VALDOS

CRASH
COURSE –
ENGLISH
GRAMMAR
 NOUNS
Definition of a Noun:
A noun is a word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea. It serves as the subject of a
sentence or as an object that receives the action of a verb. Nouns are essential building blocks
of sentences and play a crucial role in communication.
Types of Nouns:
Common Nouns: These are general names for people, places, things, or ideas. They are not
capitalized unless they begin a sentence. Examples include dog, city, book.
Proper Nouns: These are specific names for people, places, or things and are always
capitalized. Examples include John, Paris, Harry Potter.
Concrete Nouns: These refer to physical objects that can be perceived through the senses.
Examples include table, car, tree.
Abstract Nouns: These refer to ideas, concepts, or qualities that cannot be perceived through
the senses. Examples include love, freedom, happiness.
Singular and Plural Nouns:
Singular Nouns: Refer to one person, place, thing, or idea. Examples include cat, child,
book.
Plural Nouns: Refer to more than one person, place, thing, or idea. They are often formed by
adding "-s" or "-es" to the singular form. Examples include cats, children, books.
Countable and Uncountable Nouns:
Countable Nouns: Refer to individual items that can be counted and have both singular and
plural forms. Examples include chair/chairs, table/tables.
Uncountable Nouns: Refer to substances, concepts, or qualities that cannot be counted as
individual units. Examples include water, air, and happiness. They generally do not have a
plural form.
Possessive Nouns:
Possessive Nouns indicate ownership or possession. They are formed by adding an
apostrophe and an "s" ('s) to the noun. Examples include Sarah's book, the cat's tail.
Gender-specific Nouns:
Some nouns have different forms based on the gender of the person they refer to. For
example, actor/actress, waiter/waitress. However, there is a trend towards using gender-
neutral terms whenever possible.
 PRONOUNS
Definition of Pronouns:
Pronouns are words that are used to replace nouns or noun phrases in a sentence. They serve
to avoid repetition and make sentences less cumbersome. Pronouns can refer to people,
places, things, or ideas.
Types of Pronouns:
Personal Pronouns: These refer to specific persons or things. Personal pronouns have
different forms depending on their grammatical role in the sentence (subject, object,
possessive). Examples include:
Subjective personal pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they
Objective personal pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, them
Possessive personal pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs
Reflexive Pronouns: These pronouns are used when the subject and object of a sentence are
the same. They end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves" (plural). Examples include: myself,
yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
Demonstrative Pronouns: These pronouns point to specific things or people. They include
this, that, these, those. Example: This is my book.
Interrogative Pronouns: These pronouns are used to ask questions. Examples include: who,
whom, whose, which, what. Example: Who is coming to the party?
Relative Pronouns: These pronouns introduce relative clauses, which provide more
information about a noun. Examples include: who, whom, whose, which, that. Example: The
person who called is my friend.
Indefinite Pronouns: These pronouns refer to non-specific persons or things. Examples
include: everyone, somebody, anything, nothing, each, both, few, many. Example: Everyone
is invited to the party.
 ADJECTIVES

Definition of Adjectives:
Adjectives are words that describe or modify nouns or pronouns by providing information
about their qualities, characteristics, or attributes. They help to add detail and specificity to
sentences.
Types of Adjectives:
Descriptive Adjectives: These adjectives provide specific details about the noun they
modify, such as colour, size, shape, age, or texture. Examples include: tall, blue, round, old,
smooth.
Quantitative Adjectives: These adjectives indicate the quantity or amount of the noun they
modify. Examples include: many, few, several, some, all.
Demonstrative Adjectives: These adjectives point out or identify specific nouns. They
include this, that, these, and those. Example: That book is interesting.
Possessive Adjectives: These adjectives show ownership or possession. They include my,
your, his, her, its, our, and their. Example: Her car is parked outside.
Interrogative Adjectives: These adjectives are used to ask questions about a noun. Examples
include: which, what, whose. Example: Whose bag is this?
Indefinite Adjectives: These adjectives refer to non-specific nouns. They include some, any,
several, many, few. Example: There are many options available.
Position of Adjectives:
Adjectives can be placed before or after the noun they modify.
Attributive Position: Adjectives placed before the noun they modify. Example: The big
house.
Predicative Position: Adjectives placed after the verb and complement the subject. Example:
The house is big.
Comparative and Superlative Forms:
Adjectives can have comparative and superlative forms to compare two or more things.
Comparative Form: Used to compare two things. Typically formed by adding "-er" to short
adjectives or by using "more" before longer adjectives. Example: faster, more intelligent.
Superlative Form: Used to compare three or more things. Typically formed by adding "-est"
to short adjectives or by using "most" before longer adjectives. Example: fastest, most
intelligent.
 ADVERBS

