HISTORY

अप्प दीपो भव अर्थात

अपनथ प्रकथश स्वंय बननए।
द्वथरथ - महथत्मथ बद्
ु ध

OUR CHIEF PATRONS

MR. ANURAG BHATNAGAR

(D. C. KVS RO PATNA)

MS. SOMA GHOSH MR. PURNENDU MANDAL MR. MANISH KUMAR

(A. C. KVS RO PATNA) (A. C. KVS RO PATNA) PRABHAT
(A. C. KVS RO PATNA)

CONTENT AND REVIEW TEAM

Shri Raveendra Ram(Chief Coordinator) Principal KV Jehanabad

Members:-

1. Savindra Kumar Pandey PGT HISTORY KV NO 2 GAYA

2. Abhishek kumar singh KV Kehalgaon
3. Anand Kumar KV Kankarbagh
4. Deepmala Sinha KV MUZAFFARPUR
5. Kiran kumari KV BAILEY ROAD PATNA
6. DR Bandhu Prasad KV Danapur 1st Shift
7. Arti KV DANAPUR 2nd Shift
 जयतु भथरतम।
एक भथरत ।श्रेष्ठ भथरत ।
आत्मननभार भथरत।।

CONTENTS

SL.NO. Topic Page No.

1. CBSE Syllabus 2023-2024 3

2. Bricks, Beads and Bones The Harappa Civilization 4-9

3. Kings, Farmers and Towns Early States and 9-14

Economies (C.600 BCE 600 CE)

4. KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS Early societies 15-19

(C600BCE 600 CE

5. THINKERS, BELIEFS AND BUILDINGS Cultural 19-25

Developments(c.600BCE-600CE)

6. THROUGH THE EYES OF TRAVELLERS: 25-31

Perceptions of society

7. BHAKTI -SUFI TRADITIONS: Changes in 31-38

religious beliefs and devotional Texts

8. An Imperial Capital: Vijaynagara 39-46

9. PEASANTS,ZAMINDARS AND THE 46-53

STATE:Agarian society and the Mughal Empire

10. COLONIALISM AND THE 53-59

COUNTRYSIDE: Exploring
official archives

11. REBELS AND THE RAJ: 1857 Revolt and its 60-76
Representations

12. FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION: The Beginning 76-84

of a New Era

13. Sample Papers 85-99

 HISTORY(027)
[CLASS:12]

GIST[CH:1] BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES

THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
• Period (I): Early Harappa culture - Before 2600 BCE
• Period (II):Mature Harappa culture-2600BCE to 1900 BCE
• Period (III): Late Harappa culture - After 1900 BCE Extent of Harappan Civilization

• Northern boundary - Manda Southern Boundary- Daimabad

• Eastern boundary- Alamgirpur Western boundary- Sutkagendor

SUBSISTENCE STRATEGIES:
• The Harappans ate wide range of plants and animal products.
• Animal bones found at Harappan sites include those of cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo and pig.
• The bones of wild species found suggest the Harappans hunted these animals themselves or
obtained meat from other hunting communities. Bones of fish and fowl are also found.
AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES:
• Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and
archaeologists extrapolate from this that oxen were used for ploughing.
• Terracotta models of the plough have been found at sites in Cholistan and at Banawali.
Evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan has also been found.
• Traces of irrigation canals have been found at Shortugahi in Afghanistan.
 • Traces of rainwater harvesting found in Dholavira in Gujarat through water reservoirs.
MOHENJODARO: A planned urban city
Two Sections of settlement:-
• The Citadel
• These were constructed on mud brick platforms and were walled, which meant that it was
physically separated from the Lower Town
• These include the warehouse – a massive structure of which the lower brick portions remain.
• The upper portions, probably of wood, was – the Great Bath. It was a large rectangular tank in
courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.
• The Lower Town
• It had carefully planned drainage system. The roads and streets were laid out along an
approximate “grid” pattern.
• It provides examples of residential buildings. Many were centred on a courtyard, with rooms on
all sides.
• Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through the wall to
the street drains.
• The uniqueness of the structure, as well as the context in which it was found (the Citadel, with
several distinctive buildings), has led scholars to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a
special ritual bath.
SOCIAL DIFFERENCES
Burials:
• At burials in Harappan site,s the dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes, there were
differences in the way the burial pit was made. Some graves contain pottery and ornaments,
perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in
burials of both men and women.
Looking for “luxuries”:
• The artefacts are classified as utilitarian and luxuries by the archaeologists. Utilitarian objects
are of daily use made fairly easily out of ordinary materials such as stone or clay. Luxuries are
those items if they are rare or made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated
technologies. The situation becomes more complicated when we find what seem to be articles
of daily use, such as spindle whorls made of rare materials such as faience.
CRAFT PRODUCTION
• Chanhudaro is a tiny settlement exclusively devoted to craft production, including bead-making,
shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making and weight-making.
• The variety of materials used to make beads is remarkable.
• Techniques for making beads differed according to the material.
• Nodules were chipped into rough shapes, and then finely flaked into the final form.
• Specialised drills have been found at Chanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira.
• Nageshwar and Balakot were specialised centres for making shell objects – including bangles,
ladles and inlay.
CENTRES OF PRODUCTION:
• Archaeologists identified centres of production by looking for raw materials and tools used.
• Waste is one of the best indicators of craft work. Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used up
to make smaller objects.
• These traces suggest that apart from small, specialised centres, craft production was also
undertaken in large cities such as Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
STRATEGIES FOR PROCURING MATERIAL
Procured from the subcontinent and beyond:
• The Harappans procured materials for craft production in various ways.
• Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggest that this was one important means of
transporting goods and people across land routes.
• Another strategy for procuring raw materials may have been to send expeditions,
which established communication with local communities.
CONTACT WITH DISTANT LANDS:
• Archaeological finds suggest that copper was also probably brought from Oman, on the
southeastern tip of the Arabian peninsula.
• Mesopotamian texts datable to the third millennium BCE refer to copper coming from a region
called Magan, perhaps a name for Oman.
• Other archaeological finds include Harappan seals, weights, dice and beads which suggests
contacts with regions named Dilmun (probably the island of Bahrain), Magan and Meluhha,
possibly the Harappan region.
• It is likely that communication with Oman, Bahrain or Mesopotamia was by sea. Mesopotamian
texts refer to Meluhha as a land of seafarers. Besides, we find depictions of ships and boats on
seals.
SEALS, SCRIPT, WEIGHTS
• Seals and sealings were used to facilitate long distance communication. The sealing also
conveyed the identity of the sender.
•
AN ENIGMATIC SCRIPT:
• Harappan seals usually have a line of writing, probably containing the name and title of the
owner. Scholars have also suggested that the motif (generally an animal to those who could
not read.
• Most inscriptions are short, the longest containing about 26 signs. Although the script remains
undeciphered to date, it was evidently not alphabetical as it has just too many signs –
somewhere between 375 and 400. The script was written from right to left.
WEIGHTS:
• Exchanges were regulated by a precise system of weights, usually made of a stone
called Chert and generally cubical, with no markings.
• Metal scale-pans have also been found.
ANCIENT AUTHORITY
• There are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented in Harappan society.
PALACES AND KINGS
• A large building found at Mohenjodaro was labelled as a palace by archaeologists but no
spectacular finds were associated with it. A stone statue was labelled and continues to be
known as the “priest-king”.
• Some archaeologists are of the opinion that Harappan society had no rulers, whereas other
archaeologist feels that there was no single ruler but several rulers, Mohenjodaro had a
separate ruler, Harappa another. While some believe that there was a single state.
THE END OF THE CIVILIZATION
• There is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the Mature Harappan sites in regions such as
Cholistan had been abandoned. Simultaneously, there was an expansion of population into
new settlements in Gujarat, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.
• Several explanations for the decline of Harappan civilization are climatic changes,
deforestation, excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up of rivers.
• The end was evidenced by the disappearance of seals, the script, distinctive beads and
pottery, the shift from a standardised weight system to the use of local weights; and the decline
and abandonment of cities.
DISCOVERING THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
-When Harappan cities fell into ruin, people gradually forgot all about them.
Cunningham’s confusion:
• The first Director-General of the ASI, Cunningham used the accounts left by Chinese Buddhist
pilgrims who had visited the subcontinent between the fourth and seventh centuries CE to
locate early settlements. A site like Harappa, which was not part of the itinerary of the Chinese
pilgrims and was not known as an Early Historic city.
• A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham by an Englishman. He noted the object, but
unsuccessfully tried to place it within the time-frame with which he was familiar. It is not
surprising that he missed the significance of Harappa.
A NEW OLD CIVILIZATION:
• In 1924, John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, announced the discovery of a new
civilization in the Indus valley to the world.
• It was then that the world knew not only of a new civilization, but also of one contemporaneous
with Mesopotamia.
• Marshall tended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured uniformly throughout the
mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. This meant that all the artefacts recovered from the
same unit were grouped together.
NEW TECHNIQUES AND QUESTIONS:
• Since the 1980s, there has also been growing international interest in Harappan archaeology.
• Specialists from the subcontinent and abroad have been jointly working at both Harappa and
Mohenjodaro.
• They are using modern scientific techniques including surface exploration to recover traces of
clay, stone, metal and plant and animal remains as well as to minutely analyse every scrap of
available evidence. These explorations promise to yield interesting results in the future.
PROBLEMS OF PIECING TOGETHER THE PAST
• It is not the Harappan script that helps in understanding the ancient civilization. Rather, it is
material evidence that allows archaeologists to better reconstruct Harappan life. This material
could be pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, etc.
• Organic materials such as cloth, leather, wood and reeds generally decompose, especially in
tropical regions. What survive are stone, burnt clay (or terracotta), metal, etc.
CLASSIFYING FINDS:
• One simple principle of classification is in terms of material, such as stone, clay, metal, bone,
ivory, etc. The second, is in terms of function. Archaeologists have to decide whether, for
instance, an artefact is a tool or an ornament, or both, or something meant for ritual use.
• Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourse to indirect evidence. For instance, though
there are traces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find out about clothing we have to
depend on indirect evidence including depictions in sculpture.
PROBLEMS OF INTERPRETATION:
• Early archaeologists thought that certain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliar may have
had a religious significance.
• Attempts have also been made to reconstruct religious beliefs and practices by examining
seals, some of which seem to depict ritual scenes.
• Others, with plant motifs, are thought to indicate nature worship.
• Several reconstructions remain speculative at present.
MCQs:

1.Who among the following was the first Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)?
(निम्िलिखित में से कौि भारतीय पुरातत्व सवेक्षण (एएसआई) के पहिे महानिदे शक थे?)

A. Alexander Cunningham B. Harold Hargreaves C. Daya Ram Sahni. D. John Marshall

Ans: - A. Alexander Cunningham

2. Which one of the following religious practice was seemed to be unfamiar and unusual with the
Harappan culture?

निम्िलिखित में से कौि सी धालमिक प्रथा हड़प्पा संस्कृनत के साथ अपररचित और असामान्य प्रतीत होती थी?

A. Mother goddess B. Priest king C. Yogic posture seal D. Sanskritic Yajnas

Ans: - D. Sanskritic Yajnas

3. Which one of the following regions was called as 'Magan' during Harappan period?

हड़प्पा काि के दौराि निम्िलिखित में से ककस क्षेत्र को 'मगि' कहा जाता था?

A. Meluhha. B. Bahrain. C. Oman. D. Dilmun

Ans: - C. Oman

4. Given below are two statements one labelled as Assertion(A) and other labelled as
Reason(R)-

Assertion(A) - Archaeologist and Historians find Harappan script enigematic.

Reason (R)- The Harappan script remained undeciphered till date.

Codes-

A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A

C. A is true, but R is false

D. A is false, but R is true

Ans: - A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A

5. Which of the following pairs are correctly matched -

Harappan site. Location

i. Manda. Uttar Pradesh

ii. Rakhigarhi. Sindh

iii. Nageshwar. Gujarat

iv. Kalibangan. Rajasthan

Codes-

A. ii and iv. B. i and iv C. ii and iii. D. iii and iv

Ans- D. iii and iv

Image based-

1. Identify the image given below-

A. Terracota bull. B. Copper bull. C. Terracota cow. D. None of the above

Ans: - A. Terracota bull

2. Identify the image given below-

A. Unicorn seal. B. Proto Shiva seal

C. Both A and B. D. None of these

Ans: - B. Proto Shiva seal

Short question -

1. 'Mohenjo daro was a planed urban center'. Support the statement with the suitable
statements.

Ans: - Mohenjo-Daro was planned center due to its following features:-

Citadel-

• It was a smaller but higher than the lower town.

• It was the walled and was physically separated from the lower town.
• Here, buildings were constructed with mud brick platforms.
• Here, we find some structures that were probably used for a special public purposes.
• These included the warehouse and the great bath.

Drainage system-

• Mohenjo-Daro had a carefully planned drainage system.

• The roads and the streets were laid out along an approximate 'grid' pattern, interesting at right
angles.
• It seems that street with drains were laid out first and then houses were built along them.
• Every house had its own bathroom paved with bricks, with drains connected through a wall to
the street drain.

Usage of standard bricks-

• The quality of sun dried bricks or baked bricks also prove the concept of planning.
• All the bricks were of standard ratio.

Long question

1. Describe the contribution of John Marshall, director general of ASI to Indian archaeology.

Ans: - The two discoveries in seals in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro by Daya Ram Sahni and Rakhal
Das Banerjee led to the conjecture that these two sites were part of a single Archaeological culture.
Based on these finds, in 1924, John Marshall, announced the discovery of a new civilization in the
Indus valley to the world.

Similar seals were also found in the excavation of archaeological sites of Mesopotamia.

In this way not only, new civilization came to limelight but we also came to know that the civilization
was contemporary to Mesopotamia.

Sir John Marshall's term as the Director general of ASI was actually a term of major change in Indian
archaeology. He was the first professional archaeologist who worked in India. He brought with himself
the experience of Greek and Crete .

Like Cunningham, he was also interested in a spectacular findings. But he was equally interested in
looking for patterns of daily life.

John Marshall attended to excavate along regular horizontal units, measured unit firmly through the
mound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site and this was the biggest drawback in his excavation
process. It means all the artefacts, found from the same unit, were grouped together, even they were
found at different stratigraphic layers.

As a result, valuable information found about the civilization was lost forever.

GIST [CH: 2] KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS

Several developments in different parts of the subcontinent (India) the long span of 1500
following the end of Harappan Civilization:

• Rigveda was composed along the Indus and its tributaries.

• Agricultural Settlements emerged in several parts of the subcontinent.

• New mode of disposal of the dead like making Megaliths.

• By C 600 BCE growth of new cities and kingdoms.

• 600 BCE major turning point in early Indian history.

• Growth of 16 Mahajanapadas. Many were ruled by kings.

• Some known as Ganas or Sanghas were Oligarchies

• Between the 600 BCE and 400 BCE Magadha became the most powerful Mahajanapada.

• Emergence of Mauryan Empire Chandragupta Maurya (C 321 BCE) founder of the empire
extended control up to Afghanistan and Baluchistan.

• His grandson Ashoka, the most famous ruler conquered Kalinga.

• Variety of sources to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire - archaeological finds
especially sculpture, Ashoka’s Inscriptions, Literary sources like Indica account.

PRINSEP AND PIYADASSI

• In the 1830s James Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the East India Company, deciphered
Brahmi and Kharosthi, two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions and coins.
 • He found that most of these mentioned a king referred to as Piyadassi – meaning “pleasant to
behold”.
• There were a few inscriptions which also referred to the king as Asoka, one of the most famous
rulers known from Buddhist texts.
•
THE EARLIEST STATES:
The sixteen mahajanapadas:
• The sixth century BCE is an era associated with early states, cities, the growing use of iron, the
development of coinage, etc.
• Early Buddhist and Jaina texts mention, amongst other things, sixteen states known
as mahajanapadas. Although the lists vary, some names such as Vajji, Magadha, Koshala,
Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti occur frequently. Clearly, these were amongst the
most important mahajanapadas.
• While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings, some, known as ganas or sanghas, were
oligarchies where power was shared by a number of men, often collectively called rajas.
• Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which was often fortified.
• From c. sixth century BCE onwards, Brahmanas began composing Sanskrit texts known as
the Dharmasutras. These laid down norms for rulers (as well as for other social categories),
who were ideally expected to be Kshatriyas.
• some states acquired standing armies and maintained regular bureaucracies. Others continued
to depend on militia, recruited, more often than not, from the peasantry.

FIRST AMONGST THE SIXTEEN: MAGADHA:

• Between the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE, Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the
most powerful mahajanapada.
• It was a region where agriculture was especially productive. Besides, it was also rich in natural
resources and animals like elephant, which was an important part of the army, could be
procured from the forest spreads of the region. Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of
cheap and convenient communication.
• Magadha attributed its power to the policies of individuals: ruthlessly ambitious kings of
whom Bimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known, and their
ministers, who helped implement their policies.
• Rajagaha (the Prakrit name for present day Rajgir in Bihar) was the capital of Magadha
initially. In the fourth century BCE, the capital was shifted to Pataliputra, present-day Patna.
AN EARLY EMPIRE:
• The growth of Magadha culminated in the emergence of the Mauryan Empire.
• Chandragupta Maurya, who founded the empire (c. 321 BCE), extended control as far
northwest as Afghanistan and Baluchistan, and his grandson Asoka, arguably the most
famous ruler of early India, conquered Kalinga (present-day coastal Orissa).
• Sources of Mauryan Empire: Account of Megasthenes (a Greek ambassador to the court of
Chandragupta Maurya) called Indica, Arthashastra probably composed by Kautilya or
Chanakya, the minister of Chandragupta, later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature.
Besides,the inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231 BCE) on rocks and pillars are often regarded
as amongst the most valuable sources.
• Dhamma: Ashoka used the inscriptions to proclaim what he understood to be dhamma,
which included respect towards elders, generosity towards Brahmanas and those who
renounced worldly life, treating slaves and servants kindly, and respect for religions and
traditions other than one’s own. According to him, this would ensure the well-being of people in
this world. Special officers known as dhamma mahamatta, were appointed to spread the
message of dhamma.
ADMINISTERING CENTRES:
• There were five major political centres in the empire – the capital Pataliputra and the provincial
centres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri.

• It is likely that administrative control was strongest in areas around the capital and the
provincial centres. These were wisely chosen as both Taxila and Ujjayini being situated on
important long-distance trade routes, while Suvarnagiri (literally, the golden mountain) was
possibly important for tapping the gold mines of Karnataka.
• Communication along both land and riverine routes was vital for the existence of the empire.
• Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity.
• In the nineteenth century, the emergence of the Mauryan Empire was regarded as a major
landmark, as India was under colonial rule during that time.
• Some of the archaeological finds associated with the Mauryas, including stone sculpture, were
considered to be examples of the spectacular art typical of empires.
• Nationalist leaders in the twentieth century regarded Ashoka as an inspiring figure as the
inscriptions suggested that was more powerful and industrious, as also more humble than later
rulers who adopted grandiose titles.
NEW NOTIONS OF KINGSHIP
• By the second century BCE, new chiefdoms and kingdoms emerged in several parts of the
subcontinent.
• This development was mainly seen in the Deccan and further south, including the chiefdoms of
the Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas in Tamilakam (the name of the ancient Tamil country, which
included parts of present-day Andhra Pradesh and Kerala, in addition to Tamil Nadu), proved
to be stable and prosperous.
• Many chiefs and kings, including the Satavahanas who ruled over parts of western and central
India (c. second century BCE-second century CE) and the Shakas, a people of Central Asian
origin who established kingdoms in the north-western and western parts of the subcontinent,
derived revenues from long-distance trade.
• Divine kings: One means of claiming high status was to identify with a variety of deities.
The Kushanas (c. first century BCEfirst century CE), who ruled over a vast kingdom extending
from Central Asia to northwest India followed this strategy. They adopted the title devaputra, or
“son of god”, installed colossal statues in shrines.
• By the fourth century there is evidence of larger states, including the Gupta Empire. These
states dpended on samantas, men who maintained themselves through local resources
including control over land.
• The Prayaga Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad Pillar Inscription) composed in Sanskrit
by Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta, arguably the most powerful of the Gupta rulers
(c. fourth century CE).
A CHANGING COUNTRYSIDE
• Popular perception: Anthologies such as the Jatakas and the Panchatantra gave a glimpse of
subject-king relation. For instance, one story known as the Gandatindu Jataka describes the
plight of the subjects of a wicked king.
• Kings frequently tried to fill their coffers by demanding high taxes, and peasants particularly
found such demands oppressive.
• Certain strategies aimed at increasing production to meet growing demand for taxes also were
adopted. For example, the shift to plough agriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial river
valleys such as those of the Ganga and the Kaveri from c. sixth century BCE. Also production
of paddy was dramatically increased by the introduction of transplantation.
• Another strategy adopted to increase agricultural production was the use of irrigation, through
wells and tanks, and less commonly, canals.
• The benefits of increased production led to a growing differentiation amongst people engaged
in agriculture as it was not equally distributed.
• The stories of Buddhist tradition refers to the term ‘gahapati’ which was often used in Pali
texts to designate the second and third categories. Tamil literature mentions large landowners
ovellalar, ploughmen or uzhavar and slaves or adimai.
• With rising differences questions of control over land must have become crucial, as these were
often discussed in legal texts.
• During early centuries of common era, grants of land were made and many of which were
recorded in inscriptions. For instance, according to Sanskrit legal texts, women were not
supposed to have independent access to resources such as land.
• Land grants provide some insight into the relationship between cultivators and the state.
TOWNS AND TRADE
• Major towns were located along routes of communication. Some such as Pataliputra were on
riverine routes. Some were near the coast, from where sea routes began. Many cities like
Mathura were bustling centres of commercial, cultural and political activities.
• A wide range of artefacts have been recovered from the excavations in these areas. These
include fine pottery bowls and dishes, with a glossy finish, known as Northern Black Polished
 Ware, probably used by rich people, and ornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, made
of a wide range of materials – gold, silver, copper, bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.
• By the second century BCE, we find short votive inscriptions in a number of cities. Sometimes,
guilds or shrenis, organisations of craft producers and merchants, are mentioned as well.

