming tendencies. However, increasing the operating temperature for a high
API gravity crude (light oil) with low GORs may increase the foaming tendencies.

Foaming Problems:-
1. The foam, having a density between that of the liquid and gas, will disrupt the
operation of the level controller.
2. Foam has a large volume-to-weight ratio. Therefore, it can occupy much of the
vessel space that would otherwise be available in the liquid collecting or gravity
settling sections.
3. In an uncontrolled foam separator, it becomes impossible to remove
separated gas or degassed oil from the vessel without entraining some of the
foamy material in either the liquid or gas outlets.
Foaming problems may be treated by:-
1- Using defoaming plates within the separator. Defoaming plates are a series of
closely spaced parallel plates. The flow of the foam through such plates results in
the coalescence of bubbles and separation of the liquid from the gas.
2- Special chemicals known as foam depressants may be added to the fluid mixture
to solve foaming problems. The cost of such chemicals could become very high
when handling high production rates.

Paraffin
Separator operation can be affected by an accumulation of paraffin.
Paraffin Problem:-
Coalescing plates in the liquid section and mesh pad mist extractors in the gas
section may suffer from plugging by accumulations of paraffin.
Treating:-
1- We should use plate-type or centrifugal mist extractors.
2- Nozzles should be provided to allow steam, solvent, or any other material to
clean the separator internals.
3- The bulk temperature of the liquid should always be kept above the cloud point of
the crude oil.
Sand
Problems:-
1- Sand can cause cutout of valve trim.
2- Plugging of separator internals
3- Accumulation in the bottom of the separator.
Treating:-
1-Special hard trim can minimize the effects of sand on the valves.
2- Accumulations of sand can be removed by periodically injecting water or steam
in the bottom of the vessel so to remove the sand during draining.
3- Sometimes a vertical separator is fitted with a cone bottom to help in removing
sand.
4- Plugging of the separator internals is a problem that must be considered in the
design of the separator, it should provide some areas for sand accumulation.

Liquid Carryover
The entraining of liquid with the exiting gas is known as Liquid carryover.
It could happen due to high liquid level, damage to vessel internals, foam, improper
design, plugged liquid outlets, or a flow rate that exceeds the vessel’s design rate.
Liquid carryover can usually be prevented by installing a level safety high (LSH)
sensor that shuts in the inlet flow to the separator when the liquid level exceeds the
normal maximum liquid level by some percentage, usually 10–15%.

Gas Blowby
The entraining of the gas with the exiting liquid is known as Gas blowby. It could
happen due to low liquid level, vortexing, plugged gas outlets, improper design, or
level control failure. If the gas went with the liquid to the next downstream vessel in
the process and it wasn't designed for gas blowby conditions, it can be over-
pressured.
Gas blowby can usually be prevented by installing a level safety low sensor (LSL)
that shuts in the outflow of the vessel when the liquid level drops to 10–15%
below the lowest operating level. In addition, downstream process components
should be equipped with a pressure safety valve (PSV) sized for gas blowby.
Liquid Slugs
Two-phase flow lines and pipelines tend to accumulate liquids in low spots in the
lines. When the level of liquid in these low spots rises high enough to block the gas
flow, then the gas will push the liquid along the line as a slug.
When liquid slugs are expected, slug volume for design purposes must be
established. The location of the high level set point may be established to provide
the slug volume between the normal level and the high level. The separator size
must then be checked to ensure that sufficient gas capacity is provided even when
the liquid is at the high level set point. This check of gas capacity is important for
horizontal separators because, as the liquid level rises, the gas capacity is
decreased. For vertical separators, sizing is easier as sufficient height for the slug
volume may be added to the vessel’s seam-to-seam length.

VESSEL INTERNALS
Inlet Diverters
Inlet diverters are used to cause a rapid change in direction and velocity of the
entering vapor/liquid stream and provide primary separator between the liquid and
vapor. The gas goes up while the liquid falls to the bottom of the vessel. There are
many types of inlet diverters. Three main types are baffle plates, centrifugal
diverters, and elbows.

Wave Breakers
In long horizontal vessels, usually located on floating structures, it may be
necessary to install wave breakers. The waves may result from surges of liquids
entering the vessel. Wave breakers are nothing more than perforated baffles or
plates that are placed perpendicular to the flow located in the liquid collection
section of the separator. These baffles weaken any wave action that may be
caused by incoming fluids.
Defoaming Plates
A series of parallel plates or tubes closely spaced. They provide additional surface
area, which make bubbles coalescence and the foam breaks up and falls into the
liquid layer.

Vortex Breaker
Liquid leaving a separator may form vortices, which can pull gas down into the
liquid outlet. Therefore, horizontal separators are often equipped with vortex
breakers, which prevent a vortex from developing when the liquid control valve is
open. It is a covered cylinder with radially directed flat plates. As liquid enters the
bottom of the vortex breaker, any circular motion is prevented by the flat plates and
any tendency to form vortices is removed.

Stilling Well
A stilling well is a slotted pipe fitting surrounding an internal level control displacer,
protects the displacer from currents, waves, and other disturbances that could
cause the displacer to sense an incorrect level measurement.

Sand Jets and Drains

When sand and other solids accumulate at the bottom of the vessel, we use sand
jets to remove them through drains. The system, consists of a drain and its
associated jets, which are installed at intervals not exceeding 5 ft (1.5 m). To
remove the solids, sand drains are opened in a controlled manner, and then high
pressure fluid, usually water, is pumped through the jets to agitate the solids and
flush them down the drains.

MIST EXTRACTORS
There are devices designed to remove the liquid droplets and solid particles from
the gas stream. The selection of a type of mist extractor is affected by the fluid
characteristics, the system requirements, and the cost.
Before a selection can be made, one must evaluate the following factors:
1) Size of droplets that must be removed
2) Pressure drop that can be tolerated in achieving the required level of removal
3) Probability of the separator for plugging by solids
4) Liquid handling capability of the separator
5) Whether the mist extractor can be installed inside existing equipment, or if it
requires another vessel instead
6) Availability of the materials of construction
7) Cost of the mist extractor and required vessels, piping, instrumentation, and
utilities

Gravitational and Drag Forces Acting on a Droplet

As the gas in a vessel flows upward, there are two opposing forces acting on a liquid
droplet: a gravitational force (or negative buoyant force) acting downward to
accelerate the droplet, and an opposing drag force acting to slow the droplet’s rate
of fall. An increase in the upward gas velocity increases the drag force on the
droplet. The drag force continues to reduce the rate of fall until a point is
reached when the downward velocity reaches zero, and the droplet becomes
stationary. When the gravitational or negative buoyant force equals the drag force,
the acceleration of the liquid droplet becomes zero and the droplet will settle at a
constant “terminal” or “settling” velocity. Additional increases in gas velocity result
in an initial reduction in settling velocity of the droplet. Further increase causes
the droplet to move upward at increasing velocities until a point is reached where
the droplet velocity approaches the gas velocity. The same theory is applicable to
horizontal gas flow as well. The primary difference is that the gravitational and drag
forces are operating at 90 degrees to each other. Thus, there is always a net force
acting in the downward direction.
All mist extractor types are based on the following forces:
1) Overcoming drag force by reducing the gas velocity (gravity separators or
 settling chambers)
2) Introducing additional forces (venturi scrubbers, cyclones, electrostatic
precipitators)
3) Increasing gravitational force by boosting the droplet size (Impingement
type).
Impingement-Type
The most widely used type of mist extractor is the impingement type because it
offers good balance between efficiency, operating range, pressure drop
requirement, and installed cost. Impingement type mist extractors may involve
baffles or vans, wire meshes, and micro-fiber pads.