Definition of Adverbs:
Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs to provide more
information about them. They often answer questions such as how, when, where, or to what
extent something happened.
Types of Adverbs:
Adverbs of Manner: These adverbs describe how an action is performed. They often end in
"-ly" but not always. Examples include: quickly, slowly, carefully, and quietly.
Adverbs of Time: These adverbs describe when an action occurs or how often it occurs.
Examples include: now, then, today, often, and never.
Adverbs of Place: These adverbs describe where an action occurs. Examples include: here,
there, everywhere, nearby.
Adverbs of Degree: These adverbs describe the intensity or degree of an action or quality.
Examples include: very, extremely, quite, too.
Adverbs of Frequency: These adverbs describe how often something happens. Examples
include: always, sometimes, rarely, frequently.
Interrogative Adverbs: These adverbs are used to ask questions about various aspects such
as time, place, manner, or reason. Examples include: when, where, how, why.
Formation of Adverbs:
Many adverbs are formed by adding "-ly" to adjectives. For example, "quick" becomes
"quickly". However, not all adverbs end in "-ly". For example, "fast" is both an adjective and
an adverb.
Some adverbs are irregular and do not follow a specific pattern. For example, "well" is an
adverb but does not end in "-ly".
Position of Adverbs:
Adverbs can be placed in different positions within a sentence:
Before the verb: Example: She quickly ran.
After the verb: Example: She ran quickly.
At the beginning or end of a sentence: Example: Quickly, she ran. She ran quickly, too.
With adjectives or other adverbs: Example: He is very smart. She speaks English fluently.
Comparison of Adverbs:
Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to compare the degree
or manner of actions.
Comparative Form: Often formed by adding "-er" to the adverb or using "more" before it.
Example: faster, more quickly.
Superlative Form: Often formed by adding "-est" to the adverb or using "most" before it.
Example: fastest, most quickly.
 CAPITALISATION
Capitalization in English grammar refers to the use of capital letters at the beginning of
certain words, such as proper nouns, the first word of a sentence, and titles. Here's a detailed
explanation of capitalization rules:

First Word of a Sentence:

The first word of a sentence should always be capitalized, regardless of the word's
grammatical role. Example: She went to the store.
Proper Nouns:
Proper nouns are the names of specific people, places, organizations, or things. They are
always capitalized. Examples include: John, Paris, Microsoft, Mount Everest.
Titles:
Titles of books, movies, songs, articles, and other works are capitalized. Additionally, the first
word of the title and all significant words (nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and
some conjunctions) are capitalized. Articles, conjunctions, and prepositions of fewer than
four letters are typically not capitalized unless they are the first or last word in the title.
Example: "To Kill a Mockingbird".
Days of the Week, Months, and Holidays:
The names of days of the week, months, and holidays are capitalized. Example: Monday,
December, Christmas.
Geographical Names:
Names of continents, countries, cities, states, and regions are capitalized. Example: Africa,
Canada, New York City, the Midwest.
Historical Events and Periods:
Names of specific historical events, periods, or eras are capitalized. Example: the
Renaissance, World War II.
Languages and Nationalities:
Names of languages and nationalities derived from proper nouns are capitalized. Example:
English, French, American.
Religious Terms:
Names of religions, religious figures, and sacred texts are capitalized. Example: Christianity,
Jesus Christ, the Bible.
Brand Names:
Brand names, trademarks, and company names are capitalized. Examples: Coca-Cola, Nike,
Apple.
 Acronyms and Initialisms:
Acronyms (pronounced as words) and initialisms (read letter by letter) are capitalized.
Examples: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), and FBI (Federal Bureau
of Investigation).
Titles and Honorifics:
Titles and honorifics that come before a person's name are capitalized. Example: President
Biden, Dr. Smith.
Names of Races, Ethnicities, and Religions:
Names of races, ethnicities, and religions are capitalized. Example: Asian, Hispanic, Muslim.
Court and Legal Terms:
Names of specific court cases, legal documents, and legal terms are capitalized. Example:
Brown v. Board of Education, the First Amendment.
Formal Events:
Names of formal events or specific ceremonies are capitalized. Example: the Oscars, the
Super Bowl.
 ARTICLES
"A"
Usage: "A" is an indefinite article used before singular countable nouns that begin with a
consonant sound.
Example: "I saw a cat in the garden."
Function: It introduces a non-specific noun, indicating one of many or any one of a group.
"An"
Usage: "An" is an indefinite article used before singular countable nouns that begin with a
vowel sound.
Example: "She's an excellent singer."
Function: Similar to "a," it introduces a non-specific noun but is used specifically before
words starting with vowel sounds.
"The"
Usage: "The" is a definite article used before singular or plural nouns, indicating a specific
item or items already mentioned or known to the reader/listener.
Example: "Please pass the salt."
Function: It specifies a particular noun that is understood or has been previously referenced in
the context of the conversation or text.
Additional Notes:
Articles are a type of determiner, which are words that precede and modify nouns. Other
determiners include "this," "that," "these," "those," "my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," and
"their."
In English, there are no articles used with non-countable nouns or plural countable nouns
when they refer to things in general.
The choice between "a" and "an" is determined by the sound that follows the article, not
necessarily the first letter. For example, "an hour" is correct because "hour" begins with a
vowel sound, despite starting with the consonant letter "h."
In some cases, the absence of an article (zero article) also has significance. For instance, it
can indicate a general truth or refer to abstract concepts.
Understanding the usage and function of articles is crucial for achieving clarity and precision
in English writing and communication.
 PUNCTUATION MARKS
Punctuation marks are symbols used in writing to clarify meaning, indicate pauses, and
structure sentences. They serve various purposes in language, including separating clauses,
indicating intonation, and organizing ideas. Here's a detailed breakdown of some common
punctuation marks:

Period (.): Used to end declarative sentences, statements, and indirect questions.
Example: She went to the store.
Comma (,): Indicates a pause in a sentence or separates items in a list.
Example: I need to buy apples, oranges, and bananas.
Colon (:): Introduces a list, explanation, or quotation.
Example: There are three things I love: reading, hiking, and cooking.
Semicolon (;): Joins two independent clauses that are closely related.
Example: She loves to read; she spends hours in the bookstore.
Question Mark (?): Indicates a direct question.
Example: Where did you go?
Exclamation Mark (!): Indicates strong emotion, surprise, or emphasis.
Example: Wow! That was incredible!
Quotation Marks (" "): Used to indicate direct speech or a quotation.
Example: She said, "I'll be there soon."
Apostrophe ('): Indicates possession or contraction.
Example: John's car is parked outside. (possession)
It's (it is) raining outside. (contraction)
Hyphen (-): Joins words or parts of words together.
Example: well-known, high-speed
Dash (– or —): Used for emphasis, interruption, or to indicate a sudden break in thought.
Example: She was about to say something—then stopped abruptly.
Parentheses ( ): Used to enclose additional information or asides.
Example: The conference (which was held online) was a success.
Ellipsis (...): Indicates omission of words or a pause in speech or thought.
Example: "I don't know... maybe we should just go."
 Slash (/): Used to indicate alternatives, such as in dates, fractions, or to denote "or."
Example: and/or, 1/2, 5/6/2024
Brackets ([ ]): Used to enclose editorial comments, corrections, or additional information
within quotations.
Example: He said, "[The event] was a huge success."
Ampersand (&): Represents "and," especially in company names or abbreviations.
Example: Johnson & Johnson, R&D (Research & Development)
 PREPOSITIONS

Preposition Meaning Example

About on the subject of; being Have you heard about the
connected with party? We're all invited.