• From the sixth century BCE, land and river routes criss-crossed the subcontinent and extended
in various directions. Rulers often attempted to control the routes, possibly by offering
protection for a price.
• Those who traversed these routes included peddlers who probably travelled on foot and
merchants who travelled with caravans of bullock carts and pack-animals.
• Spices, especially pepper, were in high demand in the Roman Empire, as were textiles and
medicinal plants, and these were all transported across the Arabian Sea to the Mediterranean.
• Exchanges were facilitated by the introduction of coinage. Punch-marked coins made of silver
and copper (c. sixth century BCE onwards) were amongst the earliest to be minted and used.
• Attempts were made to identify the symbols on punch-marked coins with specific ruling
dynasties.
• The first coins to bear the names and images of rulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, who
established control over the north-western part of the subcontinent c. second century BCE.
• The first gold coins were issued c. first century CE by the Kushanas. The widespread use of
gold coins indicates the enormous value of the transactions that were taking place. Some of
the most spectacular gold coins were issued by the Gupta rulers. From c. sixth century CE
onwards, finds of gold coins taper off.
• Coins were also issued by tribal republics such as that of the Yaudheyas of Punjab and
Haryana (c. first century CE).
• Hoards of Roman coins have been found from archaeological sites in south India. It is obvious
that networks of trade were not confined within political boundaries: south India was not part of
the Roman Empire, but there were close connections through trade.

o
HOW ARE INSCRIPTIONS DECIPHERED?
• Brahmi: Most scripts used to write modern Indian languages are derived from Brahmi, the
script used in most Asokan inscriptions. It was only after decades of painstaking investigations
by several epigraphists that James Prinsep was able to decipher Asokan Brahmi in 1838.
• Kharosthi: Kharosthi is the script used in inscriptions in the northwest. The coins of Indo-
Greek kings, who ruled over the area (c. second-first centuries BCE), contain the names of
kings written in Greek and Kharosthi scripts. European scholars who could read the former
compared the letters. With Prinsep identifying the language of the Kharosthi inscriptions as
Prakrit, it became possible to read longer inscriptions as well.
• Epigraphists and historians after examining all these inscriptions, and finding that they match
in terms of content, style, language and palaeography, come to a conclusion. Historians have
to constantly assess statements made in inscriptions to judge whether they are true, plausible
or exaggerations.
MCQs-

1. Which of the following dynasties queen Prabhavati belonged to?

रानी प्रभावती ननम्ननिखित में से निस राजवंश से संबंनित थीं?

A. Gupta B. Maurya. C. Kushana. D. Vakataka

Ans:- D. Vakataka

2. Who among the following had issued the first gold coins?

ननम्ननिखित में से निसने सबसे पहिे सोने िे नसक्के जारी निये थे?

A. The Yaudheyas B. The Parthians C. The Guptas D. The Kushanas

Ans:- D. Kushanas

3. He was called as 'Devanampiya' and ' Piyadassi'. He ruled the Indian subcontinent from c. 268 to 232
BCE. He is remembered for the propagation of Dhamma.

उन्हें 'दे वानामनपया' और 'नपयदस्सी' िहा जाता था। उन्होंने सी से भारतीय उपमहाद्वीप पर शासन निया। 268 से 232 ईसा
पूवव। उन्हें िम्म िे प्रचार-प्रसार िे निए याद निया जाता है ।

Who among the following rulers has been described in the above information?

A. Ashoka. B. Chandragupta Maurya C. Samudragupta D. Ajatshatru

उपरोक्त जानिारी में ननम्ननिखित में से निस शासि िा वर्वन निया गया है?

ए .अशोि .B .चंद्रगुप्त मौयव .C समुद्रगुप्त .D अजातशत्रु

Ans:- A. Ashoka

4. The languages used to write inscriptions are-

नशिािेि नििने िे निए प्रयुक्त भाषाएँ हैं-

A. Pali. B. Tamil. C. Sanskrit D. All of these

ए.पािी . बी .तनमि . .Cसंस्कृत .Dये सभी

Ans:- D. All of these

5. Given below are two statements one labelled as Assertion(A) and other labelled as Reason(R)-

Assertion(A) – Archaeological sources are generally more reliable than literary sources.

Reason (R)- there are a little scopes for tempering with archaeological sources than literary sources.

Codes-

A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A

C. A is true, but R is false

D. A is false, but R is true

ANS: A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

IMAGE BASED QUESTION:

1. Identify the given image from the following options-

. ननम्ननिखित नविल्ों में से दी गई छनव िो पहचानें-

A. Sculpture of Gupta king B. Sculpture of Maurya king

C. Sculpture of Kushana king D. Sculpture of Chola king

A. गुप्त राजा िी मूनतव B. मौयव राजा िी मूनतव

C. िुषार् राजा िी मूनतव D. चोि राजा िी मूनतव

Ans:- C. Sculpture of Kushana king

2. Identify the place from where this part of sculpture has been found –

उस स्थान िो पहचानें जहां से मूनतवििा िा यह भाग प्राप्त हुआ है -

A. Mathura B. Sopara C. Ujjayini D. Taxila

मथुरा। बी सोपारा . सी .उज्जनयनी डी .तक्षनशिा

Ans :- A. Mathura

SHORT QUESTION:

1. "Magadh was the most powerful Mahajanapada". Examine the statement.

"मगि सबसे शखक्तशािी महाजनपद था"। िथन िा परीक्षर् िरें .

Ans:- Magadh (in present Bihar) was the most powerful among the 16 mahajanapadas in the following
ways-

Magadh was a region where agriculture was especially productive.

Also, the river Ganga and its tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient communication.

Besides, the iron mines were easily accessible. It provided resources for tools and weapons.

Ambitious kings like Bimbisara, Azatasatru and Mahapadma Nanda have played an important role in the
implementing policies of Magadha.

LONG QUESTION:

1. How do historians come to know about Maurya period? Explain the administrative structure of
Mauryan Empire.

1. इनतहासिारों िो मौयव िाि िे बारे में िैसे पता चिता है ? मौयव साम्राज्य िी प्रशासननि संरचना िी व्याख्या िरें ।

Ans:- Historians came to know about the Maurya period from the following sources-

Things found in archaeological excavation, especially sculpture are regarded as an important source.

Contemporary works like writings of Megasthenes, Arthshastra by Chanakya are important sources
regarding that period. It gives an idea about Mauryan administration.

The Mauryas were also mentioned in later Buddhist, Jaina, Puranic and Sanskrit literature.

The administrative structure of Mauryan Empire was-

Administrative control was the strongest in areas around the capital and the provincial centres. Taxila
and Ujjaini were situated on important long distance trade routes.

Suvarnagiri was important for utilising the gold mines of Karnataka. Communication along both land and
riverine routes was vital for the existence of the Empire.

Megasthenes mentions a committee with 6 sub-committees for military coordination activity.

These were-

One looked after the Navy

Second managed transport and provisions

Third was responsible for foot soldiers

Fourth for horses

Fifth for chariots

Sixth for elephants

 GIST [CH-3] KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS
Early Societies
1.The Critical Edition of the Mahabharata

❖ V S Sukthankar a noted Sanskrit scholar started the work of compiling the

Mahabharat in 1919 with a team of noted scholars.
❖ Sanskrit manuscripts of the text were collected from different parts of the
country.
❖ The team compared the verses according to a method and finally selected and
published the common verses.
❖ The team realised that there were many common elements in the Sanskrit
version of the epic while the regional texts had many variations. These
variations were documented in footnotes.
❖ These variations are reflective of dialogues between the dominant traditions and
the resilient local ideas and practices.
❖ Texts like Mahabharat were primarily written by Brahamans for Brahamans,
2. Kinship and Marriage Many Rules and Varied Practices

❖ Often people belonging to the same family share food and other resources, and
live, work and perform rituals together.
❖ Families are usually parts of larger networks of people defined as relatives, or to
use a more technical term, kinfolk.
❖ familial ties are often regarded as “natural” and based on blood.
❖ Patriliny means tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on.
❖ Matriliny is the term used when descent is traced through the mother.
❖ Daughter had no claims to the resources of the household.
❖ At the same time, marrying them into families outside the kin was considered
desirable.
❖ This gave rise to the belief that kanyadana or the gift of a daughter in marriage
was an important religious duty of the father.
❖ The Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras recognised as many as eight forms of
marriage.
❖ Two rules about gotra were particularly important: women were expected to give
up their father’s gotra and adopt that of their husband on marriage and members
of the same gotra could not marry.
Types of marriages

❖ Endogamy refers to marriage within a unit – this could be a kin group, caste,
or a group living in the same locality.
❖ Exogamy refers to marriage outside the unit.
❖ Polygyny is the practice of a man having several wives.
❖ Polyandry is the practice of a woman having several husbands.
3. Social Differences: Within and Beyond the Framework of Cast
 ❖ Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices
and get sacrifices performed, and give and receive gifts.
❖ Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect people and administer justice,
study the Vedas, get sacrifices performed, and make gifts.
❖ The last three “occupations” were also assigned to the Vaishyas, who were in
addition expected to engage in agriculture, pastoralism and trade.
❖ Shudras were assigned only one occupation – that of serving the three “higher”
varnas..
❖ Shakas where non-kshatriya kings, came from Central Asia, were regarded as
mlechchhas, Rationalised 2023-24 63 barbarians or outsiders by the
Brahmanas.
❖ In Brahmanical theory, jati, like varna, was based on birth.
❖ Jatis which shared a common occupation or profession were sometimes
organised into shrenis or guilds.
❖ Those who considered themselves pure avoided taking food from those they
designated as “untouchable”.
❖ Some activities were regarded as particularly “polluting”. These included
handling corpses and dead animals. Those who performed such tasks,
designated as chandalas.
❖ The Chinese Buddhist monk Fa Xian wrote that “untouchables” had to sound a
clapper in the streets so that people could avoid seeing them.
❖ Xuan Zang observed that executioners and scavengers were forced to live
outside the city.
4. Beyond Birth Resources and Status

❖ According to the Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be divided equally

amongst sons after the death of the parents, with a special share for the eldest.
❖ Women could not claim a share of these resources.
❖ Women were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the occasion of their
marriage as stridhana (literally, a woman’s wealth).
❖ This could be inherited by their children, without the husband having any claim
on it.
5. Explaining Social Differences: A Social Contract

❖ The Buddhists recognised the differences in society, but did not regard these as
natural or inflexible. They rejected the idea of claims to status on the basis of birth.
❖ There were other possibilities as well; situations where men who were generous
were respected, while those who were miserly were criticised.
❖ The Buddhists developed an alternative understanding of social inequalities and the
institutions required to regulate social conflict.
❖ The institution of kingship was based on human choice, with taxes as a form of
payment for services rendered by the king.

6. Handling Texts Historians and the Mahabharata

❖ Mahabharata was written in a variety of languages.

❖ Those people who wrote versions of the epic added stories that originated or
circulated in their localities.
❖ The central story of the epic was often retold in many ways. Episodes were depicted
in sculpture and painting
❖ They also provided themes for a wide range of performing arts plays, dance, and
other kinds of narrations.

7. A Dynamic Text
❖ The growth of the Mahabharata did not stop with the Sanskrit version.
❖ Over the centuries, versions of the epic were written in a variety of languages
through an ongoing process of dialogue between peoples, communities, and those
who wrote the texts.
❖ Several stories that originated in specific regions or circulated amongst certain
people found their way into the epic.
❖ At the same time, the central story of the epic was often retold in different ways.
And episodes were depicted in sculpture and painting.
❖ They also provided themes for a wide range of performing arts – plays, dance and
other kinds of narrations.
MCQs:

1.Which one of the following categories is not supposed to have belonged to the Brahmanical
prescription of four varnas?

(A) Brahmanas (B) Kshatriyas (C) Nishadas (D) Vaishyas

निम्िलिखित में से कौि सी श्रेणी िार वणों के ब्राह्मणवादी िस्

ु िे से संबंचधत िहीं मािी जाती है ?

(ए) ब्राह्मण (बी) क्षत्रत्रय (सी)निषाद (डी) वैश्य

Ans-(c) Nishadas

2.Which of the following statements is incorrect?

(a) Mahabharata, a colossal epic, has over 1,00,000 verses.

(b) Pandavas emerged victorious in the battle.

(c) Kanyadaan means gift of a daughter in marriage.

(d) Endogamy is a marriage outside the unit.

निम्िलिखित में से कौि सा कथि गित है ?

(ए) महाभारत, एक ववशाि महाकाव्य, जजसमें 1,00,000 से अचधक छं द हैं।

(बी) पांडव युद्ध में ववजयी हुए।

(सी) कन्यादाि का अथि है वववाह में बेटी का उपहार।

(डी) अंतवविवाह इकाई के बाहर एक वववाह है ।

Ans-(d) Endogamy is a marriage outside the unit

3. Panini’s ‘Ashtadhyayi’ is a work on-

(a) Sanskrit grammar (b) Sanskrit history (c) Sanskrit mantras (d) Sanskrit plays

पाखणनि की 'अष्टाध्यायी' पर एक कृनत है

(ए) संस्कृत व्याकरण। (बी) संस्कृत इनतहास। (सी) संस्कृत मंत्र। (डी) संस्कृत िाटक।

Ans- (a) Sanskrit grammar.

4.. Which of the following statements is incorrect about the duties as laid down in Manusmriti for the
Chandalas?

(a) They had to live on the outskirts of the village.

(b) They had to use discarded utensils.

(c) They were supposed to wear old clothes of the villagers and ornaments made from shells.

(d) It was their duty to serve as executioner and dispose of the bodies of those who had no relatives.

िांडािों के लिए मिुस्मनृ त में निधािररत कतिव्यों के बारे में निम्िलिखित में से कौि सा कथि गित है ?

(ए) उन्हें गांव के बाहरी इिाके में रहिा पड़ा।

(बी) उन्हें फेंके गए बतििों का उपयोग करिा पड़ता था।

(सी) उन्हें ग्रामीणों के पुरािे कपड़े और सीवपयों से बिे आभूषण पहििे िाहहए थे।

(डी) जल्िाद के रूप में काम करिा और उि िोगों के शवों का निपटाि करिा उिका कतिव्य था जजिके कोई
ररश्तेदार िहीं थे।

Ans-(c) They were supposed to wear old clothes of the villagers and ornaments made from shells.
5. Assertion (A): Women were expected to give up their father's gotra and take up their husband's
gotra after marriage.

Reason (R): Women who married Satavahana rulers retained their father's gotras instead of adopting
names derived from their husband's gotra name.

(a) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is the correct explanation of (A).

(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

(c) (A) is correct but (R) is not correct.

(d) (R) is correct but (A) is not correct.

कथि (ए): महहिाओं से अपेक्षा की जाती थी कक वे शादी के बाद अपिे वपता का गोत्र छोड़ दें और अपिे पनत
का गोत्र अपिा िें।

कारण (आर): सातवाहि शासकों से वववाह करिे वािी महहिाओं िे अपिे पनत के गोत्र िाम से प्राप्त िामों को
अपिािे के बजाय अपिे वपता के गोत्र को बरकरार रिा।

Ans-(b) Both (A) and (R) are correct and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A).

IMAGE BASED

1.Identify and name the historical event depicted in the given terracotta sculpture.

दी गई टे राकोटा मनू तिकिा में चित्रत्रत ऐनतहालसक घटिा को पहिािें और उसका िाम बताएं

Ans-Mahabharata

2.Identify and name the ruler depicted in the given image.

दी गई छवव में दशािए गए शासक को पहिािें और उसका िाम बताएं।

Ans-Shaka Ruler

SHORT QUESTIONS (3 marks)

1.Critically examine the duties as laid down in Manusmriti for the chandalas.

चथंडथलों के ललए मनस्

ु मनृ त में बतथए गए कताव्यों कथ आलोचनथत्मक परीक्षण करें ।
Ans. (i)They had to live outside the village.
(ii) They had to use discarded utensils.
(iii)To dispose of the bodies.
(iv)They could not walk in villages and cities.

2.What were three strategies adopted by the Brahmins for enforcing social norms?
सथमथजजक मथनदं डों को लथगू करने के ललए ब्रथह्मणों द्वथरथ अपनथई गई तीन रणनीनतयथाँ क्यथ र्ीं?

Ans. The Brahmanas evolved two or three strategies for enforcing these norms.
(i)One was to assert that the Varna order was of divine origin.
(ii)Second, they advised kings to ensure that these norms were followed within their kingdoms.
(iii)And third, they attempted to persuade people that their status was determined by birth. However,
this was not always easy. So, prescriptions were often reinforced by stories told in the Mahabharata
and other texts.

3.Explain how access to property sharpened social differences between men and women in ancient
times.

बताएं कक प्रािीि काि में संपवि की पहुंि िे परु

ु षों और महहिाओं के बीि सामाजजक मतभेदों को कैसे बढाया।

Ans- (i)Sons were considered important for the continuity of the family and had share in paternal
estate.

(ii)But women could not claim a share of these resources.

(iii)Women were allowed to retain the gifts they received on the marriage ceremony.
(iv)Women were also warned not to hoard family property without husband’s permission.
Long question (8 marks)

1.Describe the familial ties and rules of marriage as per the Brahmanical prescription during c. 600
BCE – 600 CE.

600 ईसा पव
ू ि - 600 ईस्वी के दौराि ब्राह्मणवादी िस्
ु िे के अिस
ु ार पाररवाररक संबंधों और वववाह के नियमों का
वणिि करें ।

Ans-(1) Familial ties during 600BCE-600CE:

i. Every family varied in terms of number of members.

ii. They had definite relationship with one another, common activities
and shared food and resources.
iii. They performed rituals together.
iv. They had larger network of people called Kinfolk.
v. The family ties were natural based on blood.

(2) Rules of marriage:

vi. Sons were considered important to continue lineage and daughters
were married outside and had no claim on resources of the
household.
vii. Endogamy and exogamy were prevalent.
viii. Polygyny was also there.
ix. Polyandry- like in Pandavas were in practice.
x. Dharma sutras and dharmashastras recognized eight forms of
marriages out of which only four were considered good.
xi. The girls were married to the right person at a right time and
kanyadana was considered a religious duty of the father.
xii. Women were expected to give up their father’s gotra and adopt that
of their husband on marriage.
Members of the same gotra could not marry.