Mechanism of an impingement mist extractor

This type involves just a single baffle or disc installed in a vessel. As the gas
approaches the surface of the baffle or, fluid streamlines spread around the baffle
or disc. A droplet can be captured by the disc via any of the following three
mechanisms: inertial impaction, direct interception, and diffusion.
• Inertial impaction. Because of their mass, particles 1 to 10 microns in diameter in
the gas stream have sufficient momentum to break through the gas streamlines
and continue to move in a straight line until they impinge on the disc.
• Direct interception. There are also particles in the gas stream that are smaller,
between 0.3 to 1 microns in diameter, than those above. These do not have sufficient
momentum to break through the gas streamlines. Instead, they are carried around
the disc by the gas stream. However, if the streamline in which the particle is
traveling happens to lie close enough to the disc so that the distance from the
particle centerline to the target is less than one-half the particle’s diameter, the
particle can touch the disc and be collected.
• Diffusion. Even smaller particles, usually smaller than 0.3 microns in diameter,
exhibit random Brownian motion caused by collisions with the gas molecules. This
random motion will cause these small particles to strike the disc and be collected.

Other Configurations
Some separators use centrifugal mist extractors that cause liquid droplets to be
separated by centrifugal force. These units can be more efficient than either wire
mesh or vanes and are the least susceptible to plugging. However, they are not in
common use in production operations because their removal efficiencies are
sensitive to small changes in flow. In addition, they require relatively large pressure
drops to create the centrifugal force.

OPTIMUM PRESSURE FOR GAS–OIL SEPARATORS

The effect of the operating pressure on the recovery of stock tank-oil:
1. High-pressure operation: This will diminish the opportunity of light
hydrocarbons in the feed to vaporize and separate. However, once this liquid
stream is directed to the storage tank (normally operating at/or close to
atmospheric pressure), violent flashing occurs due to the high-pressure drop, with
subsequent severe losses of the heavier hydrocarbons into the gas phase.
2. Low-pressure operation: Here, large quantities of light hydro- carbons
will separate from the gas–oil separator, carrying along with them heavier
hydrocarbons, causing a loss in the recovered oil. Upon directing this liquid
stream to the storage tank, it suffers very little loss in heavy components,
because the bulk of light gases were separated in the separator.

It may be concluded that a proper operating pressure has to be selected and its
value has to be between the two extreme cases in order to maximize the oil yield
and minimize the gas–oil ratio (GOR).
In the determination of the optimum operating pressure for a GOSP consisting
of three stages (high-, intermediate-, and low-pressure separators) it is the second-
stage pressure that could be freely changed, hence optimized.
The pressure in the first stage (high pressure) is normally fixed because it depends
on the flow conditions of the producing wells. The pressure in the third stage
(low pressure) is fixed because it's a storage tank.
In general, pressure of 50–100 psia is considered an optimum value of the second-
stage operation, whereas a minimum pressure for the third stage will be in the
range of 25–50 psig.

SELECTIONS AND PERFORMANCE OF GAS–OIL SEPARATORS

The performance of gas–oil separators, on the other hand, are controlled by four
factors:
1. Operating temperature: A higher temperature will cause more evaporation of the
hydrocarbons, diminishing the recovery of the liquid portion.
2. Operating pressure: A higher pressure will allow more hydrocarbons to condense,
increasing liquid recovery. However, after reaching a certain peak, a higher pressure
causes liquid to decrease. This is in accordance with the retrograde phenomena.
3. Number of stages: Increasing the number of stages in general will increase the
efficiency of separation, resulting in a higher yield of the stable stock tank oil. This is
true for a number of stages in the range of two to three. However, if the number
increases beyond three, improvement in the recovery diminishes
4. The composition of the well streams has to be considered in evaluating the
performance of a gas–oil separator.

In order to judge the performance of a GOSP, a number of tests are carried out to
evaluate the efficiency of operation
1-Evaluation of particle size: The method requires determining the size of liquid
particles entrained by the gas stream.
2. Determination of the quantity of liquid carryover: The method requires
determining the volume of liquid entrained or ‘‘carried over’’ by the gas stream.
3. Stain test: It is an old test. It simply consists of holding and exposing a white cloth
in the gas stream leaving the separator. The performance of the separator is
considered acceptable if a brown strain does not form on the cloth in 1 min.
 Chapter 3
It's all about
1- Determining the gas capacity or liquid capacity at certain operating conditions
using figures
2- Sizing gas-oil separator based on the gas and liquid capacity using figures and
tables
- The liquid capacity depends on the settling volume and retention time
W = 1440 V / t , or t = 1440 V / W , or V = W t / 1440
Where
W liquid capacity bbl/day
V liquid settling volume, bbl
t retention time, min
 Retention time for Oil-gas separation = 1 min

Steps of solution problems:-

1) Using the gas capacity and operating pressure, we determine the dimensions
of the suitable separator from figures (3-1,3-2,3-4,3-5)
2) Determine the settling volume according to the dimensions from tables (A.3 –
A.5 – A.7 – A.9)
3) Calculate the liquid capacity according to the settling volume and retention
time
4) Compare between the calculated liquid capacity and the capacity given in the
problem. The calculated must be higher than the given in the problem or we
will choose a larger separator.

Another type of problems:-

The temperature is reduced and we want to determine the amount of additional
liquid recovery.
1) We determine liquid flow rate (bbl/MMscf) = gas flow rate/condensate
recovery
2) From figure (3.8) using the calculated flow rate and the new temperature, we
determine the new amount of liquid flow rate
3) By subtraction (new liquid flow rate – old value), we determine the additional
recovery (bbl/day).
 Chapter 4
Acid Gas Treating
Natural gas often contains contaminants that may have to be removed. Carbon
dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and other sulfur compounds such as
mercaptans. These compounds are known as "acid gases." because H2S combined
with water forms a weak form of sulfuric acid, while CO2 and water forms
carbonic acid.
Natural gas with H2S or other sulfur compounds present is called "sour gas," while
gas with only CO2 is called "sweet." Both H2S and CO2 are undesirable, as they cause
corrosion and reduce the heating value and thus the sales value of the gas.
The partial pressure of the acid gases may be used as a measure to determine
whether treatment is required. The partial pressure of a gas is defined as the total
pressure of the system times the mole % of the gaseous component.
Iron sponge and amine systems are the most common field gas treating processes
currently employed.

GAS SWEETENING PROCESSES

These processes can be categorized by the principles used in the process to
separate the acid gas and the natural gases as follows:
(I)Solid Bed Absorption
A fixed bed of solid particles can be used to remove acid gases either through
chemical reactions or ionic bonding. Typically, in solid bed absorption processes
the gas stream must flow through a fixed bed of solid particles that remove the
acid gases and hold them in the bed. When the bed is saturated with acid gases,
the vessel must be removed from service and the bed regenerated or replaced..
There are three commonly used processes under this category: the iron oxide
process, the zinc oxide process, and the molecular sieve process.