Above higher than, or over The sun is above the clouds.

Across from one side to the other It's dangerous to run across the
road.

After - following something; behind - The boy ran after the ball.
- later than - I'll phone you after lunch.

Against - in opposition to - Stealing is against the law.

- in contact with - The sofa is against the wall.

Along from one end to the other They are walking along the
street.

Among surrounded by Peter was among the

spectators.

Around - in a circle - He walked around the table.

- near, approximately - It costs around 50 euros.

At - place - Carla will wait for me at the

- age cinema.
- time - He left home at the age of
fourteen.
- Driving is more
difficult at night.

away (from) at a distance from The boy ran away from home.

Before - earlier than - The day before yesterday.

- in front of - He bowed before the king.
 Behind at the back of Passengers sit behind the
driver.

Below lower than His shorts are below his knees.

Beneath Under The pen was beneath the

books.

Beside next to The bank is beside the cinema.

Between in the space separating two Mary sat between Tom and
things Jane.

By - near, at the side of - The restaurant is by the river.

- not later than - The boss wants the
report by Friday.

close to Near The school is close to the

church.

Down from higher to lower She pulled down the blind.

During through a period of time There are fewer

flights during the winter.

For what is intended I bought this book for you.

From where something starts or The wind is blowing from the

originates north.

In - at a point within an area - The pen is in the drawer.

- time - In the afternoon, in the
- location/place past/future
- She works in an
office in New York.

in front of directly before The child ran out in front

of the bus.

Inside on the inner part of The bird is inside the cage.

 Into enter a closed space He went into the shop.

Near close to The school is near the church.

next to Beside The bank is next to the

cinema.

Off down or away from He fell off the horse.

On - position touching a surface - The plate is on the table.

- time - Christmas is on December
- location/place 25th.
- The offices are on 5th
Avenue.

Onto move to a position on a surface The cat jumped onto the roof
of the car.

Opposite facing, on the other side Eva sat opposite Tom at the
table.

out of - move from a closed space - He got out of the taxi.

- without - She's out of work.

Outside - opposite of inside The garden is outside the

- on the outer side house.

Over - above/across - The plane flew over the

- on the surface of Atlantic.
- She put a sheet over the
furniture.

Past Beyond She drove past the

supermarket.

Round in a circular movement The earth moves round the

sun.

Since starting at a point in the past She's been

here since September.
 Through from one side to the other The Seine
flows through Paris.

Throughout in every part of The virus

spread throughout the
country.

To in the direct of; towards On the way to the station.

Towards in the direction of The child ran towards her

father.

Under beneath, below Water flows under the bridge.

Underneath Beneath There was

dust underneath the rug.

up towards or in a higher position She walked up the stairs.

with including -Vegetables are

as a result of served with the fish.
-The boss was
annoyed with Tom for arriving
late.

within Inside They live within the old city.

without not have, or lack something I don't like

coffee without milk.

COMMONLY USED PREFIX

Un-: This prefix means "not" or "opposite of." Example: Unhappy (not happy).
Re-: Indicates repetition or back again. Example: Rewrite (write again).
Pre-: Signifies before or prior to. Example: Prehistoric (before recorded history).
Dis-: Denotes reversal or negation. Example: Disagree (not agree).
Mis-: Indicates incorrectness or wrongness. Example: Misunderstand (not understand
correctly).
 In-/Im-/Il-/Ir-: These prefixes mean "not" or "without." Example: Inactive (not active),
Impossible (not possible), Illogical (not logical), Irregular (not regular).
Sub-: Signifies under or below. Example: Submarine (a vessel that goes under the sea).
Inter-: Indicates between or among. Example: International (between or among nations).