GIST [CH-4] THINKERS, BELIEFS AND BUILDINGS

1. A Glimpse of Sanchi
❖ Nineteenth-century Europeans were very interested in the stupa at Sanchi.
❖ The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan
Begum, provided money for the preservation of the ancient site.
❖ John Marshall dedicated his important volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan.
❖ She funded the museum that was built there as well as the guesthouse where he
lived and wrote the volumes. She also funded the publication of the volumes.
2. The Background: Sacrifices and Debates
The sacrificial tradition
• of the domestic unit.
• More At first, sacrifices were performed collectively.
• Later some were performed by the heads of households for the well-being
elaborate sacrifices, such as the rajasuya and ashvamedha, were
performed by chiefs and kings who depended on Brahmana priests to
conduct the ritual.
New questions
• Many ideas found in the Upanishads show that people were curious about
the meaning of life, the possibility of life after death, and rebirth.
Debates and discussions
• Teachers travelled from place to place, trying to convince one another as
well as laypersons, about the validity of their philosophy or the way they
understood the world.
• Debates took place in the kutagarashala – literally, a hut with a pointed roof
– or in groves where travelling mendicants halted.
• If a philosopher succeeded in convincing one of his rivals, the followers of
the latter also became his disciples.
3. Beyond Worldly Pleasures The Message of Mahavira

❖ The basic philosophy of the Jainas was already in existence in north India before
the birth of Vardhamana, who came to be known as Mahavira
❖ According to Jaina tradition, Mahavira was preceded by 23 other teachers or
tirthankaras – literally, those who guide men and women across the river of
existence.
❖ The most important idea in Jainism is that the entire world is animated:
• even stones, rocks and water have life.
• Non-injury to living beings, especially to humans, animals, plants and
insects, is central to Jaina philosophy.
• The principle of ahimsa, emphasised within Jainism, has left its mark
on Indian thinking as a whole.
❖ Jaina teachings
• the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma.
• Asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of
karma
❖ Jaina monks and nuns took five vows:
• to abstain from killing, stealing and lying; to observe celibacy; and to
abstain from possessing property.
❖ The spread of Jainism
• Jaina scholars produced a wealth of literature in a variety of languages
– Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil.
• Some of the earliest stone sculptures associated with religious
traditions were produced by devotees of the Jaina tirthankaras
4. The Buddha and the Quest for Enlightenment

❖ One of the most influential teachers of the time was the Buddha.
❖ Historians have also tried to reconstruct details of his life from hagiographies.
❖ Siddhartha, as the Buddha was named at birth, was the son of a chief of the Sakya
clan.
❖ He had a sheltered upbringing within the palace, insulated from the harsh
realities of life.
 ❖ After he gain enlightment, he came to be known as the Buddha or the
Enlightened One.
❖ For the rest of his life, he taught dhamma or the path of righteous living.
5. The Teachings of the Buddha
❖ The Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructed from stories, found mainly in the
Sutta Pitaka .
❖ According to Buddhist philosophy,
• the world is transient (anicca) and constantly changing;
• it is also soulless (anatta) as there is nothing permanent or eternal in it.
• Within this transient world, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to human
existence.
❖ It is by following the path of moderation between severe penance and self-
indulgence that human beings can rise above these worldly troubles.
❖ In the earliest forms of Buddhism, whether or not god existed was irrelevant.
❖ The Buddha emphasised individual agency and righteous action as the means to
escape from the cycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation and nibbana.
❖ According to Buddhist tradition, his last words to his followers were: “Be lamps unto
yourselves as all of you must work out your own liberation.”
6. Followers of the Buddha
❖ A body of disciples of the Buddha and he founded a sangha, an organisation of
monks who too became teachers of dhamma.
❖ Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha, but later women also came to be
admitted.
❖ The Buddha’s foster mother, Mahapajapati Gotami was the first woman to be
ordained as a bhikkhuni.
❖ Once within the sangha, all were regarded as equal, having shed their earlier
social identities on becoming bhikkhus and bhikkhunis.
7. Stupas
- Buddhist literature mentions several Chaityas which are places associated with the
Buddha’s life.
- Stupa contained relics (bodily remains of Buddha or objects used by him) regarded as
sacred, the entire stupa came to be venerated as an emblem of both the Buddha and
Buddhism.
- According to a Buddhist text ‘Ashokavadana’, Asoka distributed portions of the Buddha’s
relics to every important town and ordered the construction of stupas over them.
By the second century BCE, a number of stupas in Bharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath were built.
- Stupas were built from the donations made by- king, guilds, common people ‘bhikkhus’ and
‘bhikkhunis’.
- The structure of stupas comprised several parts, Anda (semi circular mound of Earth),
Harmika (balcony-like structure), Yasthi (like mast) and Chhatri or umbrella.
The early Stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut wrere plain but the gateways were richly carved
and installed at the four cardinal points.
The Great Sanchi Stupa:

The Great Stupa at Sanchi

- in the state of Madhya Pradesh is one of the most wonderful ancient buildings. 19th century
Europeans were very interested in the Stupa at Sanchi.
- The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and Sultan Jehan Begum provided money to
preserve the site of Sanchi Stupa.
- John Marshall wrote important volumes on Sanchi.
- The discovery of Sanchi has transformed our understanding of early Buddhism. It stands as
an example of the successful restoration and preservation of ancient site by the
Archaeological Survey of India

Buddha’s life – where he was born (Lumbini), where he attained enlightenment (Bodh Gaya), where he
gave his first sermon (Sarnath) and where he attained nibbana (Kusinagara).
How were stupas built
• Inscriptions found “Discovering” Stupas The Fate of Amaravati and Sanchi
• In 1796, a local raja who wanted to build a temple stumbled upon the ruins of the stupa at
Amaravati.
• He decided to use the stone, and thought there might be some treasure buried in what seemed
to be a hill.
• A British official named Colin Mackenzie visited the site.
• In 1854, Walter Elliot, the commissioner of Guntur (Andhra Pradesh), visited Amaravati and
collected several sculpture panels and took them away to Madras.
• He also discovered the remains of the western gateway and came to the conclusion that the
structure at Amaravati was one of the largest and most magnificent Buddhist stupas ever built.
• H.H. Cole wrote: “It seems to me a suicidal and indefensible policy to allow the country to be
looted of original works of ancient art.”
• Perhaps Amaravati was discovered before scholars understood the value of the finds and
realised how critical it was to preserve things where they had been found instead of removing
them from the site.
Amaravati Stupas:
- In 1854, Walter Elliot visited Amaravati and collected several sculpture panels and
discovered the remains of Western gateway.
- He came to the conclusion that the structure at Amaravati was one of the most significant
Buddhist stupas.
- Unfortunately, Amaravati did not survive as sculptures from this site were removed from
the site instead of preserving things where they were found.
8. Sculpture
Stories in stone
• historians who have carefully studied the sculpture at Sanchi identify it as a
scene from the Vessantara Jataka.
• This is a story about a generous prince who gave away everything to a
Brahmana, and went to live in the forest with his wife and children.
Symbols of worship
• sculptors did not show the Buddha in human form – instead, they showed his
presence through symbols.
• The empty seat was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha, and the
stupa was meant to represent the mahaparinibbana.
Popular traditions
• The shalabhanjika (this was a woman whose touch caused trees to flower and
bear fruit.) motif suggests that many people who turned to Buddhism enriched
it with their own pre-Buddhist and even non-Buddhist beliefs, practices and
ideas.
• Elephants, for example, were depicted to signify strength and wisdom.
• Gajalakshmi – literally, the goddess of good fortune – who is associated with
elephants.
 9. New Religious Traditions
The development of Mahayana Buddhism
• This new way of thinking was called Mahayana – literally, the “great vehicle”.
• Those who adopted these beliefs described the older tradition as Hinayana or
the “lesser vehicle”
The growth of Puranic Hinduism
• These included Vaishnavism (a form of Hinduism within which Vishnu was
worshipped as the principal deity) and Shaivism (a tradition within which Shiva
was regarded as the chief god), in which there was growing emphasis on the
worship of a chosen deity.
• These were forms that the deity was believed to have assumed in order to save
the world whenever it was threatened by disorder and destruction because of
the dominance of evil forces.
Building temples
• The early temple was a small square room, called the garbhagriha, with a single
doorway for the worshipper to enter and offer worship to the image.
• Gradually, a tall structure, known as the shikhara, was built over the central
shrine.
• Temple walls were often decorated with sculpture. Later temples became far
more elaborate – with assembly halls, huge walls and gateways, and
arrangements for supplying water
One of the unique features of early temples was that some of these were
hollowed out of huge rocks, as artificial caves.

MCQs:
1. Which one of the following texts contains the teachings of Mahavira or Jaina Philosophy?
(A) Mahavamsa (B) Uttaradhyayana Sutta (C) Dipavamsa (D) Sutta Pitaka
Ans-(B) Uttaradhyayana Sutta
2. Study the following statements regarding Buddhism carefully:
I. Buddhism grew rapidly, both during the lifetime and after the death of Buddha.
II. Buddhism did not give much importance to conduct and values.
III. Buddhism appealed to many people who were dissatisfied with the existing religious practices.
IV. Buddhism laid much stress on superiority based on birth.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(A) I and II (B) II and IV
(C) I and III (D) III and IV

Ans-(C) I and III

3. Consider the following statements regarding the Greek School of Art in the ancient period:
I. Images of Buddha and Bodhisattas were discovered based on the Greek models.
II. Images were found in cities like Taxila and Peshawar.
III. Indo-Greek rulers ruled in north-west India.
Which of the above-mentioned statements are correct?
(A) I and II (B) II and III
(C) I, II and III (D) Only I

Ans-(C) I, II and III

 4. Why did Sanchi Stupas survive while the Amaravati did not?
Choose the correct reason from the following options:
(A) Sanchi was protected by Emperor Shah Jahan.
(B) Asiatic Society of Bengal tried to conserve it.
(C) Colin Mackenzie dedicated his volumes on Sanchi.
(D) Scholars understood the value of preservation at site after the fall of Amaravati.
Ans-(D) Scholars understood the value of preservation at site after the fall of Amaravati.
5. Given below are two statements one labelled as Assertion(A) and other labelled as Reason(R)-
Assertion(A) – In buddhism, people of all castes were treated without any discrimination.
Reason (R)- In the buddhist sangha, women and men used to go away from worldly desires and
to study buddhist culture deeply.
Codes-
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
C. A is true, but R is false
D. A is false, but R is true

IMAGE BASED
Identify the following image and give it an appropriate title:

Ans-Image of Tirthankara from Mathura (Lord Mahavira)

1. Identify the following image and write its appropriate name:

Ans-An image of the Buddha from Mathura

SHORT QUESTION
1.Discuss the development in sculpture and architecture associated with the rise of Vaishnavism and
Shaivism.
Ans. As the Stupas became the religious sites of Buddhism, a similar number of temples were
constructed to house the Hindu deities. The Shaivite and Vaisnavite movements led to the spread of
worship of Shiva and Vishnu. Some of the features of the temples constructed for the Hindu deities are:

(i) The earliest constructed temple used to have small square rooms, that came to be known
as the garbagriha. This garbagriha used to house the principal deity.
(ii) These garbagrihas used to have a single doorway from which the worshipper used to enter
and offer his prayers to the deity.
(iii) A tall structure known as the Shikhara was constructed over the principal shrine. This Shikhara
gave a royal look to the temple.
(iv) The walls of the temple were generally decorated with sculptures to enhance the beauty of the
structure.
LONG QUESTION
1. “To understand the meanings of Sculptures, historians have to be familiar with the
stories behind them.” Support the statement by giving examples from Buddhist and
Hindu Art from 600 BCE to 600 CE.
Ans- Hindu and Buddhist Art and
Sculpture Hindu Sculpture and Art

I. Vaishnavism – Sculpture of ten Avatars. Eg. the Varaha rescuing the earth
goddess (Aihole), Vishnu with Sheshnag.
II. Shaivaism- Sculptures of Shiva in Linga
III. Sculptures of Shiva in human form too.
IV. The image of Durga at Mahabalipuram.
V. Sculpture of Vasudeva –Krishna in Mathura.
VI. Ellora Sculptures.
VII. Kailash Nath temple.
Buddhist Sculptures

I. Empty seat of Buddha indicated meditation.

II. Wheel stand for first Serman of Buddha.
III. Shailabhanjika, an auspicious symbol of prosperity.
IV. Gajalakshmi –Goddess of good fortune.
V. Tree symbolizes an event in the life of the Buddha.
VI. Images of Buddha and Bodhisattas.
VII. Serpants and animal motifs.
Scenes from Jataka stories and Buddha’s hagiography.

GIST [CH- 5]THROUGH THE EYES OF TRAVELLERS

TRAVELLERS AL- BIRUNI IBN- BATTUTA BERNIER

TIME 11TH CENTURY 14TH CENTURY 17TH CENTURY

BELONG TO UZBEKISTAN MOROCCO FRANCE

TRAVLELS IN THE
BOOK NAME KITAB-UL-HIND RIHLA
MUGHAL EMPIRE

BOOK LANGUAGE ARABIC ARABIC ENGLISH

• Al-Biruni was born in Khwarizm in present day Uzbekistan.

• Sultan Mahmud attacked Khawrizm and took Al-Biruni to his capital Ghazni.
• Al-Biruni wrote “Kitab-ul-Hind” also known as “Tahkik-a-Hind”
• Ibn-Battuta’s travelling account “Rihla” gives very interesting information of social and cultural
life of India.
• Ibn-Battuta’s attacked by bands of robbers several times.
• Whatever Bernier saw in India compared it with European condition.
• Al-Biruni discussed several “barriers”.
• Ibn-Battuta wrote that Indian agriculture was very productive.
• Ibn-Battuta’s was greatly amazed by looking at the postal system. Bernier compared India
with contemporary Europe.
• Bernier critically wrote his account “Travels in the Mughal empire”.
• Around 15% population in 17th century lived in towns in India.
• Bernier called Mughal cities as “camp town”, which were dependent upon imperial protection
for their survival.
• Bernier’s description influenced western theorists like Montesquieu.

AL-BIRUNI AND THE KITAB –UL–HIND:

• Al-Biruni’s Kitab- ul- Hind written in Arabic.

• It is voluminous text, divided into 80 chapters on subjects such as religion and philosophy,
festival, astronomy, manners and customs, social life, weight.
Making sense of an alien world al-biruni and the sanskritic tradition

Overcoming Barriers to Understanding:

• The language, Sanskrit was so different from Arabic and Persian that ideas and concept
could not be easily translated from one language into another.
• Different in religious beliefs and practice, self –absorption and consequent insularity of the
local population.
• He depended almost on the works of Bramanas, often citing passages from the Vedas, the
Puranas, the Bhagavatd Gita.
• The works of Patanjali, the Manusmriti etc provided an understanding of Indian society.

Al-Biruni’s Description of the Caste System:

• Al-Biruni tried to explain the caste system by looking for parallels in other societies.
• He suggested that social divisions were not unique to India.

• He pointed out that within islam all men were conserded equal, differing only in their
observance of piety.
• He disapproved the notion of pollution.
• He remarked that everything that falls into a state of impurity strives and succeeds in
regaining its original condition of purity.

IBN BATTUTA

-Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan traveller born in Tangier into a family known for their expertise in
Islamic religious law or shari ‘a.

-Ibn Battuta’s book of travels, called Rihla, written in Arabic, provides extremely rich and
interesting details about the social and cultural life in the subcontinent in the fourteenth
century.

-He just loved travelling, and went to far-off places, exploring new worlds and peoples.

-Before he set off for India in 1332-33, he had made pilgrimage trips to Mecca, and had
already travelled extensively in Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman and a few trading ports on
the coast of East Africa.

Battuta reached Sind in 1333 travelling through Central Asia.

• He was appointed as the qazi or judge of Delhi in 1333.
• In 1342 he went to China as the Sultan’s envoy to the Mongol ruler.
• He went to Malabar Coast through central India and later to Sri Lanka
• According to him it took 40 days to travel from Multan to Delhi and 50 days from Sindh to
Delhi, 40 days from Daulatabad to Delhi, Gwalior to Delhi 10 days.
The coconut and the paan:
• Two kinds of plants that were unfamiliar to his audience were coconut and paan.
• He had compared coconut with that of Palm; they look exactly the same except that the one
produces dates and the bears the nuts as its fruits.
• He describes the paan as a tree which is cultivated in the same manner as the grape wine.
Ibn Battuta and Indian cities:
• He founded the cities in the subcontinent with full of exciting opportunities for those who had
the necessary drive, resources and skills.
• They were densely populated and prosperous.
• Most cities had crowed streets and bright and colourful markets with wide variety of goods.
• He describes Delhi as a vast city, with a great population, the largest in India

• Daulatabad was equal in size of Delhi.

• The bazaars were not only places of economic transactions, but the hub of social and cultural
activities.
• Most bazaars had a mosque and a temple and space were marked for public performances
by dancers, musicians and singers.
• He found Indian agriculture very productive because of the fertility of soil.
A unique system of communications:
• The state evidently took special measures to encourage merchants
• All trade routes were well supplied with inns and guest houses
• He was amazed by the efficiency of the postal system which allowed merchants to not only
send information and remit credit across long distances, but also to dispatch goods required at
short notice.

Two kinds of Postal system:

(i) The Horse-post, called uluq, is run by royal horses stationed at a distance of every four
miles.

(ii) The Foot-post has three stations per mile, it is called Dawa (i.e one-third of a mile).

Francois Bernier
A Doctor with a Difference:

• He was a Frenchman, a doctor, political philosopher and historian.

• He came to the Mughal court in search of opportunities
• He was in India for 12 years from 1656to 1668.
• He was closely associated to the Mughal court as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh the
eldest son of Shah Jahan.
Comparing “East” and “West”:
• He travelled to several parts of the country and wrote accounts of what he saw and
comparing India with the situation in Europe.
• He dedicated his major writing to the king of France.
The question of landownership:
• According to Bernier one of the fundamental differences between Mughal India and Europe
was the lack of private property in land.
• He believed in the virtues of private property and saw crown ownership of land as harmful for
both the state and its people.
• The empire owned all the land and distributed it among his nobles who had disastrous
consequences for the economy and society.
A more complex social reality:
• He felt that artisans had no incentive to improve the quality of their manufactures.
• The profit was appropriated by the state.
• A vast quantities of the world’s precious metal flowed into India, as manufactures were
exported in exchange for gold and silver.
• He also noticed the existence of prosperous merchant community, engaged in long –distance
exchange.
• Merchants often had strong community or kin ties and were organized into their own caste –
cum occupational bodies. Other urban groups included professional classes such as
physicians (hakim or vaid), teachers (pundit or mulla), lawyers (wakil ), painters, architects,
musicians, calligraphers, etc.

Some depended on imperial patronage, many made their living by serving other patrons and
some served ordinary people.

Women Slaves, Sati and Labourers

•Travellers who left written accounts were generally men who sometimes took social inequities
for granted as a “natural” state of affairs.

•It appears from Ibn Battuta’s account that there was considerable differentiation among
slaves.

•Slaves were generally used for domestic labour, and Ibn Battuta found their services
particularly indispensable for carrying women and men on palanquins or dola.

•The price of slaves, particularly female slaves required for domestic labour, was very low, and
most families who could afford to do so kept at least one or two of them.

•Contemporary European travellers and writers often highlighted the treatment of women as a
crucial marker of difference between Western and Eastern societies

•Bernier chose the practice of sati for detailed description. He noted that while some women
seemed to embrace death cheerfully, others were forced to die.

•It seems unlikely that women were confined to the private spaces of their homes because
their labour was crucial in both agricultural and non-agricultural production.

MCQs-

1. Choose which one of the following was not a problem/barrier identified by Al-Biruni
in obstructing understanding?

(a) Sanskrit language which was different from Arabic and Persian.

(b) Social divisions especially the caste system and its notion of pollution.

(c) Difference in religious beliefs and practices.

(d) Self-absorption and insularity of the local population.

िुिें कक निम्िलिखित में से कौि सी समस्या/बाधा अि-त्रबरूिी द्वारा समझ में बाधा डाििे के लिए
पहिािी गई िहीं थी?

(ए) संस्कृत भाषा जो अरबी और फारसी से लभन्ि थी।

(बी) सामाजजक ववभाजि ववशेषकर जानत व्यवस्था I

(सी) धालमिक मान्यताओं और प्रथाओं में अंतर।

(डी) स्थािीय आबादी का आत्म-अवशोषण और अिगाव I

ANS- (b)

1. 2. Given below are two statements one labelled as Assertion(A) and other labelled as
Reason(R)-

Assertion (A): The King's right to the land is harmful for both the king and the subjects.

Reason (R): King was the owner of whole land. Landholders could not inherit land to their
offsprings. Therefore, the level of production of land was not increasing. In the absence of
service the land was becoming barren.

Codes-
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
C. A is true, but R is false
D. A is false, but R is true
ANS: A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

3. Francois Bernier dedicated his work to:

(a) Louis XIV (b) Louis V (c) Louis III (d) Louis XI

फ्रेंकोइस बनिियर िे अपिा काम समवपित ककया:

(ए) िुई XIV (बी) िुई V (सी) िई

ु III (डी) िुई XIV

ANS- (a)

4. Montesquieu, the French philosopher, used which travellers descriptions to develop

his theory of oriental despotism?

(a) François Bernier (b) Duarte Barbosa

(c) Antonio Monserrate (d) Jean-Baptiste Tavernier

फ्रांसीसी दाशिनिक मोंटे स््यू िे प्राच्य निरं कुशता के अपिे लसद्धांत को ववकलसत करिे के लिए ककि
यात्रत्रयों के वववरणों का उपयोग ककया?

(ए) फ्रांकोइस बनिियर (बी) डुआटे बारबोसा

(सी) एंटोनियो मोिसेरेट (डी) जीि-बैजप्टस्ट टै वनिियर

ANS- (a)

5.Why were accounts of foreign travellers more interesting than those of indigenous
writers?

Choose the correct option:

(a) They came from vastly different social and cultural environments

(b) They were often more attentive to everyday activities and practices

(c) They were more insightful

(d) Indigenous writers dealt with routine matters

दे शी िेिकों की तुििा में ववदे शी यात्रत्रयों के वि

ृ ांत अचधक रोिक ्यों थे?

सही ववकल्प िि
ु ें:

(ए) वे बहुत अिग सामाजजक और सांस्कृनतक पररवेश से आए थे

(बी) वे अ्सर रोजमराि की गनतववचधयों और प्रथाओं पर अचधक ध्याि दे ते थे

(सी) वे अचधक अंतर्दिजष्टपूणि थे

(डी) स्वदे शी िेिक नियलमत मामिों से निपटते थे

ANS- (b)

IMAGE BASED QUESTION-

1. Identify the image given below:

िीिे दी गई छवव को पहिािें:

ANS- Francois Bernier

SHORT QUESTION (3 MARKS)

1. "Ibn Battuta found cities in the Indian subcontinent full of exciting opportunities."
Explain the statement with reference to the city of Delhi.
इब्न बतूतथ ने भथरतीय उपमहथद्वीप के शहरों को रोमथंचक अवसरों से भरपूर पथयथ।" ददल्ली शहर के संदभा में इस
कर्न की व्यथख्यथ करें ।

ANS- Ibn Battuta found cities in the Indian subcontinent full exciting opportunities,espeemly
the city of Delhi:
(i) Delhi covers a wide area and has a dense population.There is a rampart round the ciry that
is without parallel. The breadth of its wall is eleven cubics and inside it, there are houses for
the night sentry and gatekeepers.
(ii) Inside the ramparts, there are store houses for storing edibles, mnagazines, ammunition,
ballistas and siege machine.
(iii) There are twenty eight gates in the city which are called darwaza in which, Budaun
Darwaza is the biggest.In Gul Darwaza there is an orchard. It has fine cemetery in which
graves have domes over them and those that do not have a dome, have an arch for sure.