1-Iron Sponge
The iron sponge process uses the chemical reaction of ferric oxide with H2S to
sweeten gas streams. This process is applied to gases with low H2S
concentrations (300 ppm) operating at low to moderate pressures (50-500 psig).
Carbon dioxide is not removed by this process.
The reaction of H2S and ferric oxide produces water and ferric sulfide as follows:

2Fe2O3 + 6H2S → 2Fe2S3 + 6H2O

The reaction requires the presence of slightly alkaline water and a temperature
below 110°F. If the gas does not contain sufficient water vapor, water may need
to be injected into the inlet gas stream. Additionally, bed alkalinity should be
checked daily. A pH level of 8-10 should be maintained through the injection of
caustic soda with the water.
The ferric oxide is introduced on wood chips, which produces a solid bed with a
large ferric oxide surface area. The most common grades are 6.5-, 9.0-, 15.0-,
and 20-lb iron oxide/bushel.
The ferric sulfide can be oxidized with air to produce sulfur and regenerate the
ferric oxide. The reaction for ferric oxide regeneration is as follows:
2Fe2S3 + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3 + 6S
S2 + 2O2 → 2SO2
The regeneration step must be performed with great care as the reaction with
oxygen is exothermic. Air must be introduced slowly so the heat of reaction can
be dissipated. If air is introduced quickly the heat of reaction may ignite the bed.
Some of the elemental sulfur produced in the regeneration step remains in the
bed. After several cycles this sulfur will accumulate over the ferric oxide,
decreasing the reactivity of the bed. Typically, after 10 cycles the bed must be
removed from the vessel and replaced with a new bed.
Regeneration can be continuous but it may create an explosive mixture of air
and gas. Due to the difficulty of controlling the regeneration step, iron sponge
units are normally operated in the batch mode. The bed is replaced and
regeneration occurs in another place
Hydrocarbon liquids in the gas tend to coat the iron sponge media, inhibiting the
reactions. The use of a gas scrubber or filter separator upstream of the iron
sponge unit will minimize the amount of liquids that condense on the bed.

2-SulfaTreat®
SulfaTreat® process is similar to the iron sponge process. It uses a mixture of
ferric oxide and triferric oxide to react with H2S to sweeten gas streams. In
SulfaTreat® process the iron oxides are supported on the surface of an inert,
inorganic material. Two vessels arranged in series, a lead/lag arrangement, will
allow the SulfaTreat® material to be used more efficiently with no interruption
in unit service and greater process reliability. The first vessel, the "lead" unit,
acts as the "working" unit to remove all the H2S at the beginning but when the
concentration of H2S increases in the outlet with time, the exit gas from the first
vessel can go to the second vessel, the "lag" unit, for further treatment.
Once the lead unit inlet and outlet concentrations are equal, the SulfaTreat*
material is considered spent or exhausted. Then, the gas flow is directed to the
second vessel, which becomes the lead unit. The spent material is removed from
the first vessel and the fresh Sulfa Treat® material reloaded to be placed into
operation as the lag unit without gas flow interruption.

3-Zinc Oxide
The zinc oxide process is similar to the iron sponge process. It uses a solid bed of
granular zinc oxide to react with the H2S to form water and zinc sulfide:
ZnO + H2S → ZnS + H2O
The rate of reaction is controlled by the Temperature. High temperature
(>250°F) increases the rate of reaction and the diffusion rate since the sulfide
ion must first diffuse to the surface of the zinc oxide to react.
Zinc oxide is contained in long, thin beds to lessen the chances of channeling.
Pressure drop through the beds is low. Bed life is a function of gas H2S content
and can vary from 6 months to in excess of 10 years.
The process has seen decreasing use due to increasing disposal problems with
the spent catalyst, which is classified as a heavy metal salt.

4-Molecular Sieves
The molecular sieve process uses synthetically manufactured solid crystalline
zeolite in a dry bed to remove gas impurities. The crystalline structure of the
solids provides a very porous solid material with all the pores exactly the same
size. Within the pores the crystal structure creates a large number of localized
polar charges called active sites. Polar gas molecules, such as H2S and water,
which enter the pores form weak ionic bonds at the active sites. Non-polar
molecules such as paraffin hydrocarbons will not bond to the active sites. Thus,
molecular sieve units will "dehydrate" the gas (remove water vapor) as well as
sweeten it. Molecular sieves are available with a variety of pore sizes.
Even though the CO2 is non-polar and will not bond to the active sites, the CO2
will enter the pores. Small quantities of CO2 will become trapped in the pores
since it has the same size as H2S molecules. In this way small portions of CO2 are
removed. More importantly, CO2 will obstruct the access of H2S and water to
active sites and decrease the effectiveness of the pores.
The absorption process occurs at moderate pressure. Ionic bonds tend to
achieve an optimum performance near 450 psig, but the process can be used for
a wide range of pressures. The molecular sieve bed is regenerated by flowing
hot sweet gas through the bed. Typical regeneration temperatures are in the
range of 300-400°F. Molecular sieve beds do not suffer any chemical
degradation and can be regenerated indefinitely. Care should be taken to
minimize mechanical damage to the solid crystals as this may decrease the bed's
effectiveness. The main causes of mechanical damage are sudden pressure
and/or temperature changes when switching from absorption to regeneration
cycles.
Molecular sieves for acid gas treatment are limited to small gas capacities so
they have seen limited use for gas sweetening operations and large use for
dehydration of sweet gas streams where very low water vapor concentrations
are required.

(II) Chemical Solvents

Chemical solvent processes use an aqueous solution of a weak base to
chemically react with and absorb the acid gases in the natural gas stream.
The absorption occurs as a result of the driving force of the partial pressure from
the gas to the liquid. The reactions are reversible by changing the system
temperature or pressure, or both. Therefore, the aqueous base solution can be
regenerated and thus circulated in a continuous cycle. The majority of chemical
solvent processes use either an amine or carbonate solution.

1-Amine Processes
Amines can be categorized as primary, secondary, or tertiary according to the
number of organic groups bonded to the central nitrogen atom. Primary amines
are stronger bases than secondary amines, which are stronger than tertiary
amines. Amines with stronger base properties will be more reactive toward CO2
and H2S gases and will form stronger chemical bonds.
The sour gas enters the system through an inlet separator to remove any
entrained water or hydrocarbon liquids. Then the gas enters the bottom of the
amine absorber and flows counter-current to the amine solution. The absorber
can be either a trayed or packed tower. An optional outlet separator may be
included to recover entrained amines from the sweet gas.
The amine solution leaves the bottom of the absorber carrying the acid gases
(rich amine). From the absorber the rich amine is flashed to a flash tank to
remove almost all the dissolved hydrocarbon gases and entrained hydrocarbon
condensates and a small percentage of the acid gases will also flash to the vapor
phase in this vessel. From the flash tank the rich amine proceeds to the rich/lean
amine exchanger. This exchanger recovers some of the sensible heat from the
lean amine stream to decrease the heat duty on the amine reboiler. The heated
rich amine then enters the amine stripping tower where heat from the reboiler
breaks the bonds between the amines and acid gases. The acid gases are
removed overhead and lean amine is removed from the bottom of the stripper.
The hot lean amine proceeds to the rich/lean amine exchanger and then to
additional coolers to lower its temperature to no less than 10°F above the inlet
gas temperature. This prevents hydrocarbons from condensing in the amine
solution when the amine contacts the sour gas. The cooled lean amine is then
pumped up to the absorber pressure and enters the top of the absorber. As the
amine solution flows down the absorber it absorbs the acid gases. The rich amine
is then removed at the bottom of the tower and the cycle is repeated.
Diethanol amine (DEA) is the most common. Even though a DEA system may not
be as efficient as some of the other chemical solvents, it may be less expensive.
A-Monoethanolamine Systems.
Monoethanolamine (MEA) is a primary amine. MEA is a stable compound and in
the absence of other chemicals suffers no degradation or decomposition at
temperatures up to its normal boiling point. MEA reacts with CO2 and H2S as
follows:
low temp.
2(RNH2) + H2S ⇄ (RNH3)2S
high temp.