COMMONLY USED SUFFIX

-ly: Forms adverbs from adjectives. Example: Quickly (adjective: quick).

-ed: Indicates the past tense of regular verbs or forms adjectives from verbs. Example:
Walked (past tense of walk), Tired (verb: tire).
-ing: Forms present participles of verbs, gerunds, or adjectives. Example: Running (present
participle of run), Exciting (adjective: excite).
-tion/-sion: Forms nouns from verbs, indicating an action, state, or result. Example:
Transition (verb: transit), Decision (verb: decide).
-er/-or: Indicates a person or thing that performs an action or has a specific quality. Example:
Teacher (a person who teaches), Actor (a person who acts).
-est: Forms the superlative degree of adjectives or adverbs. Example: Tallest (adjective: tall),
Wisest (adverb: wise).
-ful: Indicates full of, characterized by. Example: Beautiful (full of beauty), Careful
(characterized by care).
-less: Indicates without or lacking. Example: Careless (without care), Thoughtless (lacking
thought).
-ment: Forms nouns indicating the action or result of a verb. Example: Movement (verb:
move), Development (verb: develop).
-able/-ible: Forms adjectives meaning capable of or worthy of. Example: Comfortable
(capable of comfort), Flexible (capable of flexing).
-ize/-ise: Forms verbs indicating to make or become. Example: Organize (to make
organized), Realize (to become aware of).
 CONJUNCTIONS

Conjunctions are words or phrases used to connect words, phrases, or clauses within a
sentence. They play a crucial role in expressing relationships between different parts of a
sentence.
Here are some key points about conjunctions:

Coordinating Conjunctions:
• Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases, or independent clauses that are of
equal importance or have equal grammatical structure.
• Examples: "and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "yet," "so."
• "I enjoy reading books, and I also love watching movies."
• "I wanted to go to the party, but I had to study for my exams."
• "Would you like tea or coffee?"
• "She neither danced nor sang at the talent show."
• "He went to the store to buy some groceries, for he was out of essential items."
• "She was tired, yet she continued to work on her project."
• "He studied hard for the test, so he was able to achieve a high score."

Subordinating Conjunctions:
• Subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause with a dependent clause,
indicating a relationship of dependence or subordination.
• Examples: "because," "although," "if," "when," "since," "while," "after," "before."
• "She couldn't go to the party because she had to work late."
• "Although it was raining, they decided to go for a walk."
• "If you study hard, you will pass the exam."
• "I always feel happy when I spend time with my family."
• "He has been living in the city since 2010."
• "While I was cooking, she was setting the table."
• "They went to the movies after they finished their dinner."
• "Please complete the assignment before the deadline."
 Correlative Conjunctions:
• Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs to join balanced elements in a sentence,
such as two words, two phrases, or two clauses.
• Examples: "either...or," "neither...nor," "both...and," "not only...but also,"
"whether...or."
• "You can either come to the party or stay home."
• "She neither spoke nor smiled during the meeting."
• "He is both a talented musician and a skilled athlete."
• "She is not only intelligent but also compassionate."
• "I am not sure whether I will go to the beach or stay home."
Conjunctive Adverbs:
• Conjunctive adverbs function as conjunctions but also have an adverbial role,
expressing relationships between clauses.
• Examples: "however," "therefore," "meanwhile," "moreover," "nevertheless,"
"consequently."
• "I wanted to go to the party; however, I was feeling tired."
• "She studied hard; therefore, she performed well on the exam."
• "He was busy working; meanwhile, she was enjoying her vacation."
• "He is not only talented but moreover dedicated to his craft."
• "The weather was bad; nevertheless, they decided to go for a hike."
• "He missed the train; consequently, he arrived late to the meeting."
Subordinating Conjunctions vs. Conjunctive Adverbs:
• While subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses, conjunctive adverbs
connect independent clauses.
• Example of subordinating conjunction: "I will go to the party if I finish my work."
• Example of conjunctive adverb: "I finished my work; therefore, I can go to the party."
Conjunctions play a vital role in sentence structure, coherence, and conveying logical
relationships between ideas. Understanding and using conjunctions correctly will help you
construct well-formed and cohesive sentences.
 CONNECTORS