LONG QUESTION (8 MARKS)

2. Describe Bernier's description of land ownership in India and also describe its
influence on Western theorists from 18th century onwards.
भथरत में भूलम स्वथलमत्व के बथरे में बननायर के वववरण कथ वणान करें और 18वीं शतथब्दी के बथद से पजचचमी
लसद्धथंतकथरों पर इसके प्रभथव कथ भी वणान करें ।

ANS- (i) Berniers said that there was no private property during Mughal India.He believed in
virtues of private property.
(ii) He saw crown ownership as harmful for both state and the people. (iv) He thought Mughal
emperors owned the entire land.
(iii) This had disastrous consequences for the state and society.
(iv)Owing to crown ownership the land holders could not pass the property to their children.
(v) They were averse to long term investment in the sustenance and expansion of production.
(vi) This had led to uniform ruination of agriculture.
Its Influence on Western theorists from 18th century onwards
(i) The French philosopher Montesquieu used this account to develop the idea of oriental
despotism according to which rulers in Asia (the orient or the East) enjoyed absolute authority
over their subjects who were kept in conditions of subjugation and poverty arguing that all land
poverty arguing that all land belonged to the king and the private property was nonexistent.

(ii) According to the above view, everybody, except the emperor and his nobles, barely managed
to survive.

GIST [CH-6] BHAKTI-SUFI TRADITIONS

A MOSAIC OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

The integration of cults

• Historians tried to understand these developments by two processes.

• One was, disseminating Brahmanical ideas. Second process at work that of the
Brahmanas accepting and reworking the beliefs and practices of these and other social
categories.
• Most striking examples of this process is evident at Puri, Orissa, where the principal
deity was identified, by the twelfth century, as Jagannatha (literally, the lord of the
world), a form of Vishnu.
"Great" and "little" traditions

• These terms were coined by a sociologist named Robert Redfield.

 • Rituals and customs that emanated from dominant social categories, including priests
and rulers, classified as part of a great tradition.
• Local practices that did not necessarily correspond with those of the great tradition,
included within the category of little tradition.

POEMS OF PRAYER: EARLY TRADITIONS OF BHAKTI

• Poet-saints emerged as leaders around whom there developed a community of

devotees.
• Historians of religion often classify bhakti traditions into two broad categories:
• Saguna (with attributes) Nirguna (without attributes).

The Alvars and Nayanars of Tamil Nadu

• Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the
dominance of Brahmanas.
• Compositions by the Alvars, the Nalayira Divyaprabandham, frequently described as
the Tamil Veda, claiming that the text was as significant as the four Vedas in Sanskrit.
• The compositions of Andal, a woman Alvar , were widely sung (and continue to be
sung to Andal saw herself as the beloved of Vishnu; her verses express her love for the
deity. Karaikkal Ammaiyar, a devotee of Shiva, adopted the path of extreme asceticism
in order to attain her goal.

Relations with the state

• Chola rulers (ninth to thirteenth centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions,
making land grants and constructing temples for Vishnu and Shiva.
• In fact, some magnificent Shiva temples, including Chidambaram at Thanjavur and
Gangaikondacholapuram, were constructed under the patronage of Chola rulers.
• Some most spectacular representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture were produced.
• Both Nayanars and Alvars were revered by the Vellala peasants.
• These kings also introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns in the temples under
royal patronage. taking initiative to collect and organise them into a text (Tevaram).
• Parantaka I had consecrated metal images of Appar, Sambandar and Sundarar in a
Shiva temple.
•
THE VIRASHAIVA TRADITION IN KARNATAKA

• The twelfth century witnessed the emergence of a new movement in Karnataka, led by
a Brahmana named Basavanna (1106-68) who was a minister in the court of a
Kalachuri ruler.
• His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the
linga).
• Men wear a small linga in a silver case on a loop strung over the left shoulder.
• Lingayats believe that on death the devotee will be united with Shiva and will not return
to this world. Therefore they do not practise funerary rites such as cremation. Instead,
they ceremonially bury their dead.
• Challenged the idea of caste and the "pollution" attributed by Brahmanas.
• Questioned the theory of rebirth.
• Encouraged certain practices such as post-puberty marriage and remarriage of
widows.

NEW STRANDS IN THE FABRIC ISLAMIC TRADITIONS

• In 711 an Arab general named Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind, which became part
of the Caliph's domain.
• Later Turks and Afghans established the Delhi Sultanate. Islam was an acknowledged
religion of rulers in several areas, Continued with the establishment of the Mughal
Empire as well as in many of the regional states.
• People Paid a tax called jizya and gained the right to be protected by Muslims.

The popular practice of Islam

• All those who adopted Islam accepted, the five "pillars" of the faith;
- There is one God, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his messenger (shahada)
- Offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat)
- Giving alms (zakat)
- Fasting during the month of Ramzan (sawm)
- Performing the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).

Names for communities

• People occasionally identified in terms of the region from which they came.
- the Turkish rulers were designated as Turushka.
- Tajika were people from Tajikistan.
- Parashika were people from Persia.
- Turks and Afghans were referred to as Shakas and Yavanas.
- General term for migrant communities was mlechchha.

THE GROWTH OF SUFISM

Khanqahs and silsilas

• Sufis began to organise communities around the hospice or khanqah controlled by a

teaching master known as shaikh (in Arabic), pir or murshid (in Persian), enrolled
disciples (murids) and appointed a successor (khalifa).
• When the shaikh died, his tomb-shrine (dargah) a Persian term meaning court) became
the centre of devotion for his followers.
• Encouraged the practice of ziyarat to his grave, particularly on his death anniversary or
urs.
THE CHISHTIS IN THE SUBCONTINENT

• Shaikh Nizamuddin's hospice (c. fourteenth century) on the banks of the river Yamuna
in Ghiyaspur, on outskirts of Delhi.
• It comprised several small rooms and a big hall (jama'at khana) where the inmates and
visitors lived and prayed. The Shaikh lived in a small room on the roof of the hall where
he met visitors in the morning and evening.
• Visitors included poets such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir Khusrau and the court
historian Ziyauddin Barani, all wrote about the Shaikh Practices that were adopted to
assimilate local traditions.

Chishti devotionalism: ziyarat and qawwali

• Pilgrimage, called ziyarat, to tombs of sufi saints is prevalent all over the Muslim world,
for seeking the sufi's spiritual grace (barakat).
• Amongst most revered shrine is that of Khwaja Muinuddin, popularly known as "Gharib
Nawaz" (comforter of the poor).
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the first sultan to visit the shrine.
• Earliest construction to house the tomb was funded in the late fifteenth century by
Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khalji of Malwa.
• Akbar to visited the tomb fourteen times, He maintained this tradition until 1580.
• The sufis remember God either by reciting the zikr (the Divine Names) or evoking His
Presence through sama (literally, "audition") or performance of mystical music.
• Sama' was integral to the Chishtis, and exemplified interaction with indigenous
devotional traditions.

Languages and communication

• In Delhi, those associated with the Chishti silsila conversed in Hindavi, the language of
the people.
• Other sufis such as Baba Farid composed verses in the local language, which were
incorporated in the Guru Granth Sahib.
• The prem-akhyan, Padmavat composed by Malik Muhammad Jayasi revolved around
the romance of Padmini and Ratansen, the king of Chittor.
• Other compositions were in the form of lurinama or lullabies and shadinama or wedding
songs.

• Kings did not simply need to demonstrate their association with sufis; they also
required legitimation from them.
• However, there were instances of conflict between the Sultans and the sufis. To assert
their authority.

NEW DEVOTIONAL PATHS DIALOGUE AND DISSENT IN NORTHERN INDIA

Weaving a divine fabric: Kabir

• The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth (the path or sect of Kabir) in Varanasi
and elsewhere in Uttar Pradesh; the Kabir Granthavali is associated with the
 Dadupanth in Rajasthan, and many of his compositions are found in the Adi Granth
Sahib.
• He described the Ultimate Reality as Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and Pir.
• Also used terms drawn from Vedantic traditions, alakh (the unseen), nirakar (formless).
Brahman, Atman, etc.
• Other terms with mystical connotations such as shabda (sound) or shunya (emptiness)
were drawn from yogic traditions.

Baba Guru Nanak and the Sacred Word

• Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) was born in a Hindu merchant family in a village called
Nankana Sahib near the river Ravi in the predominantly Muslim Punjab.
• He advocated a form of nirguna bhakti.
• The fifth preceptor. Guru Arjan compiled Baba Guru Nanak's hymns along with those of
his four successors and other religious poets like Baba Farid, Ravidas (also known as
Raidas) and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib, These hymns, called "gurbani".
• Guru Gobind Singh, included the compositions of the ninth guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur,
and this scripture was called the Guru Granth Sahib.
• Guru Gobind Singh also laid the foundation of the Khalsa Panth (army of the pure).
• Five symbols are: uncut hair, a dagger, a pair of shorts, a comb and a steel bangle.

Mirabai, the devotee princess

• Mirabai (c. fifteenth-sixteenth centuries), best-known woman poet within the bhakti
tradition. She was a Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar who was married against
her wishes to a prince of the Sisodia clan of Mewar, Rajasthan.
• Her preceptor was Raidas, a leather worker.

Varieties of sources used to reconstruct the history of sufi traditions

1. Treatises or manuals dealing with sufi thought and practices

2. Malfuzat (literally, "uttered"; conversations of sufi saints)

3. Maktubat (literally, "written" collections of letters)

4. Tazkiras (literally, "to mention and memorialise"

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS: [MCQs]

1. Which ruler was designated as turushka ?

a) Persian b) Turkish c) Rulers of Tajikistan d) Yavanas

निस शासि िो तुरुष्क िे नाम से जाना जाता था?

फारसी तुिी तानजनिस्तान िे शासि यवन

ANS. b) Turkish

2. Image of shiv as natraja is placed in which temple?

a) Gangaikondcholapuram b) Brihadishvara

c) Chakrapani d) Chidambaram
 नटराज िे रूप में नशव िी छनव निस मंनदर में खस्थत है ?

गंगैिोण्डचोिपुरम बृहदीश्वर चक्रपानर् नचदं बरम

ANS. d) Chidambaram

3. When did mohammad bin qasim won Sindh?

a) 611 CE b) 711 CE c) 851 CE d) 751 CE

मोहम्मद नबन िानसम ने नसंि िो िब जीता?

611 ई 711 ई 851 ई 751 ई

ANS. b) 711 CE

4.Given below are two statements one labelled as Assertion(A) and other labelled as
Reason(R)-

Assertion(A) – Bhakti-Sufi thinkers used various languages to express their ideas.

Reason (R)- Devoted saints made local languages a medium to spread their ideas
to the masses.
Codes-
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
C. A is true, but R is false
D. A is false, but R is true
ANS. A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

5.Choose the correct option:

Shiva temple not constructed under the patronage of Chola rulers

(a) Gangaikondacholapuram (b) Thanjavur

(c) Lotus Mahal (d) Chidambaram

सही नविल् चुनें:

चोि शासिों िे संरक्षर् में नहीं बना नशव मंनदर:

(ए) गंगईिोंडचोिपुरम (बी) तंजावुर

(सी) िोटस महि (डी) नचदम्बरम

ANS. c) Lotus Mahal

IMAGE BASED QUESTIONS:

1. Choose the correct name of the mosque given below:

(a) atiya mosque (b) Shah hamadan mosque

(c) Pathar mashid (d) Dargah Hazratbal shrine

नीचे नदए गए मखिद िा सही नाम चुनें:

(ए) अनतया मखिद (बी) शाह हमादान मखिद

(सी) पत्थर मशीद (डी) दरगाह हजरतबि दरगाह

ANS. (b) Shah hamadan mosque

2. Choose the name of a devotee of Shiva shown in this image:

a) Manikkavachakar b) Karaikkal ammaiyar c) Appar d) Sundarar

इस छनव में नदिाए गए नशव भक्त िा नाम चुनें:

मनर्क्कवचिर िराईक्कि अम्मैयार

अनुप्रयोग सुन्दरर

ANS. a) Manikkavachakar

SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Briefly discuss the position and contribution of women devotees in Nayanar and
Alvar order in Tamil Nadu.

तनमिनाडु में नयनार और अिवर संप्रदाय में मनहिा भक्तों िी खस्थनत और योगदान पर संक्षेप में
चचाव िरें ।

Ans. Unlike the Brahmanical order, the most striking feature of Alvar and
Nayanar orders was presence of women.

(i) The compositions of Andal, a woman Alvar, were widely sung, and continue
to be sung to date. She saw herself as a devotee of Vishnu and her verses
express her love for the deity.

(ii) Karaikkal Ammaiyar is an example of Nayanar woman devotee of Shiva.

She formulated compositions which are preserved within the Nayanar traditions.
 These women renounced their social obligations. Their compositions
challenged to caste and patriarchal norms.

LONG TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Explain the importance of the Chishti silsila in the context of Sufism in the Indian
subcontinent.

भारतीय उपमहाद्वीप में सूफीवाद िे संदभव में नचश्ती नसिनसिे िे महत्व िो स्पष्ट िरें ।

Ans. (1) The Chishtis were the most influential sufi silsila, because they
successfully adapted to the local environment and several Indian devotional
traditions.

(ii) The khangah (for example Shaikh Nizamuddin's hospice in Delhi) was centre
of social life. It organised a langar all day run.

(iii) Certain practices that were adopted, including bowing before the Shaikh,
offering water to visitors, shaving the head of newcomers and yogic exercises
were similar to local traditions

(iv) When the Shaikh died, his tomb became a centre of devotion for his
followers. This encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat particularly on
his death anniver- sary. People sought their blessings to attain "barakat"
(material and spiritual benefits).

(v) The Chishtis used music and dance including mystical chants and qawwalis
to pray.

(vi) The Chishtis remember God either by reciting the "zikr" (divine names) or
evoking his presence through "sama" (audition) or performance of mystical
music. Sama was integral to the Chishtis and similar to indigenous devotional
traditions.

(vii) The Chishtis also composed in Hindavi, which was the language of the
people. The Chishti sufis in the Deccan were inspired by local bhakti traditions.
They used Dakhani for poetry.

(viii) The Chisti saints also tried to maintain distance from worldly power. They
how- ever accepted voluntary grants and donations from political elites.

(ix) The grants and donations received were spent on immediate requirements
like food, clothes and ritual necessities for general public. This enhanced the
moral authority of the shaikhs and attracted people from all works of life.
 GIST [CH:7] AN IMPERIAL CAPITAL – VIJAYNAGARA

The Discovery of Hampi

• Ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by Colonel Colin Mackenzie,

prepared the first survey map of the site.
• initial information he received was based on the memories of priests of the
Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi.
• As early as 1836 epigraphists began collecting several dozen inscriptions found
at this and other temples at Hampi and historians collated information from
these sources with accounts of foreign travellers and other literature written in
Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit.
Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans

• Harihara and Bukka, founded the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336.

• On their northern frontier, the Vijayanagara kings competed with contemporary
rulers – including the Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa.
• Historians use the term Vijayanagara Empire, contemporaries described it as
the karnataka samrajyamu.
• Some areas witnessed the development of powerful states such as those of the
Cholas in Tamil Nadu and the Hoysalas in Karnataka.
• Ruling elites extended patronage to elaborate temples such as the
Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur and the Chennakeshava temple at Belur.
Elephants, horses and men

• Gajapati was the name of a ruling lineage that was very powerful in Orissa in
the fifteenth century. Deccan Sultans are termed as ashvapati or lord of horses
and the rayas are called narapati or lord of men.
Kings and traders

• Import of horses from Arabia and Central Asia was very important for rival
kingdoms. Local communities of merchants known as kudirai chettis or horse
merchants.
• From 1498, Portuguese, who arrived on the west coast of the subcontinent and
attempted to establish trading and military stations.
• Vijayanagara was also noted for its markets dealing in spices, textiles and
precious stones.
The apogee and decline of the empire

• Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. His rule was characterised
by expansion and consolidation.
• Land between the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers (the Raichur doab) was
acquired (1512), the rulers of Orissa were subdued (1514) and severe defeats
were inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur (1520).
• Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building some fine temples and adding
impressive gopurams to many important south Indian temples. He also founded
a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram after his mother.
• By 1542 control at the centre had shifted to another ruling lineage, that of the
Aravidu. The military ambitions of the rulers of Vijayanagara as well as those of
the Deccan Sultanates resulted in shifting alignments.
• In 1565 Rama Raya, the chief minister of Vijayanagara, led the army into battle
at Rakshasi-Tangadi (also known as Talikota), where his forces were routed by
the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golconda.
• The armies of the Sultans were responsible for the destruction of the city of
Vijayanagara
• Krishnadeva Raya, supported some claimants to power in the Sultanates and
took pride in the title “establisher of the Yavana kingdom”.
The rayas and the nayakas

• Military chiefs who usually controlled forts and had armed supporters were
known as nayakas and they usually spoke Telugu or Kannada.
• The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara
Empire, many features of this system were derived from the iqta system of the
Delhi Sultanate.
• They were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the
raya. collected taxes and other dues, retained part of the revenue for personal
use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants.
• They sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal court
with gifts to express their loyalty. Kings occasionally asserted their control over
them by transferring them from one place to another.
Vijayanagara The Capital and its Environs

Water resources

• Natural basin formed by the river Tungabhadra which flows in a north-easterly

direction.
• The most important such tank was built in the early years of the fifteenth century
and is now called Kamalapuram tank. Water from it not only irrigated fields
nearby but was also conducted through a channel to the “royal centre”.
• Hiriya canal drew water from a dam across the Tungabhadra and irrigated the
cultivated valley that separated the “sacred centre” from the “urban core ”.
Fortifications and roads

• Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador sent by the ruler of Persia to Calicut in the

fifteenth century, greatly impressed by the fortifications, and mentioned seven
lines of forts.
 • Encircled not only the city but also its agricultural hinterland and forests. The
outermost wall linked the hills surrounding the city.
• No mortar or cementing agent was employed anywhere in the construction.
• Abdur Razzaq noted that “ between the first, second and the third walls there
are cultivated fields, gardens and houses”.
• Paes observed: “From this first circuit until you enter the city there is a great
distance, in which are fields in which they sow rice and have many gardens and
much water, in which water comes from two lakes.”
• The objective of medieval sieges was to starve the defenders into submission,
could last for several months and sometimes even years. Normally rulers tried
to be prepared for such situations by building large granaries within fortified
areas.
The urban core

• Little archaeological evidence of the houses of ordinary people. Archaeologists

found fine Chinese porcelain in some areas, suggest that these areas may have
been occupied by rich traders.
• Sixteenth-century Portuguese traveller Barbosa described the houses of
ordinary people, which have not survived.
• Field surveys indicate that the entire area was dotted with numerous shrines
and small temples, pointing to the prevalence of a variety of cults.
The Royal Centre

• It was located in the south-western part of the settlement, it included over 60

temples.
• About thirty building complexes have been identified as palaces. relatively large
structures that do not seem to have been associated with ritual functions.
The mahanavami dibba

• Paes said about the audience hall and the mahanavami dibba, which together
he called the “House of Victory”.
• Mahanavami dibba is a massive platform rising from a base of about 11,000 sq.
ft to a height of 40 ft. Rituals associated with the structure probably coincided
with Mahanavami.
• Ceremonies performed on the occasion included worship of the image, state
horse, and the sacrifice of buffaloes and other animals. Dances, wrestling
matches, and processions, as well as ritual presentations before the king and
his guests by the chief nayakas and subordinate kings marked the occasion .
Other buildings in the royal centre

• Most beautiful buildings in the royal centre is the Lotus Mahal, may have been
used as council chamber, a place where the king met his advisers.
• One of the most spectacular of these is one known as the Hazara Rama
temple, probably meant to be used only by the king and his family.
• Images in the central shrine are missing; however, sculpted panels on the walls
survive. These include scenes from the Ramayana sculpted on the inner walls.
The Sacred Centre

Choosing a capital

• According to local tradition, these hills sheltered the monkey kingdom of Vali
and Sugriva mentioned in the Ramayana . Other traditions suggest that
Pampadevi, the local mother goddess, did penance in these hills in order to
marry Virupaksha.
• Temple building in the region had a long history, going back to dynasties such
as the Pallavas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Cholas.
• It is likely that the very choice of the site of Vijayanagara was inspired by the
existence of the shrines of Virupaksha and Pampadevi.
• Vijayanagara kings claimed to rule on behalf of the god Virupaksha. All royal
orders were signed “Shri Virupaksha”, usually in the Kannada script. Rulers also
indicated their close links with the gods by using the title “Hindu Suratrana”.
Gopurams and mandapas

• These often dwarfed the towers on the central shrines, and signalled the
presence of the temple from a great distance.
• Probably meant as reminders of the power of kings, able to command the
resources, techniques and skills needed to construct these towering gateways.
• Other distinctive features include mandapas or pavilions and long, pillared
corridors that often ran around the shrines within the temple complex, used to
celebrate the marriages of deities, and yet others were meant for the deities to
swing in.
• The hall in front of the main shrine was built by Krishnadeva Raya to mark his
accession. used for a variety of purposes.
• A characteristic feature of the Vitthala temple complexe is the chariot streets
that extended from the temple gopuram in a straight line.
- Domingo Paes describes the king (Krishnadev raya) : Of medium height, and
of fair complexion and good figure, rather fat than thin; he has on his face signs
of smallpox.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS: [MCQs]

1. Find the odd one out about Colonel Colin Mackenzie:

(a) He brought to light ruins at Hampi in 1800.

(b) He was an engineer, surveyor and cartographer.