low temp.
2(RNH2) + CO2 ⇄ RNHCOONH.R
high temp.
The reactions with CO2 and H2S shown are reversed in the stripping column by
heating the rich MEA to approximately 245°F at 10 psig. The acid gases evolve
into the vapor and are removed from the still overhead. Thus, the MEA is
regenerated.
Some heat- stable salts are formed. The normal regeneration temperature in the
still will not regenerate heat-stable salts. Therefore, a reclaimer is usually
included to remove these contaminants. MEA is usually circulated in a solution
of 15-20% MEA by weight in water. From operating experience, only 20% is
allowable to avoid excessive corrosion.
The acid gases in the rich amine are extremely corrosive. The corrosion
commonly shows up on areas of carbon steel that have been stressed, such as
heat-affected zones near welds, or at a hot gas-liquid interface. Therefore,
stress-relieving after manufacturing is necessary to reduce corrosion.
Condensed hydrocarbons, degradation products, solids, excess corrosion
inhibitor can cause foaming which results in excessive amine carry over from the
absorber. Solids can be removed with filters. Hydrocarbon liquids are usually
removed in the flash tank. Degradation products are removed in a reclaimer.
Storage tanks for MEA must have inert blanket of sweet natural gas or nitrogen
because MEA will oxidize when exposed to the oxygen in air.
MEA has a relatively high vapor pressure. Thus, MEA losses of 1 to 3 lb/MMscf
are common. MEA systems can efficiently sweeten sour gas to pipeline
specifications; but a great care in designing the system is required to limit
equipment corrosion and MEA losses.

B-Diethanolamine Systems.
Diethanolamine (DEA) is a secondary amine that has replaced MEA as the most
common chemical solvent. As a secondary amine, DEA is a weaker base than
MEA, and therefore DEA systems do not suffer the same corrosion problems. In
addition, DEA has lower vapor loss, requires less heat for regeneration, and does
not require a reclaimer. DEA reacts with H2S and CO2 as follows:
low temp.
2R2NH + H2S . ⇄ (R2NH2)2S
high temp.
low temp.
(R2NH2)2S + H2S ⇄ 2(R2NH2)HS
high temp.
 low temp.
2R2NH + CO2 ⇄ R2NCOONH2R2
high temp.

Other salts can be regenerated in the stripping column so no need for a

reclaimer. The stoichiometry of the reactions of DEA and MEA with CO2 and H2S
is the same. The molecular weight of DEA is 105, compared to 61 for MEA and
this means that the amount of DEA required to react with the same amount of
acid gas is higher than that required from MEA. However, because of its lower
corrosivity, the solution strength of DEA ranges up to 35% by weight compared
to only 20% for MEA. Loadings for DEA systems is higher than that of MEA. The
result of this is that the circulation rate of a DEA solution is slightly less than for
a comparable MEA system.

2-Diglycolamine Systems.
(DGA) is used to sweeten natural gas. The active DGA reagent is a primary
amine. The reactions of DGA with acid gases are the same as for MEA.
Degradation products can be regenerated in a reclaimer. DGA systems circulate
a solution of 50-70% DGA by weight in water. Corrosion in DGA systems is slightly
less than in MEA systems, and the advantages of a DGA system are that the low
vapor pressure decreases amine losses, and the high solution strength decreases
circulation rates and heat required.

3-Diisopropanolamine Systems.
Diisopropanolamine (DIPA) is a secondary amine used to sweeten natural gas.
DIPA systems are similar to DEA systems but offer the following advantages:
Degradation products can be removed and regenerated easily and the system is
generally noncorrosive and requires less heat input. One feature of this process
is that at low pressures DIPA will preferentially remove H2S. As pressure
increases the selectivity of the process decreases. The DIPA removes large
amounts of CO2 as well as the H2S. Therefore, this system can be used either
selectively to remove H2S or to remove both CO2 and H2S.
4-Hot Potassium Carbonate Process
The hot potassium carbonate (K2CO3) process uses hot potassium carbonate to
remove both CO2 and H2S. It works best on a gas with CO2 partial pressures in
the range of 30-90 psi. The main reactions involved in this process are:

High CO2 press.

K2CO3 + CO2+ H2O ⇄2KHCO3
Low CO2 press.

High H2S press.

K2CO3 + H2S ⇄ KHS + KHCO3
Low H2S press.

It can be seen that H2S alone cannot be removed unless there is sufficient CO2
present to provide KHCO3, which is needed to regenerate potassium carbonate.
Since these equations are driven by partial pressures, it is difficult to treat H2S to
the very low requirements usually demanded. Thus, final polishing to H2S
treatment may be required. The reactions are reversible based on the partial
pressures of the acid gases. Degradation products can be regenerated.
The sour gas enters the bottom of the absorber and flows counter-current to the
potassium carbonate. The sweet gas then exits the top of the absorber. The
absorber is typically operated at 230°F; therefore, a sour/sweet gas exchanger
may be included to recover sensible heat and decrease the system heat
requirements.
The acid-rich potassium carbonate solution from the bottom of the absorber is
flashed to a flash drum, where much of the acid gas is removed. The solution then
proceeds to the stripping column, which operates at approximately 245°F and
near-atmospheric pressure. The low pressure, combined with a small amount of
heat input, drives off the remaining acid gases. The lean potassium carbonate
from the stripper is pumped back to the absorber. The lean solution may or may
not be cooled slightly before entering the absorber. The heat of reaction from
the absorption of the acid gases causes a slight temperature rise in the absorber.
The concentration of K2CO3 solution is 20-35 % by weight. The entire system is
operated at high temperatures to increase the solubility of potassium carbonate.
Therefore, the designer must be careful to avoid dead spots in the system where
the solution could cool and precipitate solids. If solids precipitate, the system may
suffer from plugging, erosion, or foaming

The hot potassium carbonate solutions are extremely corrosive. All carbon steel
must be stress-relieved to limit corrosion. A variety of corrosion inhibitors are
available to decrease corrosion.
New processes have been developed based on the hot potassium systems with
an activator or catalyst to increase the performance of hot PC systems by
reducing the corrosion and increasing the reactions rates in the absorber and
stripper.