• For instance
• For example
• To cite an example
• One clear example
• Namely
• To illustrate
• To give an example
In Situations:
Examples
• She is not dependable; for instance, she was an hour late for the meeting yesterday.
• She is not dependable; for example, she was an hour late for the meeting yesterday.
• She is not dependable. To cite an example, she was an hour late for the meeting
yesterday.
• She is not dependable. One clear example would be that she was an hour late for
the meeting yesterday.
• She is not dependable; namely, she was an hour late for the meeting yesterday.
• She is not dependable. To illustrate, she was an hour late for the meeting yesterday.
• She is not dependable. To give an example, she was an hour late for the meeting
yesterday.

• Firstly, secondly, thirdly, lastly, etc.

• To begin with
• Last but not least.
In Situations:
Listing Points
• Firstly, it is expensive. Secondly, I cannot afford it. Thirdly, my mother will never
allow me to buy it. Lastly, I am not interested.
• To begin with, it is expensive.
• Last but not least, I am not interested.
 • As
• Since
• Due to
• Because
• Owing to
Reasons and In Situations:
Causes
• I got late as I was not feeling well.
• I got late since I was not feeling well.
• I got late due to not feeling well.
• I got late because I was not feeling well.
• I got late owing to not feeling well.

• And
• In addition
• Additionally
• As well as
• Not only…but also
In Situations:
Extra
Information
• Mobile and the internet are dominating our lives.
• In addition to mobile, the internet is dominating our lives.
• Mobile has revolutionised the world. Additionally, the internet is dominating our
lives
• Mobile as well as the internet are dominating our lives
• Not only mobile but also the internet is dominating our lives
 • As a result
• So
• Consequently
• Thus
• For this reason
• Hence
Results and In Situations:
Consequences
• He didn’t know how to swim, and as a result, he drowned.
• He didn’t know how to swim, so he drowned.
• He didn’t know how to swim, consequently he drowned.
• He didn’t know how to swim; thus, he drowned.
• He didn’t know how to swim, for this reason, he drowned.
• He didn’t know how to swim; hence, he drowned.

• Eventually
• Meanwhile
• Subsequently
• Initially
• Henceforth
An Indication of In Situations:
Time
• If you try harder, eventually you will get a job.
• Meanwhile, try harder to get a job.
• You have applied to companies. Subsequently you must try harder to get a job.
• Initially, you must try harder to get a job.
• Henceforth, you must try harder to get a job.
 • Specifically
• Especially
• Obviously
• In particular
• Of course
• Clearly
Highlighting or In Situations:
Emphasising
• The book is written specifically for children.
• The book is written especially for children.
• Obviously, the book is written for children.
• In particular, the book is written for children.
• Of course, the book is written for children.
• Clearly, the book is written for children.

• In spite of
• On the other hand
• However
• Despite
• Still
• Although
• But
• Even though
Presenting In Situations:
Contrast
• In spite of the pain, she completed her shift.
• On one hand, she had pain; on the other hand, she was completing her shift.
• She was in pain, however, she managed to complete her shift.
• Despite being in pain she managed to complete her shift
• She was in pain, still she completed her shift.
• Although she was in pain, she completed her shift.
• She was in pain but she completed her shift.
• Even though she was in pain, she completed her shift.

• Similarly
Presenting
• Likewise
Comparison
• In comparison to
 • In the same way
• Admittedly
In Situations:

•
They all were dressed similarly.
• They all were dressed likewise.
• In comparison to others, they all were dressed alike.
• They all were dressed in the same way.
• Admittedly, they all were dressed in a similar way.

• To conclude
• In conclusion
• To sum up
In Situations:
Conclusion

• To conclude, I am never going to give up.