(c) He was an employee of the East India Company (EICO) and prepared the
first survey map of the site.

(d) He was appointed the first Surveyor General of India in 1821.

िनवि िॉनिन मैिेंजी िे बारे में अनोिा पता िगाएं :

(ए) उन्होंने 1800 में हम्पी िे िंडहरों िो प्रिाश में िाया।

(बी) वह एि इं जीननयर, सवेक्षि और माननचत्रिार थे।

(सी) वह ईस्ट इं नडया िंपनी (ईआईसीओ) िे िमवचारी थे और उन्होंने साइट िा पहिा सवेक्षर्
माननचत्र तैयार निया था।

(डी) उन्हें 1821 में भारत िा पहिा महासवेक्षि ननयुक्त निया गया था।

ANS: (d)He was appointed the first Surveyor General of India in 1821.

2. Choose the correct option:

Factor which led the Sultans to combine and decisively rout the Vijayanagara.

(a) Incompetence of new ruling lineage (b) Rebellious nayakas

(c) Religious differences (d) Adventurous policy of Rama

Raya

सही नविल् चुनें:

वह िारि नजसने सुल्तानों िो एिजुट होने और नवजयनगर िो ननर्ावयि रूप से परानजत िरने िे निए
प्रेररत निया।

(ए) नए शासि वंश िी अक्षमता (बी) नवद्रोही नायि

(सी) िानमवि मतभेद (डी) राम राय िी साहनसि नीनत

ANS: (d) Adventurous policy of Rama Raya

3. Find out from the following pairs which one is not correctly matched:

(a) Gajapati: ruling lineage in Orissa (b) Mahapati: the ruler of

elephants

(c) Ashvapati: the Deccan Sultans (d) Narapati: the rayas

ननम्ननिखित जोऩियों में से पता िगाएँ नि िौन सा सही सुमेनित नहीं है :

(ए) गजपनत: उ़िीसा में शासि वंश (बी) महापनत: हानथयों िे शासि

(सी) अश्वपनत: दक्कन िे सुल्तान (डी) नरपनत: रायस

ANS: (b)Mahapati: the ruler of elephants

4. Given below are two statements one labelled as Assertion(A) and other labelled
as Reason(R)-
Assertion(A) – the amar-nayak system was a major political discovery of the
vijaynagara empire.
Reason (R)- the security of the vijaynagar empire depended on the amar nayaks.
He was against the opponents of the bahamani kingdom among themselves.
Codes-
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
C. A is true, but R is false
D. A is false, but R is true
ANS. C. A is true, but R is false

5. Choose the 'raya' of Vijayanagara who took pride in the title 'establisher of the
Yavana kingdom:

(a) Krishnadeva Raya (b) Rama Raya

(c) Harihar (d) Bukka Raya

नवजयनगर िे 'राय' िो चुनें नजसने 'यवन साम्राज्य िे संस्थापि' िी उपानि पर गवव निया:

(ए) िृष्णदे व राय (बी) राम राय

(सी) हररहर (डी) बुक्का राया

ANS: (a) Krishnadeva Raya

IMAGE BASED QUESTIONS:

1. The structure given below is associated with which temple?

(a) Virupaksha temple (b) Chidambaram

(c) Vitthal temple (d) None

नीचे दी गई संरचना निस मंनदर से संबंनित है ?

(ए) नवरुपाक्ष मंनदर (बी) नचदम्बरम

(सी) नवट्ठि मंनदर (डी) िोई नहीं

ANS: (c) Vitthal temple

2. identify the image and choose the correct option:

(a) Hazara ram temple (b) Lotus mahal

(c) Mahanavmi dibba (d) Virupaksh temple

छनव िो पहचानें और सही नविल् चुनें:

(ए) हजारा राम मंनदर (बी) िमि महि
(सी) महानवमी नडब्बा (डी) नवरुपाक्ष मंनदर

ANS: (b) Lotus mahal

SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS:
1. State the characteristics of Krishnadeva Raya's rule.
िृष्णदे व राय िे शासन िाि िी नवशेषताएँ बताइये।
Ans. (i) In a series of battles lasting for seven years, Krishnadeva Raya expanded and
consolidated his empire:

- the Raichur Doab was acquired (1512),

- Gajapati of Orissa was defeated (1514), and
- severe defeats were inflicted on the Sultan of Bijapur (1520).
Vijayanagara emerged as the strongest military power in the south.
(ii) His greatest achievement lay in the broad toleration and the unparalleled peace
and prosperity of Vijayanagara.
Trade flourished and revenues increased in the state treasury.

LONG TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. What impression of the lives of the ordinary people of Vijayanagara can you cull
from the various descriptions in the chapter?
अध्याय िे नवनभन्न नववरर्ों से आप नवजयनगर िे आम िोगों िे जीवन पर क्या प्रभाव डाि
सिते हैं ?
Ans. The chief source of information about ordinary people of Vijayanagara can be
collected from literary texts and writings of various foreign travellers. Main foreign
travellers were:
 - Italian trader Nicolo de Conti,
- Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq, and
- a merchant from Russia named Afanasil Nikitin.
All of them visited the city in the 15th century.
Others were:
- Duarte Barbosa, and
- Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz from Portugal
Who came in the 16th century.
All foreigners agree that the country was thickly populated with numerous towns,
villages and bazaars, overflowing and brimming with power and wealth.
Abdur Razzaq has made special mention of the enclosed agricultural tracts within the
fortifications. Agriculture was in a flourishing condition. Rulers encouraged agriculture
in different parts of the empire by a wise irrigation policy.
Agricultural wealth was supplemented by numerous industries. Industries and crafts
were regulated by guilds. It was common practice for people of the same trade to live
in same area of the city.
Flourishing inland, coastal and overseas trade was an important source of general
prosperity.
The kingdom according to Abdur Razzaq, had 300 ports. The most important
commercial area on the west coast was the Malabar.
The main items of exports were cloth, rice, spices, iron, saltpetre* etc. The main
imports consisted of horses, elephants, pearls, copper, coral, China silk and velvets.
These accounts of foreign travellers speak of a high standard of living of the upper and
middle classes and growth of urban life. Abdur Razzaq remarked-all the inhabitants of
the country, whether high or low, wear jewels, and gilt ornaments.
The prices of articles were low and the minimum necessities were within the reach of
the common people.
Barbosa described the houses of the ordinary people, which have not survived. They
were thatched but well built and arranged according to occupations in long streets with
many open places.

GIST [CH:8] PEASANTS, ZAMINDARS AND THE STATE

Peasants and Agricultural Production

• Basic unit of agricultural society was the village, inhabited by peasants who
performed the manifold seasonal tasks that made up agricultural production.
• Production of agro-based goods such as sugar and oil.
Looking for sources

• Most important chronicles was the Ain-i Akbari (in short the Ain, see also
Section 8) authored by Akbar’s court historian Abu’l Fazl.
• recorded the arrangements made by the state to ensure cultivation, to enable
the collection of revenue by the agencies of the state and to regulate the
relationship between the state and rural magnates, the zamindars.
• Any revolt or assertion of autonomous power against the Mughal state was, in
the eyes of the author of the Ain, predestined to fail. Record instances of
conflicts between peasants, zamindars and the state.
Peasants and their lands

• The term which Indo-Persian sources of the Mughal period most frequently
used to denote a peasant was raiyat or muzarian. In addition, we encounter the
terms kisan or asami.
• Two kinds of peasants – khud-kashta and pahi-kashta. khud-kashta were
residents of the village in which they held their lands and pahi-kashta were non-
resident cultivators who belonged to some other village, but cultivated lands
elsewhere on a contractual basis.
Irrigation and technology

• The abundance of land, available labour and the mobility of peasants were
three factors that accounted for the constant expansion of agriculture.
• Monsoons remained the backbone of Indian agriculture, some crops which
required additional water. Artificial systems of irrigation had to be devised for
this such as Persian wheel.
• Irrigation projects received state support as well. In northern India the state
undertook digging of new canals (nahr, nala) and also repaired old ones like the
shahnahr in the Punjab during Shah Jahan’s reign.
An abundance of crops

• Agriculture was organised around two major seasonal cycles, the kharif
(autumn) and the rabi (spring).
• most arid or inhospitable, produced a minimum of two crops a year (do-fasla),
whereas some, where rainfall or irrigation assured a continuous supply of water,
even gave three crops.
• Ain tells that the Mughal provinces of Agra produced 39 varieties of crops and
Delhi produced 43 over the two seasons. Bengal produced 50 varieties of rice
alone.
• Crops such as cotton and sugarcane were jins-i kamil par excellence.
• Several new crops from different parts of the world reached the Indian
subcontinent.
The spread of tobacco

• Arrived first in the Deccan, spread to northern India in the early years of the
seventeenth century.
• Akbar and his nobles came across tobacco for the first time in 1604. Jahangir
was so concerned about its addiction that he banned it.
The Village Community

• Peasants held their lands in individual ownership and belonged to a collective

village community. There were three constituents of this community – the
cultivators, the panchayat, and the village headman (muqaddam or mandal).
Caste and the rural milieu

• Cultivators were a highly heterogeneous group, who tilled the land, there was a
sizeable number who worked as menials or agricultural labourers (majur).
• In Muslim communities menials like the halalkhoran (scavengers) were housed
outside the boundaries of the village; similarly the mallahzadas (sons of
boatmen) in Bihar were comparable to slaves.
• Marwar, Rajputs are mentioned as peasants, sharing the same space with Jats,
who were accorded a lower status in the caste hierarchy.
Panchayats and headmen

• The village panchayat was an assembly of elders, In mixed-caste villages, the

panchayat was usually a heterogeneous body. An oligarchy, the panchayat
represented various castes and communities.
• The panchayat was headed by a headman known as muqaddam or mandal.
Some sources suggest that the headman was chosen through the consensus of
the village elders.
• The chief function of the headman was to supervise the preparation of village
accounts, assisted by the accountant or patwari of the panchayat.
• The panchayat derived its funds from contributions made by individuals, used
for defraying the costs of entertaining revenue officials who visited the village,
Expenses for community welfare activities such as tiding over natural calamities
(like floods), And construction activities.
• They ensured caste boundaries among the various communities, also had
authority to levy fines and inflict more serious forms of punishment like
expulsion from the community.
• In addition to the village panchayat each caste or jati in the village had its own
jati panchayat.
Village artisans

• Marathi documents and village surveys revealed the existence of substantial

numbers of artisans, sometimes as high as 25 per cent of the total households
in the villages.
• Distinction between artisans and peasants in village society was a fluid one, as
many groups performed the tasks of both.
• Village artisans provided specialised services in return for which they were
compensated by villagers by a variety of means. Most common way of doing so
was by giving them a share of the harvest, or an allotment of land, perhaps
cultivable wastes. In Maharashtra such lands became the artisans’ miras or
watan.
• Artisans and individual peasant households entered into a mutually negotiated
system of remuneration, most of the time goods for services, came to be
described as the jajmani system.
A “little republic”?

• British officials saw the village as a “little republic” made up of fraternal partners
sharing resources and labour collectively.
• Cash nexus had already developed through trade between villages and towns.
In the Mughal heartland too, revenue was assessed and collected in cash.
Women in Agrarian Society

• Women and men had to work shoulder to shoulder in the fields. Naturally, a
gendered segregation between the home (for women) and the world (for men)
was not there.
• Menstruating women, were not allowed to touch the plough or the potter’s wheel
in western India, or enter the groves where betel-leaves (paan) were grown in
Bengal.
• Artisanal tasks were dependent on female labour. The more commercialised the
product, the greater the demand on women’s labour to produce it. They also
went to the houses of their employers or to the markets if necessary.
• Women were considered an important resource in agrarian society also
because they were child bearers in a society dependent on labour.
• Marriages in many rural communities required the payment of bride-price rather
than dowry to the bride’s family. Remarriage was considered legitimate both
among divorced and widowed women.
• Amongst the landed gentry, women had the right to inherit property. Instances
from the Punjab show that women, including widows, actively participated in the
rural land market as sellers of property inherited by them.
Forests and Tribes

• Forest dwellers known as ‘jangli’ were those whose livelihood came from the
gathering of forest produce, hunting and shifting agriculture.
• Sometimes the forest was a subversive place, a place of refuge for
troublemakers.
• Forest people supplied elephants to the kings.
• Hunting was a favourite activity for the kings, sometimes it enabled the emperor
to travel extensively in his empire and personally attended the grievances of his
subjects. Forest dwellers supplied honey, bees wax, gum lac, etc.
• Like the ‘big men’ of the village community tribes also had their chieftains.
• Many tribal chiefs had become zamindars, some even became kings.
• Tribes in the Sind region had armies comprising of 6,000 cavalry and 7,000
infantry.
The Zamindars

• The zamindars had extensive personal lands termed milkiyat (property) and
enjoyed certain social and economic privileges in rural society. The zamindars
often collected revenue on behalf of the state.
• Most zamindars had fortresses as well as an armed contingent comprising units
of cavalry’, artillery and infantry. In this period, the relatively ‘lower’ castes
entered the rank of zamindars as zamindaris were bought and sold quite briskly.
 • Although, there can be little doubt that zamindars were an exploitative class,
their relationship with the peasantry had an element of reciprocity, paternalism
and patronage.
Land Revenue System

• Revenue from the land was the economic mainstay of the Mughal empire.The
office of the diwan, revenue officials and record keeper all became important for
the agricultural domain.
• The land revenue arrangements consisted of two states i.e. first, assessment
(jama) and then actual collection (hasil).
• Both cultivated and cultivable lands were measured in each province.
• At the time of Akbar, lands were divided into polaj, parauti, chachar and banjar.

The Flow of Silver

• During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Ming (China), Safavid (Iran) and
Ottoman (Turkey). The political stability achieved by all these empires helped
create vibrant networks of overland trade from China to the Mediterranean Sea.
• Expanding trade brought in huge amounts of silver bullion into Asia to pay for
goods procured from India, and a large part of that bullion gravitated towards
India.
• This facilitated an unprecedented expansion of minting of coins and the
circulation of money in the economy as well as the ability of the Mughal state to
extract taxes and revenue in cash.

The Ain-i Akbari of Abu’l Fazl Allami

• Akbar Nama, comprised three books. The first two provided a historical
narrative. third book, was organised as a compendium of imperial regulations
and a gazetteer of the empire.
• Gives detailed accounts of the organisation of the court, administration and
army, the sources of revenue and the physical layout of the provinces of
Akbar’s empire and the literary, cultural and religious traditions of the people
And various departments of Akbar’s government.
• Ain is made up of five books (daftars):
- First book, called manzil-abadi, concerns the imperial household and its
maintenance.
 - Second book, sipah-abadi, covers the military and civil administration and the
establishment of servants.
- Third book, mulk-abadi, is the one which deals with the fiscal side of the empire
and provides rich quantitative information on revenue rates.
- Fourth and fifth books (daftars) deal with the religious, literary and cultural
traditions of the people of India and also contain a collection of Akbar’s
“auspicious sayings”.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS: [MCQs]

1. Which of the following agents of the state did not seek to control rural society to
ensure cultivation and regular flow of taxes to the state?

(a) Mansabdars (b) Collectors (c) Record keepers (d) Revenue

assessors

राज्य िे ननम्ननिखित एजेंटों में से निसने ग्रामीर् समाज पर ननयंत्रर् सुनननित िरने िी िोनशश नहीं
िी?

िेती और राज्य िो िरों िा ननयनमत प्रवाह?

(ए) मनसबदार (बी) ििेक्टर (सी) ररिॉडव रिने वािे (डी) राजस्व मूल्ांिनिताव

ANS: (a) Mansabdars

2. Given below are two statements one labelled as Assertion(A) and other labelled as
Reason(R)-

Assertion(A) – In the Mughal period, peasants were considered to own land in the
pre capitalist sense.
Reason (R)- during the time of Mughals, the jagirdars and zamindars had great
authority over the land revenue.
Codes-
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
C. A is true, but R is false
D. A is false, but R is true
ANS: B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A

3. What was the economic mainstay of the Mughal Empire?

(a) Milkiyat lands (b) Peshkash levied on forest people

(c) Overseas exports (d) Revenue from land

मुगि साम्राज्य िा आनथवि मुख्य आिार क्या था?

(ए) नमखियात भूनम (बी) पेशिेश वनवानसयों पर िगाया जाता था

(सी) नवदे शी ननयावत (डी) भूनम से राजस्व

ANS: (d) Revenue from land

 5. Who in social relations in the Mughal countryside constituted the very narrow
apex of a pyramid?

(a) 'Patwari' (b) 'Muqaddam' (c) ‘Majur' (d) Zamindars

मुगि दे हात में सामानजि संबंिों में नपरानमड िे अत्यंत संिीर्व शीषव िा गठन निसने निया था?

(ए) 'पटवारी' (बी) 'मुिद्दम' (सी) मजूर' (डी) जमींदार

ANS: (d) Zamindars

5. Find the odd one out:

(a) Turani Empire `(b) Mughal Empire (c) Safavid (Iran) (d) Ming (China)

नवषम चुनें:

(ए) तुरानी साम्राज्य (बी) मुगि साम्राज्य (सी) सफानवद (ईरान) (डी) नमंग
(चीन)

ANS: (a) Turani Empire

SHORT TYPE QUESTION:

1. Explain the spread of tobacco. (तम्बािू िे प्रसार िो समझाइये।)

Ans. This plant tobacco, which arrived first in the Deccan through Portuguese spread
to northern India in the early years of the seventeenth century.

- Akbar and his nobles came across tobacco for the first time in 1604. At this time
smoking tobacco (in hookahs or chillums) seems to have caught on in a big
way.
- Jahangir was so concerned about its addiction that he banned it but could not
succeed.
LONG TYPE QUESTION:

1. Give some of the factors responsible for the expansion of trade in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries. (सोिहवीं और सत्रहवीं शताब्दी में व्यापार िे नवस्तार िे निए
उत्तरदायी िुछ िारिों िा उल्लेि िीनजए।)
Ans. Reasons for the expansion of trade in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
were: (i) Political stability achieved by the Ming, Safavid, Ottoman and Mughal
empires in China, Iran, Turkey and India respectively; helped create vast networks
of overland trade from China to the Mediterranean Sea.

(ii) Discovery of new areas (Americas)

(ii) Political integration of the country under Mughal rule and establishment of law
and order over extensive are
 (iv) Mughals paid attention to roads and sarais which made travelling and
communication easier.

(v) The Mughals issued silver rupees of high purity. This became a standard coin in
India and abroad and thus helped India's trade.

(vi) More use of cash economy, (e.g. land revenue in cash, salaries of standing
armies and administrative personnel in cash, etc.). Concentration of money in the
hands of nobles increased demand for all kinds of luxury goods and thereby trade.

(vii) Increase in demand of Indian made textiles, silks, indigo, saltpetre, spices,
foodstuffs. Coming of Portuguese, followed by Dutch, English and French, who
established their trading ports in India.

GIST [CH-9] COLONIALISM AND

THE COUNTRYSIDE BENGAL
AND THE ZAMINDARS

An auction in Burdwan
i. In 1797 there was an auction in Burdwan (present-day
Bardhaman West Bengal).
ii. Auction of confiscated land of the Raja of Burdwan by
English East India Company
iii. Raja of Bardwan failed to pay revenue as per permanent
settlement
iv. A number of mahals (estates) held by the Raja of Burdwan
were being sold as per the Permanent Settlement
v. Numerous purchasers came to the auction and the estates were
sold to the highest bidder.

Why Zamindars defaulted on payments

First: the initial demands (rate of revenue) were very high.

Second: This high demand was imposed in the 1790s, a time when the prices of
agricultural produce were depressed,making it difficult for the ryots to pay their dues to
the zamindar.
Third: The revenue was invariable, regardless of the harvest, and had to be
paid punctually.
Limited power of the Zamindars:
- The zamindars’ troops were disbanded
- Customs duties abolished,
- Their “cutcheries” (courts) brought under the supervision of a Collector
- Zamindars lost their power to organise local justice and the local police.
- The collectorate emerged as an alternative centre of authority
- At the time of rent collection, an officer of the zamindar,
usually the amlah, camearound to the village.
 The rise of the jotedars
(i) Jotedars were rich peasants.(In some places they were called
haoladars, elsewhere they were known as gantidars or
mandals).
(ii) They controlled local trade , money lending, exercised power
over the poorer cultivators

(iii) A large part of their land was cultivated through

sharecroppers (adhiyars or bargadars.
(iv) jotedars were located in the villages and exercised direct
control over a considerable section of poor villagers.

The Zamindars resist

(1) Fictitious sale:-was one strategy of zamindars
resistance. (See example of Raja of Bardwan) Between
1793 and 1801 four big
zamindaris of Bengal, including Burdwan, made benami purchases that
collectively yielded as much as Rs 30 lakh.
Of the total sales at the auctions, over 15 per cent were fictitious.

Attacking outsiders :-When people from outside the zamindari bought

an estate at an auction, they could not always take possession. At
times their agents would be attacked by lathyals of the former
zamindar. Sometimes even the ryots resisted the entry of outsiders.
➔ By the beginning of the 19th century the depression in prices was
over. the zamindar’s power over the villages was strengthened.
➔ It was only during the Great Depression of the 1930s that they
finally collapsed and the jotedars consolidated their power in
the countryside
➔ Benami, literally anonymous, is a term used in Hindi and several
other Indian languages for transactions made in the name of a
fictitious or relatively insignificant person, whereas the real
beneficiary remains unnamed
➔ Lathyal, literally one who wields the lathi or stick,
functioned as a strongman of the zamindar.