(III) Physical Solvent Processes

These processes are based on the solubility of the H2S and/or CO2 within the
solvent, instead of on chemical reactions between the acid gas and the solvent.
Solubility depends on partial pressure and secondarily on temperature. Higher
acid-gas partial pressures and lower temperatures increase the solubility of H2S
and CO2 in the solvent and thus decrease their concentration in the sour gas.
Various organic solvents are used to absorb the acid gases. Regeneration of the
solvent is accomplished by flashing to lower pressures or stripping with solvent
vapor or inert gas or both. When regeneration requires some heat, it'll be small
compared to chemical solvents.
Physical solvent processes have a high affinity for heavy hydrocarbons. If the
natural gas stream is rich in C3+ hydrocarbons, then a great loss of the heavy
hydrocarbons occurs. These hydrocarbons are lost because they are released
from the solvent with the acid gases and cannot be economically recovered.
Under the following circumstances physical solvent processes should be
considered for gas sweetening:
1) The partial pressure of the acid gases in the feed is 50 psi or higher.
2) The concentration of heavy hydrocarbons in the feed is low. That is, the
gas stream is lean in propane-plus.
3) Only bulk removal of acid gases is required.
4) Selective H2S removal is required.
In the physical solvent process, the sour gas contacts the solvent using counter-
current flow in the absorber. Rich solvent from the absorber bottom is flashed
in stages to a pressure near atmospheric. This causes the acid-gas partial
pressures to decrease; the acid gases evolve to the vapor phase and are
removed. The regenerated solvent is then pumped back to the absorber.
Some solvents require a stripping column beside the flashing stages.
1-Fluor Solvent Process®
This process uses propylene carbonate as a physical solvent to remove CO2 and
H2S.
Propylene carbonate has the following characteristics, which make it suitable as
a solvent for acid gas treating:
1-High degree of solubility for CO2.
2-Low heat of solution for CO2.
3 – It can remove H2S, COS, SO2, H2O,C2+
4- Low vapor pressure at operating temperature.
5-Low solubility for light hydrocarbons (C1, C2).
6-Chemically nonreactive toward all natural gas components.
7-Low viscosity.
8-Noncorrosive toward common metals.
Thus, in one step the natural gas can be sweetened and dehydrated to pipeline
quality. This process is used for bulk removal of CO2 and is not used to treat to
less than 3% CO2. The system requires special design features, larger absorbers,
and higher circulation rates to obtain pipeline quality and usually is not
economically applicable for these outlet requirements.

2-Sulfinoi® Process
This process combines the properties of a physical and a chemical solvent. The
Sulfinoi® solution consists of a mixture of sulfolane, which is a physical solvent,
diisopropanolamine (DIPA), which is a chemical solvent and water.
The physical solvent sulfolane provides the system with bulk removal capacity.
Sulfolane is an excellent solvent of H2S, COS, and CS2, heavy hydrocarbons and
CO2. The relative amounts of DIPA and sulfolane are adjusted for each gas stream
to custom fit each application. Sulfinoi® is usually used for streams with an H 2S
to CO2 ratio greater than 1:1 or where it is not necessary to remove the CO2 to
the same levels as is required for H2S removal. The physical solvent allows much
greater solution loadings of acid gas than for pure amine-based systems.
The chemical solvent DIPA acts as secondary treatment to remove H2S and CO2
and allows pipeline quality to be achieved easily. A stripper is required to reverse
the reactions of the DIPA with CO2 and H2S. A reclaimer is also required to
remove degradation products of the side reaction of DIPA and CO2. This adds to
the cost and complexity of the system compared to other physical solvents, but
the heat requirements are much lower than for amine systems,
3-Selexol® Process
This process is selective toward removing sulfur compounds. Levels of CO2 can
be reduced by approximately 85% and an amount of water. This process may
be used economically when there are high acid-gas partial pressures and the
absence of heavy ends in the gas, but it will not normally meet pipeline gas
requirements. DIPA can be added to the solution to remove CO2 down to
pipeline specifications. This system then functions much like the Sulfinoi®
process. The addition of DIPA will increase the stripper heal duty; however, this
duty is relatively low.

Direct Conversion of H2S to Sulfur

The chemical and solvent processes remove acid gases from the gas stream but
result in a release of H2S and CO2 when the solvent is regenerated. H2S can be
released to the atmosphere or directed to a flare, which would convert the H2S
to SO2 then released to the atmosphere but there's a limitation and restriction
on both of them by environmental regulations.
Direct conversion processes use chemical reactions to oxidize H2S and produce
elemental sulfur. These processes are generally based either on the reaction of
H2S and O2 or H2S and SO2. Both reactions yield water and elemental sulfur.
These processes involve specialized catalysts and/or solvents. A direct
conversion process can be used directly on the produced gas stream. Where
large flow rates are encountered, it is more common to contact the produced
gas stream with a chemical or physical solvent and use a direct conversion
process on the acid gas liberated in the regeneration step.

Claus® Process
This process is used to treat gas streams containing high concentrations of H2S.
The chemistry of the units involves partial oxidation of hydrogen sulfide to sulfur
dioxide and the catalytically promoted reaction of H2S and SO2 to produce
elemental sulfur.

2H2S + 3O2 → 2SO2 + 2H2O Thermal Stage

SO2 + 2H2S → 3S + 2H2O Thermal and Catalytic Stage

The first stage of the process converts H2S to sulfur dioxide and to sulfur by
burning the acid-gas stream with air in the reaction furnace. This stage provides
SO2 for the next catalytic phase of the reaction. Multiple catalytic stages are
provided to achieve a more complete conversion of the H2S. Condensers are
provided after each stage to condense the sulfur vapor and separate it from the
main stream. Conversion efficiencies of 94-95% can be attained with two
catalytic stages, while up to 97% conversion can be attained with three catalytic
stages. The effluent gas is incinerated or sent to another treating unit for "tail-
gas treating" before it is exhausted to atmosphere.

There are many processes used in tail-gas treating. The Sulfreen* and the Cold
Bed Absorption® (CBA) processes use two parallel reactors in a cycle, where one
reactor operates below the sulfur dew point to absorb the sulfur while the
second is regenerated with heat to recover molten sulfur.
 Chapter 5
Gas dehydration
Gas dehydration is the process of removing water vapor from a gas stream to lower
the temperature at which water will condense from the stream and this
temperature is called “dew point “. Dew point is directly proportional to water
content. The higher water content, the higher DP.
Dew point depression is the difference between the dew point of the gas before and
after dehydration.
Dehydration to dew points below the temperature to which the gas will be
subjected will prevent hydrate formation and corrosion from condensed water.

The capacity of a gas stream for holding water vapor is reduced as the stream is
compressed or cooled. Thus, water can be removed from the gas stream by
compressing or cooling the stream. However, the gas stream is still saturated with
water so that further reduction in temperature or increase in pressure can result in
water condensation.
The most common methods for gas dehydration is:
1- Liquid glycol (In producing operations gas is most often dehydrated by contact
with triethylene glycol)
2- Solid bed (where very low dew points are required, such as on the inlet
stream to a cryogenic gas plant (very low temperature) where water contents
of less than 0.05 lb. /MMscf may be necessary).
Water content determination:
 The first step in evaluating and/or designing a gas dehydration system is to
determine the water content of the gas.
 The water content of a gas is dependent upon:
1. gas composition
2. temperature
3. pressure

Water content is determined from a figure based on the pressure, temperature

and the composition of the gas. The same way is used for sweet gas method and
sour gas which contains more than 5% CO2 and/or H2S but a correction for acid
gases must be calculated. A correction for salinity and for molecular weight must
be added in both cases.
(I) GLYCOL DEHYDRATION:
The most common process for dehydrating natural gas is to contact the gas with the
glycol. This is an absorption process, where the water vapor in the gas stream
becomes dissolved in the pure glycol liquid solvent stream. Regeneration occurs by
glycol dehydration and it is not expensive, as the water can be easily "boiled" out of
the glycol by the addition of heat. This step enables the glycol to be recovered for
reuse in absorbing additional water with minimal loss of glycol.
Process description:
Dehydration system:
Most glycol dehydration processes are continuous. That is, gas and glycol flow
continuously through a vessel (the "contactor" or "absorber") where they come in
contact and the glycol absorbs the water. The glycol flows from the contactor to a
"reboiler" (sometimes called "reconcentrator" or "regenerator") where the water is
removed or "stripped" from the glycol and is then pumped back to the contactor to
complete the cycle.
The wet gas enters the bottom of the contactor and contacts the "richest" glycol
(glycol containing water in solution) just before the glycol leaves the column.
The gas encounters leaner and leaner glycol (that is, glycol containing less and less
water in solution), as it rises through the contactor. At each successive tray the
leaner glycol is able to absorb additional amounts of water vapor from the gas.
The counter-current flow in the contactor makes it possible for the gas to transfer a
significant amount of water to the glycol and still approach equilibrium with the
leanest glycol concentration.

