3.

1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical

antenna

Module:3 HF, UHF and Microwave Antennas

Course: BECE305L – Antenna and Microwave Engineering
-Dr Richards Joe Stanislaus
Assistant Professor - SENSE
Email: [email protected] / [email protected]
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

Module:3 HF, UHF and Microwave Antennas

7 hours
Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna. Yagi-Uda
antenna, Frequency independent antennas - spiral and log periodic
antenna - Aperture antennas – Horn antenna, Parabolic reflector
antenna - Microstrip antenna

• Source of the contents: Constantine A. Balanis - Antenna theory

analysis and design (2016)
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

1. Introduction
1. constant for infinitesimal dipoles (l ≤ λ∕50)
2. linear (triangular) for short dipoles (λ∕50 < l ≤ λ∕10)
3. sinusoidal for long dipoles (l > λ∕10)

In all cases the phase distribution was assumed to be constant.

• The sinusoidal current distribution of long open-ended linear antennas
is a standing wave constructed by
two waves of equal amplitude and 180◦ phase difference at the open
end traveling in opposite directions along its length.
• The voltage distribution has also a standing wave pattern except that it
has maxima (loops) at the end of the line
instead of nulls (nodes) as the current.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

1. Introduction
• In each pattern, the maxima and minima repeat every integral
number of half wavelengths.
There is also a λ∕4 spacing between a null and a maximum in each
of the wave patterns.
• The current and voltage distributions on open-ended wire antennas
are similar to the standing wave patterns on open-ended
transmission lines.
• Linear antennas that exhibit current and voltage standing wave
patterns formed by reflections from the open end of the wire are
referred to as standing wave or resonant antennas.
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

• Antennas can be designed which

have traveling wave (uniform)
patterns in current and voltage.
• Achieved by properly terminating
the antenna wire so that the
reflections are minimized
if not completely eliminated.
• example of such an antenna is
a long wire that runs horizontal to the earth
• Beverage or wave antenna: input terminals
consist of the ground and one end of the wire
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

1. Introduction
• all antennas whose current and voltage distributions can be
represented by one or more traveling waves, usually in the same
direction, are referred to as traveling wave or nonresonant
antennas.
• A progressive phase pattern is usually
associated with the current and voltage distributions.
• Standing wave antennas, such as the dipole, can be
|analyzed as traveling wave antennas with waves
propagating in opposite directions
(forward and backward) and
represented by
traveling wave currents If and Ib
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

1. Introduction
• Other examples of traveling wave antennas: dielectric rod (polyrod),
helix, and various surface wave antennas.
• arrays of closely spaced radiators (usually less than λ∕2 apart) can
also be analyzed as traveling wave antennas by approximating their
current or field distribution by a continuous traveling wave.
• Yagi-Uda, log-periodic, and slots and holes in a waveguide are
some examples of discrete element traveling wave antennas.
• a traveling wave antenna is usually one that is associated with
radiation from a continuous source.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2. Long wire antenna

• A traveling wave may be classified as a
slow wave if its phase velocity 𝑣𝑝 (𝑣𝑝 = 𝜔 ∕ 𝑘, 𝜔 = wave angular
frequency, k = wave phase constant) is equal or smaller than the
velocity of light c in free-space (𝑣𝑝 ∕ 𝑐 ≤ 1).
A fast wave is one whose phase velocity is greater than the speed of
light (𝑣𝑝 ∕ 𝑐 > 1).
• Example of slow wave traveling antenna is a long wire
• “if it is a straight conductor with a length
from one to many wavelengths
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2. Long wire antenna

• in the presence of the ground,
long wire antenna can be
analyzed approximately using
the equivalent
where an image is introduced
to take into account the
presence of the ground.
• The magnitude and phase of the image
are determined using the
reflection coefficient for horizontal polarization
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2. Long wire antenna

• The height h of the antenna
above the ground
must be chosen so that the
reflected wave
(or wave from the image),
which includes the phase due to reflection
is in phase with the direct wave
at the angles of desired maximum radiation
• for typical electrical constitutive parameters of the earth
especially for observation angles near grazing,
the reflection coefficient for horizontal polarization
is approximately −1.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2. Long wire antenna