The fifth Report

- submitted to the British Parliament in 1813 by EEIC.
- It ran into 1002 pages
- over 800 pages were appendices that reproduced petitionsof
zamindars and ryots, reports of collectors from different districts,
etc.
THE HOE AND THE PLOUGH
In the hills of Rajmahal
In the early nineteenth century, Buchanan travelled through the
Rajmahal hills.(in present day Jharkand)
➔ From his description the hills impenetrable, a zone where few
travellers ventured, an area that signified danger.
➔ Wherever he went, people were hostile, apprehensive of
officials and unwilling to talk to them.
 ➔ In many instances they deserted their villages and absconded.
➔ Buchanan’s journal gives us tantalising glimpses of these hill folk
in the early nineteenth century.
➔ His journal was written as a diary of places he visited,
people he encountered, and practices he saw.

The Santhals: Pioneer settlers

- Santhals were settled cultivators near Rajmahal hills.
- Santhals moved into this area around 1800, displaced the
Paharias who lived on these lower slopes, cleared the forests and
settled the land.
- Santhal revolted against zamindars, moneylenders and the colonial
state in 1855-56.
- Sidhu Manjhi, was the leader of the Santhal rebellion.
The British government was levying heavy taxes on the land that the
Santhals had cleared.

- Moneylenders (dikus) were charging them high rates of interest and

taking over the land when debts remained unpaid.

- Zamindars were asserting control over the Damin-i-ko area.

- The rebellion was crushed, the region was searched,
suspects were picked up, and villages set on fire.

The accounts of Buchanan

- He marched everywhere with a large army of people –
draughts men, surveyors, palanquin bearers, coolies.
- The costs of the travels were borne by the East India
Company since it needed the information that Buchanan
was expected to collect.
- British looked for natural resources it could control and exploit.
- It surveyed landscapes and revenue sources, organised
voyages of discovery, and sent its geologists and
geographers, its botanists and medical men to collect
information.
- Buchanan, undoubtedly an extraordinary observer
- Everywhere Buchanan went, he obsessively observed the
stones and rocks and the different strata and layers of soil.
- He searched for minerals and stones that were commercially
valuable, he recorded all signs of iron ore and mica, granite and
salt petre.

A REVOLT IN THE COUNTRYSIDE

 THE BOMBAY DECCAN

Account books are burnt

- The peasant revolt began at Supa, a large village in Poona (present-day
Pune) district.
- It was a market centre where many shopkeepers and moneylenders
lived.
-
- On 12 May1875, ryots attacked the shopkeepers, demanding
their bahi khatas (accountbooks) and debt bonds.
- They burnt the khatas, looted grain shops, and in some cases
set fire to the houses of sahukars.
- From Poona the revolt spread to Ahmednagar.
- More than thirty villages were affected.

A new revenue system

The revenue system that was introduced in the Bombay Deccan came be
known as the Ryotwari settlement.
- Unlike the Bengal system, the revenue was directly settled with the ryot.
- The average income from different types of soil was estimated,
the revenue-paying capacity of the ryot was assessed and a
proportion of it fixed as the share of the state.
- The lands were resurveyed every 30 years and the revenue rates
increased.
- Therefore, the revenue demand was no longer permanent.

Revenue demand and peasant debt

When rains failed and harvests were poor, peasants found it impossible to
pay the revenue.

➔ When someone failed to pay, his crops were seized and a

fine was imposed on the whole village.
➔ Prices of agricultural products fell sharply after 1832 and did not
recover for over a decade and a half.
➔ The countryside was devastated by a famine that struck in the years
1832- 34.
➔ One- third of the cattle of the Deccan were killed, and half the
human population died.
➔ Cultivators borrowed. But once a loan was taken, the ryot found it
difficult to pay it back.
➔ As debt mounted, and loans remained unpaid, peasants’
dependence on moneylenders increased.
➔ They now needed loans even to buy their everyday needs and
meet their Production expenditure.
 ➔ After 1845 agricultural prices recovered steadily.
➔ Cultivators were now extending their acreage, moving into new areas,
and transforming pastureland into cultivated fields.
Then came the cotton boom
- In 1857 the Cotton Supply Association was founded in Britain
- In 1859 the Manchester Cotton Company was formed.
- Their objective was “to encourage cotton production in every part
of the world suited for its growth”.
- When the American Civil War broke out in 1861, a wave of panic spread
through cotton circles in Britain.
- Raw cotton imports from America fell to less than three per cent
of the normal.
- In Bombay, cotton merchants visited the cotton districts to
assess supplies and encourage cultivation.

- When there is a boom in the market credit flows easily, for those
who give out loans feel secure about recovering their money.
➔ By 1862 over 90 per cent of cotton imports into Britain were
coming from India.
Credit dries up
- By 1865 as the Civil War ended, cotton production in America
revived and Indian cottonexports to Britain steadily declined.
- Export merchants and sahukars in Maharashtra were no longer
keen on extending long-term credit.
- While credit dried up, the revenue demand increased from 50 to 100 per
cent.
- Peasants again they had to turn to the moneylender.
- But the moneylender now refused loans.

The experience of Injustice

- The refusal of moneylenders to extend loans enraged the ryots.
- Ryots experienced an act of injustice from moneylenders
- Moneylenders were insensitive to their plight of ryots
- The moneylenders were violating the customary norms of the
countryside.
- One general norm was that the interest charged could not be more
than the principal.
- Under colonial rule this norm broke down.
- In one of the many cases investigated by the Deccan Riots
Commission, the money lender had charged over Rs 2,000 as interest
on a loan of Rs 100.
- In 1859 the British passed a Limitation Law that stated that the loan
bonds signed between moneylenders and ryots would have validity
for only three years.
- This law was meant to check the accumulation of interest over time.
- The moneylender, however, turned the law around, forcing the ryot to
sign a new bond every three years.
THE DECCAN RIOTS COMISSION
➔ The Government of India, worried by the memory of 1857,
pressurized the Government of Bombay to set up a commission of
enquiry to investigate
into the causes of the riots.
➔ The commission produced a report that was presented to the British
Parliament in 1878.
➔ This report, referred to as the Deccan Riots Report,
provides historians with a range of sources for the study
of the riot.
Factors that led to The DECCAN Revolt 1875:
- Ryotwary settlement
- High revenue demand
- Peasant debt
- Cotton boom and availability of credit or loan
- Credit dried up as cotton boom disappeared
- Experience of injustice from moneylender.

Multiple Choice Questions:-

1.When was Fifth Report introduced in the British Parliament?

पांिवीं ररपोटि त्रब्रहटश संसद में कब पेश की गई?

(i) 1770 (ii) 1858 (iii)1813 (iv)1795

2.Which of the following is not a feature of shifting cultivation?
निम्िलिखित में से कौि-सी झूम िेती की ववशेषता िहीं है ?
(i) Patches of forest are cut and burnt in rotation.
(ii) Seeds are sown in the ashes.
(iii) Plots cleared are cultivated for a few years and then
left fallow.
(iv) These patches were enriched by nitrogen from the ash.

3.Who among the following emerged as a danger for Paharis?

निम्िलिखित में से कौि पहाडड़यों के लिए ितरा बिकर उभरा?
(i)Santhal (ii) Bhil (iii)Gujjar (iv)Bekarwal
4. Given below are two statements one labelled as Assertion(A) and other labelled as
Reason(R)-

Assertion(A) – After getting a Bengal addict, the company started exploiting the
capital directly.
Reason (R)-After 1765, East india company had started sending tax of Bengal to
England as investment.
Codes-
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
C. A is true, but R is false
 D. A is false, but R is true

5.Who introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal?

बंगाि में स्थायी बंदोबस्त की शुरुआत ककसिे की?
(i)Lord Charles Cornwallis (ii)Francis Buchanan
(iii)David Richard (iv)Thomas Munro

Answers:
1. (iii) 1813
2. (iv) These patches were enriched by nitrogen from ash.
3. (i) Santhal
4. A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
5. (i) Lord Charles Cornwallis
Short Answer Type Question:
1. Why Zamindars defaulted on payments?
जमींदारों िे भग
ु ताि पर िक
ू ्यों की?
ANS. The reasons for this failure were various-

(i) The initial demands of tax were very high, because the company felt
that if the demand was fixed for all time to come they would never
be able to claim for high shares in the condition of increased
income.
(ii) This high demand was imposed in the 1790s, a time when the
prices of agricultural produce were depressed, making it difficult
for the ryots to
pay their dues to the zamindar. If the Zamindar could not collect the
rent, how could he pay the company?
(iii) The revenue was invariable, regardless of the harvest, and had to
be paid punctually.
(iv) The permanent settlement initially limited the power of the
Zamindars to collect rent from the ryot and manage his
zamindari.

Long Answer Type Question:

1. What were steps taken by the British East India Company to
control the Zamindars?
त्रब्रहटश ईस्ट इंडडया कंपिी िे जमींदारों को नियंत्रत्रत करिे के लिए ्या कदम
उठाए थे?
Answer:
The British East India Company took the following steps mainly to
maintain its control over the Zamindars.
(i) The zamindar’s troops were disbanded custom duties were abolished.
(ii) Their cutcheries (Courts) brought under the supervision of
collector appointed by the company.
(iii) The power to deliver local judgment was also taken away from
zamindars. In fact, zamindars held their control and leadership
through local courts and other panchayats. They lost their power to
organize
local police.
 Over time, the collectorate emerged as an alternative center of
authority, severely restricting what the zamindar could do.

(iv) In case a Raja (powerful zamindars) failed to pay the land revenue, a
company official was speedily dispatched to his zamindari which explicit
instruction “to take charge of the District and to use the most effectual
means to destroy all the
influence and the authority of the zamindar and his officers.

(v) Some of the scholars believe that some trouble creators were also
used as tools to reduce the influence of Rajas. For example, when the
zamindars dispatched their amlah(collector of revenue or
representative of zamindar).Some naughty people used to
create problem for
zamindars. Some ryots and village headmen jotedars and mandals-
were only too happy to see the Zamindar in trouble. The zamindar
could therefore not easily assert his power over them.

GIST [ CH : 10 ] REBELS AND THE RAJ

THE REVOLT OF 1857
REBELLION IN MEERUT

• On 10 May 1857, the sepoys present in the cantonment of Meerut revolted. The
infantry made up of Indian soldiers started this rebellion and soon the cavalry
also joined it.
• The soldiers first captured the Bell of arms (a place to store arms and
ammunition) so that he could collect the necessary weapons for the rebellion
• All government buildings like records office, post office, government treasury,
court etc were looted and finally destroyed.
REBELLION IN DELHI

• They wanted to spread this rebellion in the whole country, so a group of soldiers
left from Meerut on the night of 10 May to take this rebellion forward and spread
all over the country so that they would go to Delhi and join the rebellion to
Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar.
• This group of soldiers reached the Red Fort in Delhi the next morning on 11
May and asked for permission to talk to Bahadur Shah Zafar.
CAUSES OF THE REVOLT

IMMEDIATE CAUSES:

• Introduction of New Enfield Rifle and Cartridges. In 1857 there were 36,000
English and 2,57,000 Indian soldiers in the British India Army.
• In 1857 a rumour spread that the catridges of the new Enfield rifle was greased
with the fat of cows and pigs, objectionable to both Hindus and Muslims.
POLITICAL CAUSES:
 • SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE SYSTEM - DOCTRINE OF LAPSE
• JHANSI- Gangadhar Rao died without a natural heir- adopted son-Ananda Rao-
Not admitted by British- Rani Lakshmi Bai became the enemy of the Britis

SOCIAL & RELIGIOUS CAUSES:

• Racial Arrogance, Social Reform Legislations.

• Abolition of Sati-1829.
• Widow Re-marriage Act of 1856.
• Religious conversion – into Christianity.

MILITARY CAUSES:

• Dissatisfaction of the sepoys, No higher post- No promotion

• Banning of religious symbols – Dress code.
1. PATTERN OF THE REBELLION

How the mutinies began?

• The sepoys began their action with a signal, firing of the evening gun or the
sounding of the bugle.
• They seized the bell of the arms and plundered the treasury.
• They attacked the government buildings – the jail, treasury, telephone office,
record room, bungalows –burning all records.
• In major towns like Kanpur, Lucknow, and Bareilly, moneylenders and rich
became the objects of the rebels.
Lines of communication

• It is clear that there were communication between the sepoys lines of various
cantonments.
• Captain Hearsey of the Awadh Military Police had given protection by his Indian
subordinates during the mutiny.
• The 41st Native Infantry , was stationed in the same place, insisted that since
the had killed all their white officers, the Military police should also kill Hearsey
or deliver him as prisoner to the 41st.
• But military police refused to do either, the matter would be settled by a
panchayat composed of native officers drawn from each regiment.
• Charles Ball, wrote one of the earliest histories of the uprising.
Leaders and followers
 • To fight the British, leadership and organization were required, and for this, they
turned towards the Mughal ruler Bahadur Shah who agreed to be the nominal
leader of the rebellion.
• In Kanpur, the sepoys and the people of the town agreed to support Nana
Sahib.
• In Jhansi, the Rani was forced to assume the leadership of the uprising.
• Kunwar Singh, a local Zamindar in Arrah in Bihar, too took the leadership.
• The local leaders emerged, urging peasants, zamindars, and tribals to revolt eg
– Shah Mal mobilized the villagers of pargana Barout in Uttar Pradesh.

2. Rumors and prophecies

• There was a rumor that the British government had hatched a gigantic
conspiracy to destroy the caste and religion of the Hindus and Muslim.
• The sepoys who had arrived in Delhi from Meerut had told Bahadur Shah about
bullets coated with the fat of cows and pigs and that biting those bullets would
corrupt their caste and religion. They were referring to the cartridges of the
Enfield rifles.
• The rumour said that the British had mixed the bone dust of cows and pigs into
the flour that was sold in the market.
• The sepoys and the common people refused to touch the atta.
Why did the people believe in the rumors?

• The British adopted policies aimed at reforming Indian society by introducing

Western education, Western ideas, and Western institutions.
• The British established laws to abolished customs like Sati (1629) and to permit
the remarriage of Hindu widows.
• The British introduced their own system of administration, their own laws and
their own methods of land settlements and land revenue collection.
3. AWADH IN REVOLT

(“A cherry that will drop into our mouth one day”)

• In 1851, Governor General Lord Dalhousie described the kingdom of Awadh as

“a cherry that will drop into our mouth one day” and five years later it was
annexed to the British Empire.
• The Subsidiary Alliance had been imposed on Awadh.
 • The terms of this alliance the nawab had to disband his military force of the
British to position their troops within the kingdom and act in accordance with the
advice of the British.
SUBSIDIARY ALLIANCE
Subsidiary Alliance was a system devised by Lord Wellesley in 1798. All those
who entered into such an alliance with the British had to accept certain terms
and conditions:
(a) The British would be responsible for protecting their ally from external and
internal threats to their power.
(b) In the territory of the ally, a British armed contingent would be stationed.
(c) The ally would have to provide the resources for maintaining this contingent.
(d) The ally could enter into agreements with other rulers or engage in warfare
only with the permission of the British.

Firangi raj and the end of a world

• The British removed Nawab Wajid Ali Shah from the throne, due to the removal
of the Nawab, the condition of the musicians, artisans, chefs and workers
present in the court worsened.
• The condition of the taluqdars became very bad under the British rule.
• Taluqdar used to be the person who collected tax from the farmers during the
Mughal rule.
• These taluqdars were removed after the British takeover of Awadh. All their
forts were demolished and their army was also abolished.
• The British government thought that the land would be handed over directly to
the farmers by removing the talukdars, which would reduce the exploitation of
the farmers.
4. WHAT THE REBELS WANTED

The vision of unity

• The rebellion was seen as a war in which both Hindus and Muslims had equally
to lose or gain.
• The ishtahars (notifications) harked back to the pre-British Hindu-Muslim past
and glorified the coexistence of different communities under Mughal Empire.
• In1857, the British spent Rs. 50,000 to incite the Hindu population against the
Muslims but the attempt failed.
• The land revenue settlements had dispossessed the landholders, both big and
small and foreign commerce had driven artisans and weavers to ruin.
• The proclamations expressed the widespread fear that the British were bent on
destroying the caste and religions of Hindus and Muslims and converting them
to Christianity.
5. REPRESSION

• Before sending out troops to reconquer North India, the British passed a series
of laws to help them quell the insurgency.
• By a number of Acts, passed in May and June 1857, not only was the whole of
North India put under martial law but military officers and even ordinary Britons
were given the power to try and punish Indians suspected of rebellion.
 • The ordinary processes of law and trial were suspended and it was put out that
rebellion would have only one punishment death.
• North India was brought under a strict law to prolonged attack of British – one
from Calcutta to North India, another from Punjab to recover Delhi, 27,000
Muslims hanged.
6. IMAGES OF THE REVOLT

• Official accounts of colonial administration and military men left their versions in
letters and diaries, autobiography and official histories.
• The stories of the revolt that were published in British newspaper and
magazines narrated the in gory detail the violence of the mutineers.
• British pictures offer a variety of images that were meant to provoke a range of
different emotions and reactions.
• “Relief of Lucknow”, was painted by Thomas Jones Barker In 1859.
7. NATIONALIST IMAGERIES

• The nationalist movement drew its inspiration from the events of 1857.
• Art and literature had helped in keeping the alive the memories of 1857.
• Heroic poems were written about the valour of the queen (Rani Lakshmi Bai).
• Rani of Jhansi was represented as a masculine figure chasing the enemy,
slaying British soldiers and valiantly fighting till her last.
MCQs-

1. Martial Law was enforced through laws passed in 1857 in:

(a) North India (b) West India (c) South India (d)
Northeast

ANS- (a)

माशिि िॉ 1857 में पाररत कािि

ू ों के माध्यम से िागू ककया गया था:

(ए) उिर भारत (बी) पजश्िम भारत (सी) दक्षक्षण भारत (डी) पूवोिर

2. Jhansi and Satara were captured under-

(a) Doctrine of Lapse (b) Subsidiary Alliance (c) Ryotwari system (d)
Permanent settlement

अवध और सतारा पर कब्जा कर लिया गया

(ए) िूक का लसद्धांत (बी) सहायक गठबंधि (सी) रै यतवारी प्रणािी (डी) स्थायी बंदोब

ANS- (a)

3. Which one of the following regions was called as the "Nursery of the Bengal
Army" by the British during 1850's?

(a) Banaras (b) Awadh (c) Barrackpur (d) Azamgarh

1850 के दशक के दौराि अंग्रेजों द्वारा निम्िलिखित में से ककस क्षेत्र को "बंगाि सेिा की
िसिरी" कहा जाता था?

(ए) बिारस (बी) अवध (सी) बैरकपरु (डी)आजमगढ

ANS- (b) Awadh

4. Which of the following sources from the 19th century will NOT provide facts
surrounding the events of the sepoy mutiny?

(a) articles from the Delhi Urdu Akbar (b) images from the Punch Magazine

(c) coins and jewellery used by people (d) the Azamgarh Proclamation

ANS- (c)

19वीं शताब्दी का निम्िलिखित में से कौि सा स्रोत लसपाही ववद्रोह की घटिाओं से संबंचधत
तथ्य प्रदाि िहीं करे गा?

(ए) हदल्िी उदि ू अकबर के िेि (बी) पंि पत्रत्रका से छववयााँ

(सी) िोगों द्वारा उपयोग ककए जािे वािे लस्के और आभूषण (डी) आजमगढ उद्घोषणा

5. Given below are two statements one labelled as Assertion(A) and other labelled as
Reason(R)-

Assertion(A) – Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah played an important role in the revolt of

1857.
Reason (R)- The muslims had kept distance from the revolt of 1857.
Codes-
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
C. A is true, but R is false
D. A is false, but R is true
ANS- C. A is true, but R is false

IMAGE BASED QUESTIONS-

1. Identify the image given below:

Options-

(a) Nana Saheb (b) Peshwa Baji Rao (c) Kunwar Singh (d)Mangal Pandey

िीिे दी गई छवव को पहिािें-

(ए) िािा साहब (बी) पेशवा बाजीराव (सी)कंु वर लसंह (डी) मंगि पांडे

ANS- (a) Nana Sahib

SHORT TYPE QUESTION:-

1. Explain the provisions of the Subsidiary Alliance imposed on Awadh in 1801

by the British.

अंग्रेजों द्वारा 1801 में अवध पर िगाए गए सहायक संचध के प्रावधािों की व्याख्या करें ।

ANS- The Subsidiary Alliance was introduced by Lord Wellesley in 1798. All those who
entered into such an alliance with the British had to accept certain terms and
conditions.

• The British would be responsible for protecting their ally from external and
internal threats to their power.
• In the territory of the ally, a British armed contingent would be stationed.

• The ally would have to provide the resources for maintaining this contingent.
• The ally could enter into agreements with other rulers or engage in warfare only
with the permission of the British.
LONG TYPE QUESTION:-

1. Why did the British annex Awadh in 1856 ? On what pretext did they carry out
act the annexation ? Explain.

1856 में अंग्रेजों ने अवध पर कब्जथ क्यों ककयथ? उन्होंने ककस बहथने से कब्जे की कथरावथई को
अंजथम ददयथ? व्यथख्यथ करनथ।

ANS- Lord Dalhousie was the Governor General of India till 1848-1856. Under him, the
British followed an expansionist policy in India.