Dry gas

Lean glycol

Contactor

Wet gas Rich glycol

Dehydration system
The contactor works in the same manner as a condensate stabilizer tower. As the
glycol falls from tray to tray it becomes richer and richer in water. As the gas rises it
becomes leaner and leaner in water vapor.
Glycol contactors will typically have between 6 and 12 trays, depending upon the
water dew point required. To obtain a 7 lb/MMscf specification, 6 to 8 trays are
common. As with a condensate stabilizer, glycol contactors may have bubble cap or
they may have valve trays, perforated trays, regular packing or structured packing.
Contactors that are 12% in. and less in diameter usually use regular packing, While
larger contactors usually use bubble cap trays to provide adequate contact at gas
flow rates much lower than design. Structured packing is becoming more common
for very large contactors
Reconcentration system:

We need to take off both (condensate & water) from the glycol.
Condensate:
1. Rich glycol comes through reflux condenser (in coils) where it is heated by the
water vapors from still column then to (glycol/glycol) HE then to Glycol /
condensate separator.
2. We take gases from the top, condensate and the rich glycol from the bottom.
Water:
After removing the condensate, the glycol flows through the glycol/glycol heat
exchanger to the still column mounted on the reboiler, which operates at essentially
atmospheric pressure. As the glycol falls through the packing in the still column, it is
heated by the vapors being boiled off the liquids in the reboiler.
The still works in the same manner as a condensate stabilizer. The falling liquid gets
hotter and hotter. The gas flashing from this liquid is mostly water vapor with a
small amount of glycol. Thus, as the liquid falls through the packing it becomes
leaner and leaner in water.
Reflux condenser: The cold rich glycol from the contactor cools the vapors leave the
still, condensing the glycol vapors and approximately 25 to 50% of the rising water
vapor. The result is a reflux liquid stream, which reduces the glycol losses to
atmosphere to almost zero.
Since there is a large difference between the boiling point of triethylene glycol
(546°F) and water (212°F), the still column can be relatively short (10 to 12 ft of
packing). The glycol liquid in the reboiler is heated to 340°F to 400°F to provide the
heat necessary for the still column to operate. Higher temperatures would vaporize
more water, but may degrade the glycol.
If a very lean glycol is required, it may be necessary to use stripping gas. A small
amount of wet natural gas can be taken from the fuel stream or contactor inlet
stream and injected into the reboiler. The stripping gas can be taken from the fuel
stream or the contactor inlet stream and injected into the reboiler. The "leaness" of
the gas depends on the purity of the wet glycol and the number of stages below the
reconcentrator. The stripping gas is saturated with water at the inlet temperature
and pressure conditions, but adsorbs water at the reboiler conditions of
atmospheric pressure and high temperatures. The gas will adsorb the water from
the glycol by lowering the partial pressure of the water vapor in the reboiler.
Stripping gas exits in the still column with the water vapor.
The lean glycol flows from the reboiler to a surge tank which could be constructed
as an integral part of the reboiler .The surge tank must be large enough to allow for
thermal expansion of the glycol and to allow for reasonable time between additions
of glycol.
The lean glycol from the atmospheric surge tank is then pumped back to the
contactor to complete the cycle. Depending upon the pump de-sign, the lean glycol
must be cooled by the heat exchangers to less than 200°F to 250°F before reaching
the pumps.
Choice of Glycol

1-Ethylene glycol
 High vapor equilibrium with gas so tend to lose to gas phase in contactor.
  Use as hydrate inhibitor where it can be recovered from gas by separation
at temperatures below 50°F.
2-Diethylene glycol
 High vapor pressure leads to high losses in contactor.
 Low decomposition temperature requires low reconcentrator temperature
(315°F to 340°F) and thus cannot get pure enough for most applications.
3-Triethylene glycol
 Most common. Reconcentrated at 340°F to 400°F for high purity.
 At contactor temperatures in excess of I20°F tends to have high vapor
losses to gas.
 Dew point depressions up to 150°F are possible with stripping gas.
4. Tetra ethylene glycol:
 More expensive than triethylene but less losses at high gas contact
temperatures.
 Reconcentrated at 400°F to 430°F

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Inlet Gas Temperature (water content, diameter, glycol unit, foaming)
At constant pressure, the water content of the inlet gas increases as the inlet gas
temperature increases. For example, at 1.000 psia and 80°F gas holds about 34
lb/MMscf, while at 1,000 Pisa and 120°F it will hold about 104 lb/MMscf. At the
higher temperature, the glycol will have to remove over three times as much water
to meet a pipeline specification of 7 lb/MMscf.
An increase in gas temperature may result in an increase in the required diameter of
the contact tower. As was shown in separator sizing an increase in temperature
increases the actual gas velocity, which in turn increases the diameter of the vessel.
Inlet gas temperatures above 120°F result in high triethylene glycol losses. At higher
gas temperatures tetra ethylene glycol can be used, but it is more common to cool
the gas below 120°F before entering the contactor. The more the gas is cooled,
while staying above the hydrate formation temperature, the smaller the glycol unit
required.
The minimum inlet gas temperature is normally above the hydrate formation
temperature and should always be above 50°F. Below 50°F glycol becomes too
viscous. Below 60°F to 70°F glycol can form a stable emulsion with liquid
hydrocarbons in the gas and cause foaming in the contactor.
Typically, triethylene glycol units are designed to operate with inlet gas
temperatures between 80°F and 110°F.
Contactor Pressure (water content, diameter)
Contactor pressures have little effect on the glycol absorption process as long as the
pressures remain below 3,000 psig. At a constant temperature the water content of
the inlet gas decreases with increasing pressure, thus less water must be removed if
the gas is dehydrated at a higher pressure.
In addition, a smaller contactor can be used at high pressure as the actual velocity of
the gas is lower, which decreases the required diameter of the contactor. Typically,
dehydration pressures of 500 to 1,200 psi are most economical.
Number of Contactor Trays (tray efficiency, DP, energy saving)
The glycol and the gas do not reach equilibrium on each tray. A tray efficiency of
25% is commonly used for design. That is. If one theoretical equilibrium tray is
needed, four actual trays are specified. In bubble cap towers, tray spacing is
normally 24 in.
The more trays the greater the dew-point depression for a constant glycol
circulation rate and lean glycol concentration by specifying more nays, fuel savings
can be realized because the heat duty of the reboiler is directly related to the glycol
circulation rate.
Figure 5-8 shows how the number of trays can have a much greater effect on dew-
point depression than the circulation rate.
Most contactors designed for 7 lb/MMscf gas are sized for 6 to 8 trays.
Lean Glycol Temperatures
The temperature of the lean glycol entering the contactor has an effect on the gas
dew-point depression and should be held low to minimize required circulation rate.
High glycol losses to the gas exiting the contactor may occur when the lean glycol
temperature gets too hot.
On the other hand, the lean glycol temperature should be kept slightly above the
contactor gas temperature to prevent hydrocarbon condensation in the contactor
and subsequent foaming of the glycol. Most designs call for a lean glycol
temperature 10°F hotter than the gas exiting the contactor.
Glycol Concentration (DP)
The higher the concentration of the lean glycol, the greater the dew-point
depression for a given glycol circulation rate and number of trays.
Figure 5-9 shows the equilibrium water dew point at different temperatures for
gases in contact with various concentrations of glycol. At 100°F contact temperature
there is an equilibrium water dew point of 25°F for 98% glycol and 10°F for 99%
glycol. Actual dew points of gas leaving the contactor will be 10°F to 20°F higher
than equilibrium.
Figure 5-10 shows that increasing the lean glycol concentration can have a much
greater effect on dew-point depression than increasing the circulation rate. To
obtain a 70°F dew-point depression a circulation rate Of 6.2 gal/lb at 99.95%, 8.2
gal/lb at 99.5% or in excess of 12 gal/lb at 99% is required.
The lean glycol concentration is determined by the temperature of the reboiler, the
gas stripping rate and the pressure of the reboiler. Glycol concentrations between
98 and 99% are common for most field gas units.
Glycol Reboiler Temperature (glycol concentration)
The reboiler temperature controls the concentration of the water in the lean glycol.
The higher the temperature, the higher the glycol concentration, as shown in Figure
5-11. Reboiler temperatures for triethylene glycol are limited to 400°F, which limits
the maximum lean glycol concentration without stripping gas.
It is good practice to limit reboiler temperatures to between 370°F and 390°F to
minimize degradation of the glycol.
This effectively limits the lean glycol concentration to between 98.5% and 98.9%.
When higher lean glycol concentrations are required, stripping gas can be added to
the reboiler, or the reboiler and still column can be operated at a vacuum.
Reboiler Pressure (glycol concentration)
Pressures above atmospheric in the reboiler can significantly reduce lean glycol
concentration and dehydration efficiency. The still column should be adequately
vented and the packing replaced periodically to prevent excess back pressure on the
reboiler.
At pressures below atmospheric the boiling temperature of the rich glycol/water
mixture decreases, and a greater lean glycol concentration is possible at the same
reboiler temperature.
In addition, it is normally less expensive to use stripping gas. However, if lean glycol
concentrations in the range of 99.5% are required, consider using a reboiler
pressure of 500 mm Hg absolute (approximately 10 psia) as well as using stripping
gas.
Figure 5-11 can be used to estimate the effect of vacuum on lean glycol
concentration.
Stripping Gas (Glycol concentration, circulation rate)
The lean glycol concentration leaving the reboiler can be increased by contacting the
glycol with stripping gas. Often, wet gas that is saturated with water vapor at
ambient temperature and 25 to 100 psig is used.
It is normally desirable to use stripping gas only to increase lean glycol concentration
above 98.5 to 98.9%, which can be reached with normal reboiler temperatures and
normal back pressure on the still column.
If the glycol circulation rate must be increased above design on an existing unit and
the reboiler cannot reach desired temperature, it is often possible to use stripping
gas to achieve the desired lean glycol concentration.
Figure 5-12 shows the effects on the glycol purity of stripping gas flow rate for
various reboiler temperatures.