• Therefore the total field radiated by the wire in the presence of the
ground can be found by multiplying the field radiated by the wire in
free space by the array factor of a two-element array
• objective : to find the field radiated by the long wire in free space
• As the wave travels along the wire from the source toward
• the load, it continuously leaks energy. This can be
represented by an attenuation coefficient.
• current distribution of the forward traveling wave

• propagation coefficient
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

• 𝑘𝑧 (𝑧′) is the phase constant (radians/meter)

𝛼(𝑧′) is the attenuation constant (nepers/meter): Can also include
ohmic losses of wire(very small and for simplicity are neglected)
and ground losses
• radiating medium is air, the loss of energy in a long wire (l ≫ λ) due
to leakage is also usually very small, and it can also be neglected.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2. Long wire antenna

• Using finite length dipole concept,

• K is used to represent the ratio of the phase constant of the wave

along the transmission line (𝑘𝑧 ) to that of free-space (k)
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2. Long wire antenna

• Assuming a perfect electric conductor for the ground
the total field for Figure 10.1(a) is obtained by multiplying fields by the
array factor sin(𝑘ℎ sin 𝜃).
• Time averaged power density:

• power distribution of a
wire antenna of length l is a multilobe pattern whose number of lobes
depends upon its length
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2. Long wire antennas

• For large values of l:

• angles where the peaks occur are given by

maximum of the major lobe occurs is given by m = 0 (or 2m + 1 = 1).

• For large 𝑙: The angle of the maximum of the major lobe approaches
zero degrees and the structure becomes a near-end-fire array.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2. Long wire antennas

• the nulls of the pattern can be found:

• Angles where null occur:

3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2. Long wire antennas

• total radiated power can be found by integrating power density over
a closed sphere of radius r

• Ci(x) is the cosine integral

• The radiation resistance

3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2. Long wire antennas

• Directivity:
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2. Long wire antennas

• three-dimensional pattern of a
traveling wire antenna
with length l = 5λ -------->

• Standing wave wire antenna

is given below(length l = 5λ)
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

• The two currents If and Ib together form a standing wave

• Traveling wave antenna: maximum radiation in the forward direction

standing wave antenna: maximum radiation in the forward and
backward directions.
• The lobe near the axis of the wire in the directions of travel is the
largest. The magnitudes of the other lobes from the main decrease
progressively, with an envelope proportional to cot2(𝜃∕2), toward the
other direction.
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

• Comparison
of lengths
for a traveling wave
wire antenna with
l = 5λ and 10λ.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

• The traveling wave antenna is used when it is desired to radiate or

receive predominantly from one direction
• As the length of the wire increases, the maximum of the main lobe
shifts closer toward the axis and the number of lobes increase.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

• Maxima angle and null angles as length of antenna is increased :

For values of m(different maximas) and n(different nulls)
• These curves can be used effectively to design long wires when the
direction of the maximum or nullis desired.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2.2 Input impedance of long wire antenna

• In traveling wave wire antennas, the radiation in the opposite direction
from the maximum is suppressed by reducing, if not completely
eliminating, the current reflected from the end of the wire.
• This is accomplished by increasing the diameter of the wire or
more successfully by properly terminating it to the ground,
• Ideally a complete elimination of the reflections (perfect match) can only
be accomplished if the antenna is elevated only at small heights
(compared to the wavelength) above the ground, and it is terminated by
a resistive load.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2.2 Input impedance of long wire antenna

• The value of the load resistor, to achieve the impedance match, is equal to the
characteristic impedance of the wire near the ground (which is found using
image theory)
• For a wire with diameter d and height h above the ground, an approximate
value of the termination resistance is obtained from
• The wave tilt increases with frequency and with ground resistivity

• Therefore, for a Beverage wire antenna, shown in Figure 10.1(c) in the

receiving mode, reception is influenced
• by the tilt angle of the incident vertically polarized wavefront, which is formed by
the losses of the
• local ground
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

• ANTENNAS To achieve a reflection-free termination, the load

resistor can be adjusted about this value (usually about 200–300
ohms)
• Therefore the input impedance is the same as the load impedance
or the characteristic impedance of the line,
• If not matched:
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2.3 Polarization of Wire antenna