• The policy of annexation reached its climax when he implemented the policy of
Doctrine of Lapse and annexed the Indian states on charged of mis-governance
and absence of an heir. In the course of eight years Dalhousie annexed Satara,
Sambalpur, Jhansi, Nagpur, Jaipur and Baghat. This policy enraged the Indian
rulers against the British government. As part of the Lapse policy, the titles and
pensions of some Indian princes were confiscated.
• The economic policy of the British adversely affected every section of the Indian
society. The British exploited the economic resources of India to their
advantages and drained her wealth by crippling the Indian trade and industry.
 • Indian resources were unbashedly exported by London to promote British
industries. Consequently, the country was reduced to poverty as traditional
handicrafts and industries were ruined.
• Further high revenue demand crippled the agrarian sector. In case of failure to
pay the stipulated amount the lands of the zamindar were taken away by the
government.
• The Indian soldiers were considered inferior and were ill-treated by high
officers. The high ranks in the army were exclusively reserved for the
Englishmen and the Indians were deliberately excluded from responsible
positions. What hurt the Indian soldiers most was the prohibition to wear caste
and religious marks while serving that amounted to interference in their
personal affairs by the British.

GIST (CH -11) MAHATMA GANDHI AND THE NATIONALIST

MOVEMENT
MAHATMA GANDHI IN SOUTH AFRICA

• Mahatma Gandhi went to South Africa in 1893 as a Lawyer but he stayed their
almost 22 years. There he fought against the apartheid system. Historian Chandran
Devanesan has rightly remarked that “South Africa was the making of the
Mahatma”. It was in South Africa that Mahatma Gandhi. Adopted his technique of
non-violent protest or Satyagraha.

• Promoted harmony between religions.

SITUATION IN INDIA IN 1915

• Mahatma Gandhi return to India in 1915. There was different from the one that he
had left in 1893.
• The Swadeshi movement of 1905-07 INC increased their presence among the
middle classes. It also emerged the radical age There was more activeness found
in the political sense in India.
• The Indian National Congress which was founded in 1885 had many branches in
major cities and towns.
• Through leaders known as Lal, Bal, Pal.(Lala Lajpat Rai of Punjab,Bal Gangadhar
Tilak of Maharashtra, Bipin Chandra Pal of Bengal).

THE SPEECH OF MAHATAMA GANDHI AT BHU

On the advice of his political Guru Gopal Krishna Gokhale Mahatma Gandhi travelling
around British India to know the problem of Its people. He was invited at the opening of
the Banaras Hindu University (BHU) in February 1916.

• In his speech Gandhiji charged the Indian elite with a lack of concern for the
labouring poor.
• He told that Indian nationalism was an elite phenomenon, a creation of
lawyers, doctors and landlords.
• Gandhiji chose to remind those present, of the peasants and workers who
constituted a majority of the Indian population, yet were unrepresented in the
audience.
• The first public announcement of Gandhiji’s own desire was to make Indian
nationalism more properly representative of the Indian people as a whole.

CHAMPARAN SATYAGRAHA
• In annual congress session of Lucknow held in Dec.1916 Mahatma Gandhi come
to know about the harsh treatment of the Indigo peasant of Champaran by the
British.
• So, in 1917, Mahatma Gandhi organized a Satyagraha in Champaran (Bihar) to
obtain the peasants security of tenure as well as the freedom to cultivate the crops
of their choice.
AHMEDABAD TEXTILE MILL STRIKE
❖ In Feb 1918, Gandhiji started a Satyagraha in Ahmadabad for demanding better
working conditions for the textile mill workers.
KHEDA SATYAGRAHA
❖ In 1918, Kheda Satyagraha was launched by Gandhiji for the farmers. They
demanded remission of taxes from the state due to the failure of their harvest.
ROWLATT ACT
❖ After the first world war(1914-18) to crab the nationalist activities Britishers
imposed censorship and on the recommendation of committee chaired by Sir
Sidney Rowlatt, new act was passed which was known as Rowlatt Act.
Movement against Rowlatt act
Gandhiji called for a country wide agitation against the Rowlatt Act. On April 6th a
hartal was declared by Gandhiji.
Indian become very aggressive against this Black Law. British imposed curfew in many
areas.
Gandhiji and prominent local Congressmen were arrested.
The protests against the Rowlatt Act intense reaching a climax in Amritsar on 13 April
1919, when a British Brigadier Dyer ordered his troops to open fire on a nationalist
meeting.
More than 400 people were killed there which is known as the Jalliawala Bagh
massacre.
It was the Rowlatt Act that made Gandhiji a truly national leader.
In April 1919, in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, many people gathered in protest
against this Rowlatt Act.
Seeing the increasing opposition of these people, the English Brigadier General Dyer
ordered to shoot at all these people.
More than 400 people were killed in this firing and the Jallianwala Bagh massacre was
openly criticized.
NON COOPERATION MOVEMENT
Gandhiji said that India would win swaraj within a year if non-cooperation was
effectively carried out.
KHILAFAT MOVEMENT
Khilafat Movement (1919-1920) was a movement of Indian Muslims, led by
Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali.
The Turkish Sultan or Khalifa was referred as spiritual leader for all Muslim but he was
abolished by the Turkish ruler Kemal Attaturk, supported by Britishers.
So, they launch the Khilafat movement against Britishers. They demanded that Khalifa
must retain control over the Muslim sacred places and have sovereignty.

KNITTING A POPULAR MOVEMENT -NCM

(i) The working class went on strike in many towns and cities. There were 396 strikes
in 1921, involving 6,00,000 workers and a loss of seven million workdays.
-“Non- cooperation” wrote Mahatma Gandhi’s, American biographer LOUIS
FISCHER , “became the name of an epoch in the life of India and of Gandhiji.
(ii)Gandhiji taught the people self-discipline, renunciation, self-denial, Ahimsa,
Satyagraha through Non-cooperation Movement. The aim of the movement was self-
rule.
(iii)This make the people furious so on 5 February 1922, a group of peasants fired a
police station at Chauri Chaura in U.P. in which 22 policemen were killed.
(iv)This act of violence prompted Gandhi to call off the movement.

❖ During the NCM thousands of Indians were put in jail.

❖ Gandhiji himself arrested in March 1922, and charges with sedition.
❖ The judge who presided over his trial, Justice C.N. Broomfield, made a remarkable
speech while pronouncing his sentence “It would be impossible to ignore the fact”.
❖ Gandhiji had violated the law it was obligatory for the bench to sentence him to six
years imprisonment, but said Judge Broomfield, “ If the course of events in
India should make it possible for the government to reduce the period and
release you, no one will be better pleased than I”.

GANDHI AS PEOPLE’S LEADER

The time period between 1915 to 1947 is referred as Gandhian age in Indian
freedom movement. Gandhiji had transformed the nationalist movement into a
mass movement. His qualities make him as the leader of common people as-
 Simplicity
-Gandhiji belong to Merchant community and a lawyer by profession but he lived
like a common person.
-His dressed were like a common person and spoke their language so people
appreciated him. He went among the people in a simple Dhoti or loincloth. He
spent part of each day working on Charkha.
- Historian Shahid Amim has traced the image of Mahatma Gandhi among the
peasants of eastern Uttar Pradesh.
New political set up
-Praja Mandals were established to promote nationalism in the princely states.
-The provincial committees of the congress were based on linguistic divisions rather
than the artificial boundaries set up by the British administration.
Social reformer
-Gandhiji was as much a social reformer as he was a politician.
-He took steps to remove social evils such as child marriage and untouchability.
-He gave emphasis on Hindu Muslim harmony.
Supported by Rich and poors
-The simplicity and speech of Gandhiji attracted not only poor person but rich
industrialist and elite class.
-Industrialist though that in free India they will more benefitted so they joined the
congress as the Indian entrepreneurs. For example, G.D Birla supported the national
movement openly.
-Highly talented Indians attached themselves to Gandhiji.
-While Mahatma Gandhi’s own role as vital, the growth of what we might call
“ Gandhian Nationalism”.
-Between (1917-1922), a group of highly talented Indians attached themselves to
Gandhiji.
The included- Mahadev Desai, Vallabh Bhai Patel, J.B Kripalani, Subhas Chandra
Bose, Abul Kalam Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sarojini Naido, C.Rajagopalachari,
Govind Ballabh Pant and Raja Gopalachari.

RUMOURS OF GANDHIJI’S MIRACULOUS POWERS

As Gandhi ji become popular among the poor and common persons they referred him
as Gandhi Baba, Maharaj or Mahatma. There were also many rumours spread about
his miraculous powers as-

• Some people told that he had been sent by the king to redress the grievances of
the farmers and that he had the power to overrule all local officials.
• It was also claimed that Gandhi’s power was superior to that of the English
Monarch and with his arrival colonial rulers would flee the district.

MAJOR POLITICAL EVENTS FROM 1928 TO 1930

SIMON COMMISSION

• In 1927 a Commission was appointed to enquire into conditions in the colony under
the leader Sir John Simon, so known as Simon commission.
• But in the Simon commission all 7 members were Britishers so when it reach in
India in 1928 a large campaign were organised to opposition the commission.
• Although Gandhiji did not participate in this movement but he blessed this protest.

❖ In 1928 Mahatma Gandhi organised a satyagraha in Bardoli (Gujarat) with

Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel for the peasants.

LAHORE CONGRESS SESSION-1929

• In December 1929, the annual session of Congress was held

in Lahore under Jawaharlal Nehru as president. This session was very significant
because-
• The leadership of congress was passed to younger generation.
• Proclamation of commitment to “poorna swaraj” or complete independence.
• It was decided that on 26 January 1930 Independence Day will be celebrated with
the national flag being hoisted at different venues and by doing the constructive
work as spinning, or service of ‘untouchables’, or reunion of Hindus and
Mussalmans.

Opposition to Simon Commission

-Simon Commission was opposed in Kolkata under the leadership of Subhas Chandra
Bose
-In Bombay also, the Simon Commission was opposed and slogans of Simon go back
were raised.
-Simon Commission was opposed in Lucknow under the leadership of Jawaharlal
Nehru and GB Pant.
-During these protests, Lala Lajpat Rai was attacked by the police with sticks, due to
which he died.
-The Muslim League also opposed the Simon Commission under the leadership of
Muhammad Ali Jinnah.
THE SALT MARCH

• He decided to lead this march against the Salt law because-

• The state has the monopoly over manufacturing of salt which was deeply
unpopular.
•
• The price of Salt was very high.
• On 12 March 1930, Gandhi began his march from his Sabarmati Ashram towards
oceans .
• After 24 days on 6, April Gandhiji reached Dandi with thousand people and made a
handful of salt and to break the law.
• With the break of salt law, a large protest started in different part of India like Non-
cooperation movement. People started to manufacturing the salt in many places.
• Forest people break colonial forest laws started to collect the woods.
• Factory workers went on strike while lawyers boycotted British courts and students
refused to attend government run educational institutions.

Report Published in Times Magazine of USA

• The Salt March of Gandhiji was reported in the American news magazine, Time.
• In its report on the march the magazine was deeply sceptical of the salt march
reaching its destination.
• But shortly it changed its view and saluted Gandhi as a “saint” and “statesman”.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SALT MARCH

The Salt March was notable for at least three reasons.
(i) This event brought Mahatma Gandhi to world attention. The March was widely
covered by the European and American press.
(ii) It was the first nationalist activity in which women participated in large numbers.
Socialist activists Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay had persuaded Gandhi not to restrict
the protests to men alone. She herself courted arrest by breaking salt and liquor laws.
(iii) It made the British realize that their rule was not to last forever, and they would
have to share some power with the Indians. To discuss the same the British tried to
hold Round Table Conference in London to get to some kind resolution.

GANDHI-IRWIN PACT

• In January 1931, Mahatma Gandhi was released from jail. After that many
meetings were held with the Viceroy Irwin that are known as he Gandhi-Irwin pact.
• It was declared to call off Civil Disobedience Movement.
• All prisoners who were put in jail without trial to be released.
• Allow the salt manufacturing along the coasts.
• Gandhiji represented the congress at Second Round Table Conference at London.
• This pact was criticised by radical nationalists.

THE ROUND TABLE CONFERENCES

• The first Round Table Conference was held in London in November 1930 but it
ended without any fruitful decision due to the absence of major Indian nationalist
leaders.
• A Second Round Table Conference was held in London in the latter part of
1931.Gandhiji represented the congress and claimed that his party represented all
of India. But three parties, the Muslim League, the Princes and the lawyer thinker
B.R. Ambedkar opposed that claim. The conference in London was inconclusive,
so Gandhi returned to India and resumed in 1932 civil disobedience movement.

-The conference in London was inconclusive, so Gandhiji returned to India and

resumed civil disobedience. The New Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, was deeply
unsympathetic to the Indian leader.
❖ In a private letter to his sister, Willingdon wrote: “It’s a beautiful world if it
wasn’t for Gandhi”.

MAJOR EVENTS BETWEEN 1935 AND 1945

• The year 1935 saw the coming of the Government of India Act of 1935, which
promised some form of representative government.
• In 1937, for the first time, elections were held on restricted franchise and
congress party held a majority in the legislature. It won the election in 8 out of 11
provinces.
• In 1939, World War II broke out and the Indian leaders agreed to support the
British as long as they promised to grant Indian Independence after the war. The
offer was refused and in October 1939, congress ministries resigned.
• In protest a series of individual Satyagraha were organized by the congress to
pressurize the British to promise the freedom once the war ended.
• In March 1940, Muslim League passed a resolution demanding and planning to
create a separate nation for Muslims.
• In 1942, worried on the continuous spread of nationalist movement prime minister
of England Winston Churchill sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India to try to reach to a
compromise with Gandhi and the congress.
• The Cripps Mission failed as no agreement to grant Independence to India could be
made.
• In August 1942, Quit India Movement was launched.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

• After the failure of the Cripps Mission, Quit India Movement was launched on 9
August 1942, by Mahatma Gandhi.
• It was the third major movement against the British rule.
• But on midnight of 8th August Operation Zero Hour, Gandhiji and other important
leaders were arrested and jailed.
• But it spread under other and socialist leaders like Jayaprakash Narayan. They
organized strikes and acts of sabotage all over the country.
• It was a mass movement in which thousands students and ordinary Indians joined
together for freedom.
• Independent governments were proclaimed in several districts, such as Satara in
the Maharashtra, Balia in UP and Medinipur in Bengal.
• In 1943, some of the younger leaders in the Satara district of Maharashtra set up
parallel government (pratisarkar), with volunteer corps (sebadals)and village units
(tufan dals). They ran people’s courts and organized constructive work.

MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS IN THE YEAR 1945-47

• In1945, the Labour Government came to power in Brtiain. It was committed for
Indian Independence.
• In India, the Viceroy Lord Wavell, negotiated with the congress and the Muslim
League.
• Early in 1946, the provincial legislative elections were held in which the congress
won the General and League won reserved constituencies.
• A Cabinet Mission was sent to the summer of 1946, failed to make consensus
between congress and League.
• Jinnah called for a “Direct Action Day” to force the League’s demand for Pakistan
on 16 August 1946 leading to bloody riots in many parts of India.
• In February 1947, Lord Mount batten appointed as Viceroy .He too held
inconclusive talks and he announced that India would be freed, but also divided.
The formal transfer of power was fixed for 15 August.
THE LAST HEROIC DAYS
• Mahatma Gandhi refused to take part in the Independence Day celebrations in
Delhi on 15h August 1947.
• He was in Calcutta. He did not attend any function or hoist a flag in Calcutta either.
The Gandhi marked the day with a 24 hour fast.
• On 30 January 1948, Gandhiji was shot dead by Nathuram Godse who had
denounced Gandhiji as “an appeaser of Muslims”
KNOW ABOUT GANDHIJI THROUGH DIFFERENT SOURCES
• Writings and Speeches of mahatma gandhi and his contemporaries, including
both his associates and his political adversaries.
• Speeches allow us to hear the public voice of an individual, while private letters
give us a glimpse of his or her private thoughts.
• Autobiographies give us an account of the past that is often rich in human detail,
they are retrospective accounts written very often from memory.
• Government records, for the colonial rulers kept close tabs on those they
regarded as critical of the government.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS(MCQs)

1. Gandhiji's first important public appearance was made in 1916 in:
(a) Inauguration of Banaras Hindu University (b) Champaran Movement
(c) Ahmedabad Movement (d) Kheda Movement

गांधीजी की पहिी महत्वपण

ू ि साविजनिक उपजस्थनत 1916 में हुई थी:
(ए) बिारस हहंद ू ववश्वववद्यािय का उद्घाटि ििी एसाव (बी) िंपारण आंदोिि
(सी) अहमदाबाद आंदोिि (डी) िेड़ा आंदोिि
ANS- (a)
2. Where did Gandhiji first use the weapon of Satyagrah?
(a) South Africa (b) Champaran
(c) Kheda (d) Ahmedabad
गांधीजी िे सबसे पहिे सत्याग्रह के हचथयार का प्रयोग कहााँ ककया था? कारण
(ए) दक्षक्षण अफ्रीका (बी) िंपारण
(सी) िेड़ा (डी) अहमदाबाद
ANS-(a)
3. Gandhiji participated in which campaigns in Gujarat in 1918?
(a) Ahmedabad labour dispute (b) to cancel the tribute of the farmers of
Kheda
(c) conflict of indigo planters and farmers (d) Both a and b
गांधीजी िे 1918 में गुजरात में ककि अलभयािों में भाग लिया?
(ए) अहमदाबाद श्रम वववाद ये ििा (बी) िेड़ा के ककसािों का िजरािा रद्द करिा
्योंकक
(सी) िीि बागाि मालिकों और ककसािों का संघषि वह कैसे (डी) (ए) और (बी)
दोिों
ANS- (d)
4. Gandhiji participated in which session?
(a) first round table conference (b) second round table conference
(c) third round table conference (d) all the above
गांधीजी िे ककस अचधवेशि में भाग लिया?
(ए) पहिा गोिमेज सम्मेिि (बी) दस
ू रा गोिमेज सम्मेिि
(सी) तीसरा गोिमेज सम्मेिि (डी) उपरो्त सभी
ANS-(b)
5. Given below are two statements one labelled as Assertion(A) and other labelled as
Reason(R)-

Assertion(A) – Gandhiji’s satyagraha was based on the principles of truth and non-
violance.
Reason (R)-Satyagraha literally means observance of truth.
Codes-
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
C. A is true, but R is false
D. A is false, but R is true
ANS- B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A

IMAGE BASED QUESTION:

1. Identify the image given below:
नीचे दी गई छवव को पहचथनें:

ANS- On the Dandi March, 1930

SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS(3 MARKS)

1. Why had the historian Chandran Devanesan remarked that South Africa made
Gandhiji a Mahatma? Explain.
इनतहासकार िंद्रि दे विेसि िे यह हटप्पणी ्यों की कक दक्षक्षण अफ्रीका िे गांधीजी को महात्मा
बिा हदया? व्याख्या
ANS- Historian Chandran Devanesan has rightly remarked that South Africa was the
making of the Mahatma for three reasons. It was in South Africa that:
(i) Mahatma Gandhi adopted his methodology of satyagraha (devotion to the truth) or
non- violent protest for the first time.
(ii) He encouraged harmony between religions.
(iii) Gandhiji alerted upper caste Indians for their discriminatory treatment towards low
castes and women.
LONG TYPE QUESTIONS(8 MARKS)

1. Analyse the role of Gandhiji in the 'Quit India Movement'.

‘भारत छोड़ो आंदोिि’ में गांधीजी की भलू मका का ववश्िेषण करें .
ANS- Role of Gandhiji in the Quit India Movement:
-Gandhiji was disappointed from the Government of India Act 1935 and indulgence of
India in the Second World War.
(i) Gandhiji organised series of Satyagraha for freedom. It became a mass movement,
bringing into its ambit hundreds of thousands of ordinary Indians.
(ii) After the failure of the Cripps Mission, Mahatma Gandhi decided to launch "Quit
India" campaign.
(iii) Younger activists organized strikes and acts of sabotage all over the country.
(iv) Particularly active in the underground resistance were socialist members of the
Congress, such as Jayaprakash Narayan.
(v) In several districts, such as Satara in the west and Medinipur in the east,
"independent" governments were proclaimed.
(vi) The British tried to suppress the rebellion.
(vii) Gandhiji tried to bridge the gap between the Congress and the League.
(viii) Gandhiji and members of congress were jailed.
(ix) Students left their colleges and thousands of ordinary citizens joined the
movement.
(x) In 1945, a Labour government came to power in Britain and committed itself to
granting independence to India.

GIST [CH-12] FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION

- Indian Constitution, which came into effect on 26 January 1950, has the
dubious distinction of being the longest in the world. Framed between 9
December 1946 to 26 November 1949.
A TUMULTUOUS TIME

• Fresh in popular memory were the Quit India struggle of 1942 , the bid by
Subhas Chandra Bose to win freedom through armed struggle with foreign aid.
• Recent upsurge had also evoked much popular sympathy – this was the rising
of the ratings of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay and other cities in the spring
of 1946.
 • Through the late 1940s there were periodic, if scattered, mass protests of
workers and peasants in different parts of the country.
• Striking feature of these popular upsurges was the degree of Hindu-Muslim
unity, two leading Indian political parties, the Congress and the Muslim League,
had repeatedly failed to arrive at a settlement that would bring about religious
reconciliation and social harmony.
• Great Calcutta Killings of August 1946 began a year of almost continuous
rioting across northern and eastern India.
• Innumerable Muslims in India, and Hindus and Sikhs in Pakistan, were now
faced with a cruel choice, Millions of refugees were on the move, Muslims into
East and West Pakistan, Hindus and Sikhs into West Bengal and the eastern
half of the Punjab.
• When British left India, the constitutional status of these princes remained
ambiguous. A contemporary observer remarked, some maharajas now began
“to luxuriate in wild dreams of independent power in an India of many
partitions”.
The making of the Constituent Assembly

- The Cabinet Mission envisaged the establishment of a Constituent Assembly to

frame a Constitution for the country. Members of the Constituent Assembly were
elected by the Provincial Legislative Assemblies.