• In conclusion, I am never going to give up.
• To sum up, I am never going to give up.
 TENSES

Tense Structure/Rule Example

Simple Present Subject + V1+s/es + Object She plays tennis.

Subject + is/am/are + V1 + ing +

Present Continuous She is playing tennis.
Object

Present Perfect Subject + has/have + V3 + Object She has played tennis.

Present Perfect Subject + has/have been + V1 + ing + She has been playing
Continuous Object tennis.

Simple Past Subject + V2 + Object She played tennis.

Subject + was/were + V1 + ing +

Past Continuous She was playing tennis.
Object

Past Perfect Subject + had + V3 + Object She had played tennis.

Past Perfect She had been playing

Subject + had been + V1 + ing + Object
Continuous tennis.

Simple Future Subject + will/shall + V1 + Object She will play tennis.

Subject + will/shall be + V1 + ing + She will be playing

Future Continuous
Object tennis.

She will have played

Future Perfect Subject + will/shall have + V3 + Object
tennis.

Future Perfect Subject + will/shall have been + V1 + She will have been
Continuous ing + Object playing tennis.
 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

There are four different types of conditional sentences in English. Each expresses a different

degree of probability that a situation will occur or would have occurred under certain

circumstances.

• Zero conditional sentences

• First conditional sentences

• Second conditional sentences

• Third conditional sentences

Let’s look at each of these types of conditional sentences in more detail.

How to use zero conditional sentences

Zero conditional sentences express general truths—situations in which one

thing always causes another. When you use a zero conditional, you’re talking about a general

truth rather than a specific instance of something. Consider the following examples:

If you don’t brush your teeth, you get cavities.

When people smoke cigarettes, their health suffers.

There are a couple of things to take note of in the above sentences using the zero conditional.

First, when using the zero conditional, the correct tense in both clauses is the simple present

tense. A common mistake is to use the simple future tense.

When people smoke cigarettes, their health will suffer.

Second, notice that the words if and when can be used interchangeably in these zero

conditional sentences. This is because the outcome will be the same any time the condition is

in place; there’s no difference in meaning for if and when to communicate.

 How to use first conditional sentences

First conditional sentences are used to express situations in which the outcome is likely (but

not guaranteed) to happen in the future. Look at the examples below:

If you rest, you will feel better.

If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.

Note that we use the simple present tense in the if-clause and the simple future tense in the

main clause—the clause that expresses the likely outcome. This is how we indicate that under

a certain condition (as expressed in the if-clause), a specific result will likely happen in the

future. Examine some of the common mistakes people make using the first conditional
structure:

If you will rest, you will feel better.

If you rest, you will feel better.

Explanation: Use the simple present tense in the if-clause.

If you set your mind to a goal, you eventually achieve it.

If you set your mind to a goal, you’ll eventually achieve it.

Explanation: Use the zero conditional (simple present + simple present) only when a

certain result is guaranteed. If the result is likely, use the first conditional (simple present +

simple future).

How to use second conditional sentences

Second conditional sentences are useful for expressing outcomes that are completely

unrealistic or will not likely happen in the future. Consider the examples below:

If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.
Notice that the correct way to structure second conditional sentences is to use the simple past

tense in the if-clause and a modal auxiliary verb (e.g., could, should, would, might) in the

main clause (the one that expresses the unrealistic or unlikely outcome). The following

sentences illustrate a couple of the common mistakes people make when using the second

conditional:

If I inherit a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

If I inherited a billion dollars, I would travel to the moon.

Explanation: When applying the second conditional, use the simple past tense in the if-

clause.

If I owned a zoo, I will let people interact with the animals more.

If I owned a zoo, I might let people interact with the animals more.

Explanation: Use a modal auxiliary verb in the main clause when using the second

conditional to express the unlikelihood that the result will actually happen.