Glycol Circulation Rate

When the number of absorber trays and lean glycol concentration are fixed, the
dew-point depression of a saturated gas is a function of the glycol circulation rate.
The more glycol that comes in contact with the gas, the more water vapor is
stripped out of the gas. Whereas the glycol concentration mainly affects the dew
point of the dry gas, the glycol rate controls the total amount of water that can be
removed.
The minimum circulation rate to assure good glycol-gas contact is about 2 gal Gly. /
Ib water removed. Maximum: 7 gal Gly./Ib water removed. Standard: 3 gal gly. / Ib
water removed.
Problem: An excessive circulation rate may overload the reboiler and prevent good
glycol regeneration. The heat required by the reboiler is directly proportional to the
circulation rate. Thus, an increase in circulation rate may decrease reboiler
temperature, decreasing lean glycol concentration, and actually decrease the
amount of water that is removed by the glycol from the gas. Only if the reboiler
temperature remains constant, an increase in circulation rate will lower the dew
point of the gas.
Stripping Still Temperature
A higher temperature in the top of the still column can increase glycol losses due to
excessive vaporization.
The recommended temperature in the top of the still column is approximately
225°F.
Problems:
1- When the temperature exceeds 250°F the glycol vaporization losses may
become substantial. The still top temperature can be lowered by increasing
the amount of glycol flowing through the reflux coil.
2- If the temperature in the top of the still column gets too low, too much water
can be condensed and increase the reboiler heat load. Too much cool glycol
circulation in the reflux coil can sometimes lower the still top temperature
below 220°F. Thus, most reflux coils have a bypass to allow manual or
automatic control of the stripping still temperature.
Stripping gas will have the effect of requiring reduced top still temperature to
produce the same reflux rate.
System Sizing
Specifying the correct contactor diameter and number of trays, which establishes its
overall height; selecting a glycol circulation rate and lean glycol concentration; and
calculating the reboiler heat duty.
As previously explained, the number of trays, glycol circulation rate and lean glycol
concentration are all interrelated. For example, the greater the number of trays the
lower the circulation rate or lean glycol concentration required.
Figures 5-13, 5-14, and 5-15 can be used to relate these three parameters.
SOLID BED DEHYDRATION
Principle:
Solid bed dehydration systems work on the principle of adsorption.
Mechanism:
Adsorption involves a form of adhesion between the surface of the solid desiccant
and the water vapor in the gas. The water forms an extremely thin film that is held
to the desiccant surface by forces of attraction, but there is no chemical reaction.
The desiccant is a solid, granulated drying or dehydrating medium with an extremely
large effective surface area per unit weight.
Advantages:
The dry bed has the advantage of producing very low dew points, which are
required for cryogenic gas plants, and is adaptable to very large changes in flow
rates. A dry bed can handle high contact temperatures.
 Disadvantages:
It is a batch process, there is a relatively high pressure drop through the system,
And the desiccants are sensitive to poisoning with liquids or other impurities in the
gas.
Process Description
Multiple desiccant beds are used in cyclic operation to dry the gas on a continuous
basis. The number and arrangement of the desiccated beds may vary from two
towers, adsorbing alternately, to many towers.
Three separate functions or cycles must alternately be performed in each
dehydrator. They are an adsorbing or gas drying cycle, a heating or regeneration
cycle, and a cooling cycle.
The essential components of any solid desiccant dehydration system are:
1. Inlet gas separator.
2. Two or more adsorption towers (contactors) filled with a solid desiccant,
3. A high-temperature heater to provide hot regeneration gas to reactivate the
desiccant in the towers.
4. A regeneration gas cooler to condense water from the hot regeneration gas.
5. A regeneration gas separator to remove the condensed water from the
regeneration gas.
6. Piping, manifolds, switching valves and controls to direct and control the flow
of gases according to the process requirements.
Dehydration cycle:
 In the drying cycle, the wet inlet gas
first passes through an inlet separator where
free liquids, entrained mist, and solid
particles are re-moved, This is a very
important part of the system because free
liquids can damage or destroy the desiccant
bed and solids may plug it.
If the adsorption unit is downstream from
an amine unit, glycol unit or compressors, a
filter separator is preferred.