• long-wire antenna is linearly polarized, and it is always parallel to
the plane formed by the wire and radial vector from the center
of the wire to the observation point
• The electric-field vector of the incident wavefront produces an
electric force that is parallel to the wire, which in turn induces a
current in the wire.
• The current flows in the wire toward the receiver, and it is reinforced
up to a certain point along the wire by the advancing wavefront.
• The wave along the wire is transverse magnetic.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2.4 Resonant Wires

• Resonant wire antennas are formed when the load impedance is not
matched to the characteristic impedance of the line. This causes
reflections which with the incident wave form a standing wave
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

2.4 Resonant Wires

• Resonant antennas include the dipole.
• Resonant antennas are formed by using long wires
with multiple of half wave lengths ( l = nλ∕2, n = 1, 3, 5,…),
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

3. Loop antenna
• Loop antennas are usually classified
into two categories,
electrically small and
electrically large.
• Electrically small antennas are those whose overall length
(circumference) is usually less than about one-tenth of a wavelength
(C < λ∕10).
• However, electrically large loops are those whose circumference
is about a free-space wavelength (C ∼ λ).
• Most of the applications of loop antennas are in the HF (3–30 MHz),
VHF (30–300 MHz), and UHF (300–3,000 MHz) bands.
• When used as field probes, they find applications even in the
microwave frequency range.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

3. Loop antenna: Electrically small

• Loop antennas with electrically small circumferences or perimeters have
small radiation resistances that are usually smaller than their loss
resistances.
• Thus they are very poor radiators, and they are seldom employed for
transmission in radio communication.
• When they are used in any such application, it is usually in the
receiving mode, such as in portable radios and pagers, where antenna
efficiency is not as important as the signal-to-noise ratio.
• They are also used as probes for field measurements and as
directional antennas for radiowave navigation.
• The field pattern of electrically small antennas of any shape (circular,
elliptical, rectangular, square, etc.) is similar to that of an infinitesimal
dipole with a null perpendicular to the plane of the loop and with its
maximum along the plane of the loop.
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

3. Loop antenna: Electrically large

• As the overall length of the loop increases and its circumference
approaches one free-space wavelength,
the maximum of the pattern shifts from the plane of the loop to
the axis of the loop which is perpendicular to its plane
• . The radiation resistance of the loop can be increased, and made
comparable to the characteristic impedance of practical
transmission lines,
by increasing (electrically) its perimeter
and/or the number of turns.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

3. Loop antenna: Electrically large

• Another way to increase the radiation resistance of the loop is to
insert, within its circumference or perimeter, a ferrite core of very high
permeability which will raise the magnetic field intensity and hence the
radiation resistance.
This forms the so-called ferrite loop.
• Electrically large loops are used primarily in directional arrays, such
as in helical antennas, Yagi-Uda arrays, quad arrays.
• For these and other similar applications, the maximum radiation is
directed toward the axis of the loop forming an end-fire antenna.
• To achieve such directional pattern characteristics, the
circumference (perimeter) of the loop should be about one free-
space wavelength. The proper phasing between turns enhances the
overall directional properties.
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

4. Helical antenna
(Broadband loop antenna)
• There are numerous other antenna designs that exhibit greater
broadband characteristics than those of the dipoles.
Some of these antenna can also provide circular polarization, a
desired extra feature for many applications.
• In most cases the helix is used with a ground plane.
The ground plane can take different forms.
• Typically the diameter of the ground plane
should be at least 3λ∕4.
• helix is usually connected to the center conductor
of a coaxial transmission line at the feed point
with the outer conductor of the line attached to the
ground plane
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

4. Helical antenna
• N turns,
diameter D and
spacing S between each turn
• The total length of the antenna is L = NS
• Length of one winding: 𝐿0 = 𝑆 2 + 𝐶 2
Circumference: 𝐶 = 𝜋𝐷
• total length of the wire is
𝐿𝑛 = 𝑁𝐿0 = 𝑁 𝑆 2 + 𝐶 2
• Pitch angle:
If 𝛼 = 0: Flat : Loop antenna
If 𝛼 = 90°: linear wire
• 0 < 𝛼 < 90°: Helical antenna
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