How to use third conditional sentences

Third conditional sentences are used to explain that present circumstances would be different

if something different had happened in the past. Look at the following examples:

If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

These sentences express a condition that was likely enough but did not actually happen in the

past. The speaker in the first sentence was capable of leaving early but did not. The speaker

in the second sentence was capable of cleaning the house but did not. These are both

conditions that were likely but (regrettably, in these cases) did not happen.
 Note that when using the third conditional, we use the past perfect (i.e., had + past

participle) in the if-clause. The modal auxiliary (would, could, should, etc.) + have + past

participle in the main clause expresses the theoretical situation that could have happened.

Consider these common mistakes when applying the third conditional:

If you would have told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

If you had told me you needed a ride, I would have left earlier.

Explanation: With third conditional sentences, do not use a modal auxiliary verb in the if-

clause.

If I had cleaned the house, I could go to the movies.

If I had cleaned the house, I could have gone to the movies.

Explanation: The third conditional expresses a situation that could have happened in the past

only if a certain condition had been met. That’s why we use the modal auxiliary verb

+ have + the past participle.

Exceptions and special cases when using conditional sentences

As with most topics in the English language, conditional sentences often present special cases

in which unique rules must be applied.

Use of the simple future in the if-clause

Generally speaking, the simple future should be used only in the main clause. One exception

is when the action in the if-clause will take place after the action in the main clause. For

example, consider the following sentence:

If aspirin will ease my headache, I will take a couple tonight.

The action in the if-clause is the aspirin easing the headache, which will take place only after

the speaker takes them later that night.

Were to in the if-clause

The verb phrase were to is sometimes used in conditional sentences when the likely or

unlikely result is particularly awful or unthinkable. In this case, were to is used to place

emphasis on this potential outcome. Consider these sentences:

If I were to be sick, I would miss another day of work.

If she were to be late again, she would have to have a conference with the manager.

If the rent were to have been a penny more, they would not have been able to pay it.

Note that the emphatic were to can be used to describe hypothetical scenarios in the present,

future, or past.

Punctuating conditional sentences

Despite the complex nature of conditional sentences, punctuating them properly is really

simple!

Here’s how it works:

Use a comma after the if-clause when the if-clause precedes the main clause.

If I’d had time, I would have cleaned the house.

If the main clause precedes the if-clause, no punctuation is necessary.

I would have cleaned the house if I’d had time.

 Complex and Simple Sentences:

Simple Sentences:
A simple sentence consists of one independent clause, which means it has a subject and a
verb and expresses a complete thought. Here are some examples:

She dances.
Subject: She
Verb: dances

He reads books.
Subject: He
Verb: reads

They play football.

Subject: They
Verb: play

Simple sentences are straightforward and concise. They are often used to convey basic
information or ideas.

Complex Sentences:
A complex sentence consists of one independent clause (which could stand alone as a
sentence) and at least one dependent clause (which cannot stand alone as a sentence). Here
are some examples:
Although she was tired, she went to the party.
Independent clause: she went to the party
Dependent clause: Although she was tired

He couldn't attend the meeting because he had a doctor's appointment.

Independent clause: He couldn't attend the meeting
Dependent clause: because he had a doctor's appointment
 After the rain stopped, we went outside to play.
Independent clause: we went outside to play
Dependent clause: After the rain stopped

Complex sentences add depth and complexity to writing. They allow for the inclusion of
additional information, such as reasons, conditions, or time relationships.

Simple sentences have one independent clause.

Complex sentences have one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
Length and Complexity:

Simple sentences are shorter and more straightforward.

Complex sentences are longer and involve more intricate relationships between clauses.
Usage:

Simple sentences are often used for clarity and brevity.

Complex sentences are used to provide more detail, explanation, or qualification.
Examples:

Simple: "She sings."

Complex: "Although she sings well, she prefers playing the guitar."

In summary, simple sentences are basic and contain only one independent clause, while
complex sentences involve both independent and dependent clauses, allowing for more
nuanced communication. Both types of sentences are essential in writing and communication,
and understanding how to use them effectively enhances one's ability to express ideas clearly
and persuasively.
 MODALS

Modal verbs are quite common in English. The most frequently used ones are:

Can could

May might

shall should

will would

must