In the adsorption cycle, the wet inlet gas flows downward through the tower.
The absorbable components are adsorbed at rates dependent on their:
 1. chemical nature,
2. the size of their molecules,
3. And the size of the pores.
The water molecules are adsorbed first in the top layers of the desiccant bed. Dry
hydrocarbon gases are adsorbed throughout the bed. As the upper layers of
desiccant become saturated with water, the water in the wet gas stream begins
displacing the previously adsorbed hydrocarbons in the lower desiccant layers.
Liquid hydrocarbons will also be absorbed and will fill pore spaces that would
otherwise be available for water molecules.
Mass transfer zone: For each component in the inlet gas stream, there will be a
section of bed depth, from top to bottom, where the desiccant is saturated with
that component and where the desiccant below is just starting to adsorb that
component. The depth of bed from saturation to initial adsorption is known as the
mass transfer zone. This is simply a zone or section of the bed where a component
is transferring its mass from the gas stream to the surface of the desiccant.
Regeneration cycle:
1. Start the regeneration: As the flow of gas continues, the mass transfer zones
move downward through the bed and water displaces the previously adsorbed
gases until finally the entire bed is saturated with water vapor. If the entire bed
becomes completely saturated with water vapor, the outlet gas is just as wet as
the inlet gas. Obviously, the towers must be switched from the adsorption cycle
to the regeneration cycle (heating and cooling) before the desiccant bed is
completely saturated with water.

2. Regeneration mechanism:
 First step : ( heater)
At any given time, at least one of the towers will be adsorbing while the
other towers will be in the process of being heated or cooled to
regenerate the desiccant. When a tower is switched to the regeneration
cycle some wet gas (that is, the inlet gas downstream of the inlet gas
separator) is heated to temperatures of 450°F to 600°F in the high-
temperature heater and routed to the tower to remove the previously
adsorbed water.
 Second step: (cooler)
As the temperature within the tower is increased, the water captured
within the pores of the desiccant turns to steam and is absorbed by the
 natural gas. This gas leaves the top of the tower and is cooled by the
regeneration gas cooler. When the gas is cooled the saturation level of
water vapor is lowered significantly and water is condensed. The water is
separated in the regeneration gas separator and the cool, saturated
regeneration gas is recycled to be dehydrated. This can be done by
operating the dehydration tower at a lower pressure than the tower being
regenerated or by recompressing the regeneration gas.
 Third step : (preparing for service)
Once the bed has been "dried" in this manner, it is necessary to flow cool
gas through the tower to return it to normal operating temperatures
(about 100°F to 120°F) before placing it back in service to dehydrate gas.
 Internal or external insulation for the adsorbers may be used. The main
purpose of internal insulation is to reduce the total regeneration gas
requirements and costs.

Design Considerations
1-Temperature
Adsorption plant operation is very sensitive to the temperature of the incoming gas.
Generally, the adsorption efficiency decreases as the temperature increases.
The temperature of the regeneration gas that coming with the incoming wet gas
ahead of the dehydrators is also important. If the temperature of these two gas
streams differs more than 15°F to 20°F, liquid water and hydrocarbons will condense
as the hotter gas stream cools. The condensed liquids can shorten the solid
desiccant life.
The temperature of the hot gas entering and leaving a desiccant tower during the
heating cycle affects both the plant efficiency and the desiccant life. To assure good
removal of the water and other contaminants from the bed, a high regeneration gas
temperature is needed.
The maximum hot gas temperature depends on the type of contaminants and the
"holding power" or affinity of the desiccant for the contaminants. A temperature of
450°F to 600°F is normally used.
Cooling cycle temperature:
1. If wet gas is used to cool the desiccant, the cooling cycle should be terminated
when the desiccant bed reaches a temperature of approximately 215°F.
Additional cooling may cause water to be adsorbed from the wet gas stream and
preload the desiccant bed before the next adsorption cycle begins.
 2. If dry gas is used for cooling, the desiccant bed should be cooled within
10°F~20°F of the in-coming gas temperature during the adsorption cycle, thereby
maximizing the adsorption capacity of the bed.
Regeneration gas separator: The temperature of the regeneration gas in the
regeneration gas scrubber should be low enough to condense and remove the water
and hydrocarbons from the regeneration gas without causing hydrate problems.
2-Pressure
Generally, the adsorption capacity of a dry bed unit decreases as the pressure is
lowered. If the dehydrators are operated well below the design pressure, the
desiccant will have to work harder to remove the water and to maintain the desired
effluent dew point. With the same volume of incoming gas, the increased gas
velocity, occurring at the lower pressures, could also affect the effluent moisture
content and damage the desiccant.
3-Cycle Time
Most adsorbers operate on a fixed drying cycle time and, frequently, the cycle time
is set for the worst conditions. However, the adsorbent capacity is not a fixed value;
it declines with usage. For the first few months of operation, a new desiccant has a
very high capacity for water removal. If a moisture analyzer is used on the effluent
gas, a much longer initial drying cycle can be achieved. As the desiccant ages, the
cycle time will be automatically shortened. This will save regeneration fuel costs and
improve the desiccant life.
4-Gas Velocities
Generally, as the gas velocity during the drying cycle decreases, the ability of the
desiccant to dehydrate the gas increases.
At lower actual velocities, drier effluent gases will be obtained. Consequently, it
would seem desirable to operate at minimum velocities to fully use the desiccant.
However, low velocities require towers with large cross-sectional areas to handle a
given gas flow, and allow the wet gas to channel through the desiccant bed and not
be properly dehydrated. In selecting the design velocity therefore, a compromise
must be made between the tower diameter and the maximum use of the desiccant.
Smaller velocities may be required due to pressure drop considerations.
5-Bed Height to Diameter Ratio
In its simplest form, an adsorber is normally a cylindrical tower filled with a solid
desiccant. The depth of the desiccant may vary from a few feet to 30 ft or more.
The vessel diameter may be from a few inches to 10 or 15 ft.
A bed height to diameter (L/D) ratio of higher than 2.5 is desirable.
Ratios as low as 1:1 are sometimes used; however, poor gas dehydration, caused by
non-uniform flow, channeling and an inadequate contact time between the wet gas
and the desiccant sometimes result.
6-Pressure Drop
Towers are sized for a design pressure drop of about 5 psi through the desiccant.
Pressure drops of greater than approximately 8 psi are not recommended.
7-Moisture Content of Inlet Gas
An important variable that determines the size of a given desiccant bed is the
relative saturation of the inlet gas. This variable is the driving force that affects the
transfer of water to the adsorbent. If saturated gas (100% relative humidity) is being
dried, higher useful capacities can be expected for most desiccants than when
drying partially saturated gases.
8-Desiccant Selection
No desiccant is perfect or best for all applications. In some applications the
desiccant choice is determined primarily by economics. Sometimes the process
conditions control the desiccant choice. Many times the desiccants are
interchangeable and the equipment designed for one desiccant can often be
operated effectively with another product.
All desiccants exhibit a decrease in capacity (design loading) with increase in
temperature. Molecular sieves tend to be the less severely affected and aluminas
the most affected by temperature.
Aluminas and molecular sieves act as a catalyst with I-^S to form COS. When the bed
is regenerated, sulfur remains and plugs up the spaces. Liquid hydrocarbons also
present a plugging problem to all desiccants, but molecular sieves are less
susceptible to contamination with liquid hydrocarbons.
Silica gels will shatter in the presence of free water and are chemically attacked by
many corrosion inhibitors. The chemical attack permanent-ly destroys the silica gels.
The other desiccants are not as sensitive to free water and are not chemically
attacked by most corrosion inhibitors. However, unless the regeneration
temperature is high enough to desorb the inhibitor, the inhibitor may adhere to the
desiccants and possibly cause coking.
The alumina gels, activated aluminas, and molecular sieves are all chemically
attacked by strong mineral acids and their adsorptive capacity will quickly decline.
Special acid resistant molecular sieve desiccants are available.