4. Helical antenna
• radiation characteristics of the antenna can be
varied by controlling the size of its
geometrical properties compared to the
wavelength.
• The input impedance is critically dependent
upon the pitch angle and the size of the
conducting wire, especially near the feed point,
and it can be adjusted by controlling their
values.
• The general polarization of the antenna is
elliptical.
• However circular and linear polarizations can
be achieved over different frequency ranges.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

4. Helical antenna
• two principal modes are
the normal (broadside) modes and
the axial (end-fire) modes.
• Normal mode: has its
maximum in a plane normal to the axis
and is nearly null along the axis.
• Axial mode:
its maximum along the axis of the helix,
and it is similar to that of an end-fire array.
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

4. Helical antenna
• elliptically polarized antenna can be represented as the sum of two
orthogonal linear components in time-phase quadrature, a helix can
always receive a signal transmitted from a rotating linearly polarized
antenna
• helices are usually positioned on the ground for
space telemetry applications of satellites,
space probes, and
ballistic missiles

to transmit or receive signals that have undergone Faraday rotation

by traveling through the ionosphere.
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

4.1 Helical antenna: Normal mode

• Normal mode: field radiated by the antenna is
maximum in a plane normal to the helix axis
and minimum along its axis
• the dimensions of the helix are usually small compared to the
wavelength (i.e., 𝑁𝐿0 ≪ 𝜆0 ).
• far-zone electric field radiated by a short dipole of length S

• electric field radiated by a loop

 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

4.1 Helical antenna: Normal mode

• the axial ratio (AR):

• By varying the D and/or S the axial ratio attains values of 0 ≤ AR ≤ ∞.

• For 𝐸𝜃 = 0, when 𝐴𝑅 = 0,
Linearly polarized wave of horizontal polarization (loop)
• For 𝐸𝜙 = 0, when 𝐴𝑅 = ∞,
radiated wave is linearly polarized with vertical
polarization (the helix is a vertical dipole)
• Special case: 𝐴𝑅 = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐸𝜃 = 𝐸𝜙
Circular polarized in all directions
except 𝜃 = 0°
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

4.1 Helical antenna: Normal mode

• Special case: 𝐴𝑅 = 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐸𝜃 = 𝐸𝜙
Circular polarized in all directions except 𝜃 = 0°

• If above condition is not satisfied,

𝛼 = 0°: Linear horizontal polarized:
𝛼 increased: elliptical polarized (with major axis horizontally polarized)
𝛼 reaches such that 𝐶 = 2𝑆𝜆0 : Circularly polarized
𝛼 increased: elliptical polarized (with major axis vertically polarized)
𝛼 = 90° Linear vertical polarized
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

4.1 Helical antenna: Normal mode

• normal mode of operation,
it has been assumed that the current throughout the length of the
helix is of constant magnitude and phase.
• NL0 is very small compared to the wavelength (Ln ≪ λ0)
• this mode of operation is very narrow in bandwidth
and its radiation efficiency is very small.
• Normal mode is Rarely used
 3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

4.2 Helical antenna: End-Fire mode

• there is only one major lobe and its maximum radiation
intensity is along the axis of the helix
• minor lobes are at oblique angles to the axis.
• Very broad band antenna
• diameter D and spacing S must be large fractions of the wavelength
• Circular polarization:
3 4
𝜆0 < 𝐶 < 𝜆0 (Optimum: 𝐶 = 𝜆0 )
4 3
𝜆0
Spacing: 𝑆 ≈
4
Pitch angle : 12° ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 14°
Ground plane diameter: atleast 𝜆0 /2
• Feed: Coaxial
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

4.2 Helical antenna: End-Fire mode

• Most preferred mode is End-fire
• input impedance (purely resistive)

• Half power beam width:

• First null beam width:

• Directivity:

• Axial ratio
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

4.2 Helical antenna: End-Fire mode

• Field pattern:

• relative phase 𝜓
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna
3.1 Wire Antennas - long wire, loop antenna - helical antenna

• Directivity:

• Axial ratio