- Each Province and each Indian State were allotted seats in proportion of its
population, roughly in the ratio of one to a million. The seats so ascertained were
distributed among the main communities in each Province. The main communities
recognised were Sikh, Muslim and General.

• In the winter of 1945-46 provincial elections were held in India. The Provincial
Legislatures then chose the representatives to the Constituent Assembly.
• Congress was not a party with one voice. Its members differed in their opinion
on critical issues. Some were inspired by socialism others were defenders of
landlordism. Some were close to communal parties others were assertively
secular.
• In order to create a sense of collective participation the public was also asked to
send in their views on what needed to be done.
 • Many of the linguistic minorities wanted the protection of their mother tongue,
religious minorities asked for special safeguards, while dalits demanded an end
to all caste oppression and reservation of seats in government bodies.
The dominant voices

• Constituent Assembly had 299 members, six members played particularly

important roles.
• Three were representatives of the Congress, namely, Jawaharlal Nehru
(Chairman of Finance and staff committee, Union constitution committee),
Vallabh Bhai Patel (Chairman of State and Advisory committee) and Rajendra
Prasad (President of the Assembly And Chairman of steering committee).
• Besides this Congress trio, a very important member of the Assembly was the
lawyer and economist B.R. Ambedkar (Law minister And Chairman of Drafting
committee).
• Two other lawyers, K.M. Munshi from Gujarat and Alladi Krishnaswamy Aiyar
from Madras.
• These six members were given vital assistance by two civil servants. One was
B. N. Rau, , who prepared a series of background papers based on a close
study of the political systems obtaining in other countries.
• Other was the Chief Draughtsman, S. N. Mukherjee, who had the ability to put
complex proposals in clear legal language.

THE VISION OF THE CONSTITUTION

• On 13 December 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru introduced the “Objectives

Resolution” in the Constituent Assembly, which was adopted after considerable
deliberation and debate on 22 Jan, 1947; proclaimed India to be an
“Independent Sovereign Republic”
• In returning to the past and referring to the American and French Revolutions,
Nehru was locating the history of constitution-making in India within a longer
history of struggle for liberty and freedom.
• He stressed that the ideals and provisions of the constitution introduced in India
could not be just derived from elsewhere. he declared, had to “fit in with the
temper of our people and be acceptable to them”.
The will of the people

• A Communist member, Somnath Lahiri saw the dark hand of British imperialism
hanging over the deliberations of the Constituent Assembly.
 • Nehru admitted that most nationalist leaders had wanted a different kind of
Constituent Assembly. It was also true, that British Government attached certain
conditions within which the Assembly had to function.
• When the social reformers opposed child marriage and demanded that widows
remarriage, they were pleading for social justice. For instance, Swami
Vivekananda campaigned for a reform of Hinduism, he wanted religions to
become more just And Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra pointed to the suffering of
the depressed castes.
• Demand for representation grew, British had been forced to introduce a series
of constitutional reforms. A number of Acts were passed (1909, 1919 and
1935), gradually enlarging the space for Indian participation in provincial
governments.
• The executive was made partly responsible to the provincial legislature in 1919,
and almost entirely so under the Government of India Act of 1935.
- Government of India Act of 1935 : Formed the basic premise or the basis or
‘blueprint’ of the constitution of India with the features of federal system, office
of governor, emergency power etc.
• When elections were held in 1937, the Congress came to power in eight out of
the 11 provinces.

DEFINING RIGHTS

- Nehru declared that the makers of the Constitution had to fulfil “the passions
that lie in the hearts of the masses”.
The problem with separate electorates

• On 27 August 1947, B. Pocker Bahadur from Madras made a powerful plea for
continuing separate electorates.
• Only separate electorates would ensure that Muslims had a meaningful voice in
the governance of the country. The needs of Muslims, Bahadur felt, could not
be properly understood by non-Muslims.
• Most nationalists saw separate electorates as a measure deliberately
introduced by the British to divide the people. “The English played their game
under the cover of safeguards,” R.V. Dhulekar told Bahadur.
• Separate electorates was a “poison that has entered the body politic of our
country”, declared Sardar Patel.
• Countering the demand for separate electorates, Govind Ballabh Pant declared
that it was not only harmful for the nation but also for the minorities.
• The Constitution would grant to citizens rights, but citizens had to offer their
loyalty to the State. Communities could be recognised as cultural entities and
assured cultural rights.
• Not all Muslims supported the demand for separate electorates. Begum Aizaas
Rasul, for instance, felt that separate electorates were selfdestructive since they
isolated the minorities from the majority.
• By 1949, most Muslim members of the Constituent Assembly were agreed that
separate electorates were against the interests of the minorities.
“We will need much more than this Resolution”

• N.G. Ranga, a socialist who had been a leader of the peasant movement, urged
that the term minorities be interpreted in economic terms; welcomed the legal
rights the Constitution was granting to each individual but pointed to its limits.
• One of the groups mentioned by Ranga, the tribals, had among its
representatives to the Assembly the gifted orator Jaipal Singh.
• Singh spoke on the need to protect the tribes, and ensure conditions that could
help them come up to the level of the general population. Perceiving them as
primitive and backward, the rest of society had turned away from them, spurned
them.
• Singh was not asking for separate electorates, but he felt that reservation of
seats in the legislature was essential to allow tribals to represent themselves.
“We were suppressed for thousands of years”

• Members of the Depressed Castes emphasised that the problem of

“Untouchables” could not be resolved through protection and safeguards alone;
Their disabilities were caused by social norms and the moral values of caste
society.
• “We have been suffering, but we are prepared to suffer no more,” said J.
Nagappa from Madras. “We have realised our responsibilities. We know how to
assert ourselves.”
• Depressed Castes formed between 20 and 25 per cent of the total population.
Their suffering was due to their systematic marginalisation, not their numerical
insignificance.
• The Constituent Assembly finally recommended that untouchability be
abolished, Hindu temples be open to all castes, seats in legislatures and jobs in
government offices be reserved for them.
THE POWERS OF THE STATE

• The Draft Constitution provided for three lists of subjects: Union, State, and
Concurrent.
• Subjects in the first list were to be the preserve of the Central Government,
while second list were vested with the states And third list, here Centre and
state shared responsibility.
• Article 356 gave the Centre the powers to take over a state administration on
the recommendation of the Governor.
• The Constitution also mandated for a complex system of fiscal federalism. In
case of some taxes (for instance, customs duties and Company taxes) the
Centre retained all the proceeds; in other cases (such as income tax and excise
duties) it shared them with the states.
• The states, meanwhile, could levy and collect certain taxes on their own: these
included land and property taxes, sales tax, and the hugely profitable tax on
bottled liquor.
“The centre is likely to break”

• Rights of the states were most eloquently defended by K. Santhanam from

Madras.
 • “There is almost an obsession that by adding all kinds of powers to the Centre
we can make it strong.” This was a misconception, said Santhanam.
• By relieving it of some of its functions, and transferring them to the states, the
Centre could, in fact, be made stronger .
• Santhanam predicted a dark future if the proposed distribution of powers was
adopted without further scrutiny. In a few years, he said, all the provinces would
rise in “revolt against the Centre”.
• A member from Orissa warned that “the Centre is likely to break” since powers
had been excessively centralised under the Constitution.
“What we want today is a strong Government”

• Ambedkar had declared that he wanted “a strong and united Centre than the
Centre we had created under the Government of India Act of 1935”.
• Gopalaswami Ayyangar declared that “the Centre should be made as strong as
possible”.
• One member from the United Provinces, Balakrishna Sharma, reasoned at
length that only a strong centre could plan for the well-being of the country,
mobilise the available economic resources, establish a proper administration,
and defend the country against foreign aggression.
• After Partition most nationalists changed their position because they felt that the
earlier political pressures for a decentralised structure were no longer there.

THE LANGUAGE OF THE NATION

• By the 1930s, the Congress accepted that Hindustani (blend of Hindi and Urdu)
ought to be the national language. Mahatma Gandhi felt that everyone should
speak in a language that common people could easily understand.
• This multi-cultural language, Mahatma Gandhi thought, would be the ideal
language of communication between diverse communities: it could unify Hindus
and Muslims, and people of the north and the south.
A plea for Hindi

• R. V. Dhulekar, a Congressman from the United Provinces, made an

aggressive plea that Hindi be used as the language of constitution-making.
• Language issue continued to disrupt proceedings and agitate members over the
subsequent three years.
• On 12 September 1947, Dhulekar’s speech on the language of the nation once
again sparked off a huge storm.
• For the first fifteen years, English would continue to be used for all official
purposes. Each province was to be allowed to choose one of the regional
languages for official work within the province.
• Dhulekar wanted Hindi to be declared not an Official Language, but a National
Language.
The fear of domination

• Shrimati G. Durgabai informed the House that the opposition in the south
against Hindi was very strong: “The opponents feel perhaps justly that this
propaganda for Hindi cuts at the very root of the provincial languages ...”
 • A member from Bombay, Shri Shankarrao Deo stated that as a Congressman
and a follower of Mahatma Gandhi he had accepted Hindustani as a language
of the nation.
• T. A. Ramalingam Chettiar from Madras emphasised that whatever was done
had to be done with caution; the cause of Hindi would not be helped if it was
pushed too aggressively.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS[MCQs]:

1. During the period of the Raj approximately how much area of the sub-continent
was under the control of nawabs and maharajas (princely states)?
(a) One-third area (b) One-half area (c) One-fourth area (d) One-fifth area
राज िे िाि में उपमहाद्वीप िा िगभग नितना क्षेत्र अिीन था?
नवाबों और महाराजाओं (ररयासतों) िा ननयंत्रर्?
(ए) एि नतहाई क्षेत्र (बी) आिा क्षेत्र (सी) एि-चौथाई क्षेत्र (डी) एि-पांचवां क्षेत्र
ANS: (a) One-third area
2. When did the Great Calcutta Killings' take place?
(a) August 1946 (b) March 1946 (c) September 1946 (d) October 1946
ग्रेट ििित्ता हत्यािांड िब हुआ था?
(ए) अगस्त 1946 (बी) माचव 1946 (सी) नसतंबर 1946 (डी) अक्टू बर 1946
ANS: (a) August 1946

3. Ambedkar said: His "ability to put the most intricate proposals in the simplest
and clearest
legal form can rarely be equalled".
Choose the correct option: to whom was Ambedkar referring in this statement?
(a) S.N. Mukherjee (b) K.M. Munshi
(c) Krishnaswamy Aiyar (d) B.N. Rau
अम्बेडिर ने िहा: उनिी "सबसे जनटि प्रस्तावों िो सबसे सरि और स्पष्ट रूप में रिने िी
क्षमता।"
िानूनी रूप िी तुिना शायद ही िभी िी जा सिती है "।
सही नविल् चुनें: इस राज्य में अम्बेडिर निसिी बात िर रहे थे?
(ए) एस.एन. मुिजी (बी) िे.एम. मुंशी
(सी) िृष्णास्वामी अय्यर (डी) बी.एन. राव
ANS: (a) S.N. Mukherjee

4. Given below are two statements one labelled as Assertion(A) and other labelled as
Reason(R)-

Assertion(A) – Of the members elected to the constituent assembly, 82 percent

were from congress.
Reason (R)- the congress was a party that consisted of people of different
ideologies.
Codes-
A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.
B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
C. A is true, but R is false
 D. A is false, but R is true
ANS: B. Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A

5. Given below are members of the Constituent Assembly. Find out from the
following pairS

which one is not correctly matched:

(a) Jaipal Singh: Adivasi member

(b) Hansa Mehta : From Bombay

(c) N.G. Ranga: Socialist and a leader of the Peasant Movement

(d) Dakshayani Velayudhan: From Central Provinces

नीचे संनविान सभा िे सदस्य नदए गए हैं। ननम्ननिखित युग्ों से ज्ञात िीनजए

िौन सा सही सुमेनित नहीं है:

(ए) जयपाि नसंह: आनदवासी सदस्य (बी) हंसा मेहता: बॉम्बे से

(सी) एन.जी. रं गा: समाजवादी और निसान आं दोिन िे नेता (डी) दाक्षायनी

वेिायुिन: मध्य प्रांत से

ANS: (d) Dakshayani Velayudhan: From Central Provinces

SHORT TYPE QUESTION:

1. Why did several members in the Constituent Assembly support the cause of the
Depressed Castes? What did the Assembly finally recommend for them?
संनविान सभा िे िई सदस्यों ने दनित जानतयों िे मुद्दे िा समथवन क्यों निया? आऩिरिार
नविानसभा ने उनिे निए क्या नसफाररश िी?
Ans. (i) Several members of the Constituent Assembly supported the
causes of Depressed Castes, because of oppression they had suffered
for generations.
(ii) Society had used their labour and services but kept them at a
distance. They were not allowed entry into temples. Intermixing and inter-
dining with other castes was not allowed.
(iii) Their suffering was not due to their numerical numbers but due to
systematic marginalisation, social norms and values of caste system.
(iv) Not only were they discriminated, but had no access to education
and no share in the administration.
• Assembly recommended abolition of untouchability. Their entry into
temples and access to public places-wells, bath ghats etc., was allowed
by law. Seats were reserved for them in schools and colleges. Seats in
legislature and jobs in government offices were also reserved for them.

LONG TYPE QUESTION:

 1. Partition of India made nationalists frequently opposed to the idea of separate
electorates.' Examine the statement.

भारत िे नवभाजन ने राष्टरवानदयों िो पृथि ननवाव नचिा िे नवचार िा अक्सर नवरोि िरने पर
मजबूर िर नदया।' िथन िा परीक्षर् िरें .

Ans. The demand for continuing separate electorates by B. Pocker Bahadhur

provoked anger and resulted in the passionate debate against the demand
among nationalists. Among the arguments put forward were:

(i) The British introduced separate electorates by the Act of 1909 under the
pretext of giving adequate representation to the minorities. But in actual fact, it
divided the Indian people and the nationalist struggle.

(ii) Partition had made the nationalists strongly opposed to the idea. They were
haunted by the fear of continued civil war, riots and violence.

(ii) Sardar Patel said it was 'a poison that had entered the body politic of our
country'. The mischief left behind by the British,

- turned one community against another, divided the nation, caused bloodshed,
and - led to the Partition of the country.

(iv) G. B. Pant regarded the demand, 'suicidal'. It was not only harmful for the
nation but also for the minorities. He argued, that would permanently isolate and
segregate the minorities, from the rest of the community. They would make
them vulnerable and deprive them of any effective say within the government.

(v) G. B. Pant argued there is a degrading habit of thinking always in terms of

communities and never in terms of citizens. It is the citizen that must count.

(vi) Nationalists feared this would lead to divided loyalties and make it difficult to
forge

(vii) Not all Muslims supported the demand for separate electorates. Begum
Aizaz Rasul felt separate electorates were self-destructive as they isolated the
minorities from majority.

By 1949, most Muslim members of the Constituent Assembly agreed separate

electorates were against the interests of minorities.
 KENDRIYA VIDYALAYA SANGATHAN

PATNA REGION

SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER

(2023-24)

HISTORY(027)

CLASS- XII

TIME: 3 HOURS MAXIMUM

MARKS: 80

General Instructions: All questions are compulsory.

(i) Question paper comprises five Sections – A, B, C, D and E. There are 34 questions in the question
paper.

(ii)Section A – Question 1 to 21 is MCQs of 1 mark each.

(iii) Section B – Question no. 22 to 27 are Short Answer Type Questions, carrying 3 marks each. Answer
to each question should not exceed 60-80 words.

(iv) Section C - Question no 28 to 30 are Long Answer Type Questions, carrying 8 marks each. Answer
to each question should not exceed 300-350 words

(v) Section D – Question no.31 to 33 are Source based questions with three sub questions and are of 4
marks each

(vi) Section-E - Question no. 34 is Map based, carrying 5 marks that includes the identification and
location of significant test items. Attach the map with the answer book.

(vii) There is no overall choice in the question paper. However, an internal choice has been provided in
few questions. Only one of the choices in such questions has to be attempted.

(viii) In addition to this, separate instructions are given with each section and question, wherever
necessary answer all the questions. Some questions have internal choice. Marks are indicated against
each question. This question paper comprises of six sections.

S.N Section- A MAR

KS

Q.1 Identify the construction found in Harappan civilization. 1

I. It was a large rectangular tank.

2. It was in a courtyard surrounded by a corridor on all four sides.

3. There were rooms on three sides.
4. Water from the tank flowed into a huge drain.
Codes

(a) The Great Tank (b) The Great Bath

(c) The Great Washroom (d) None of these

हड़प्पा सभ्यता में पाए गए निमािण की पहिाि करें ।

I. यह एक बड़ा आयताकार टैंक था।

2. यह एक आंगि में था जो िारों तरफ से गलियारे से नघरा हुआ था।

 3. तीि तरफ कमरे थे.

4. तािाब का पािी एक ववशाि िािे में बहता था।

(ए) महाि टैंक (बी) महाि स्िािघर

(सी) द ग्रेट वॉशरूम (डी) इिमें से कोई िहीं

Q.2 Choose the correct name of the begum from following options: 1

निम्ननिखित निकल्पों में से बेगम का सही िाम चुिें:

(A) Sultan jehan begum

(B) Shah jehan begum
(C) Qudsia begum
(D) None
(ए) सुल्ताि जहाों बेगम
(बी) शाहजहााँ बेगम
(सी) कुदनसया बेगम
(डी) कपई िहीों

NOTE: Question for Visually impaired candidates-

Who provided money for the preservation of ancient site of sanchi?

(A) Sultan jehan begum

(B) Shah jehan begum
(C) Both
(D) None
िपट: दृनिबानित अभ्यनथियपों के निए प्रश्न-

साोंची के प्राचीि स्थि के सोंरक्षण के निए िि नकसिे प्रदाि नकया?

(ए) सुल्ताि जहाों बेगम

(बी) शाहजहााँ बेगम

(सी) दपिपों

(डी) कपई िहीों

Q.3 Which pair is not correct? 1

(a) Lothal-Gujarat

(b) Nageshwar-Maharashtra

(c) Banawali-Haryana
 (d) Kalibangan-Rajasthan

कौि सा जोड़ा सही िहीं है ?

(ए) िोथि-गुजरात

(बी) िागेश्वर-महाराष्र

(सी) बिाविी-हररयाणा

(डी) कािीबंगि-राजस्थाि

Q.4 Consider the following statements and select the correct one. 1

a)Brahmanas were supposed to study and teach the Vedas.

(b)Kshatriyas were expected to engage in agriculture.

c) Vaishyas were to engage in warfare.

(d) Shudras were engaged in any work which they liked.

निम्िलिखित कथिों पर वविार करें और सही का ियि करें ।

a)ब्राह्मणों को वेदों का अध्ययि और अध्यापि करिा िाहहए था।

(बी)क्षत्रत्रयों से कृवष में संिग्ि होिे की अपेक्षा की गई थी।

ग) वैश्यों को युद्ध में शालमि होिा था।

(घ) शूद्र ककसी भी कायि में िगे रहते थे जो उन्हें पसंद होता था।

Q.5 Consider the following statements: 1

1. Jainism was started by Rishabhdev.

2. Lord Mahavira was 24th Tirthankar of Jainism.
3. Teachings of Jainism are given in Angar.
4. Jainism started Sangha to spread its massage. Which of the given statements is/are correct?
(a) l,2,3,4 (b) 1,2,3

(c)2,3,4 (d) 1,3,4

निम्िलिखित कथिों पर वविार करें :

1. जैि धमि की शुरुआत ऋषभदे व िे की थी।

2. भगवाि महावीर जैि धमि के 24वें तीथंकर थे।

3. अंगार में जैि धमि की लशक्षा दी जाती है ।

4. जैि धमि िे अपिा प्रिार प्रसार करिे के लिए संघ की शरु

ु आत की। हदए गए कथिों में से कौि सा/से सही है/हैं?

(ए) l,2,3,4 (बी) 1,2,3

(सी)2,3,4 (डी) 1,3,4

Q.6 Match the following. 1

 List I List II

A. Endogamy 1. Practice in which one man has several wives

B. Exogamy 2. Marriage within the same family unit living in the same locality
C. Polyandry 3. Practice in which one woman has several husbands
D. Polygyny 4. Marriage outside the family unit
निम्िलिखित को लमिाएं।

सि
ू ीI सूिी II

A. अंतवविवाह 1. वह प्रथा जजसमें एक आदमी की कई पजत्ियााँ होती हैं

बी. बहहवविवाह 2. एक ही इिाके में रहिे वािे एक ही पररवार इकाई के भीतर वववाह

सी. बहुपनतत्व 3. वह प्रथा जजसमें एक स्त्री के कई पनत होते हैं

डी. बहुवववाह 4. पररवार इकाई के बाहर वववाह

Codes ABCD

(a)3142

(b)243 l

(c)1432

(d)314 2

Q.7 Which of the following statements is incorrect regarding the lively discussions and 1
debates in the Buddhist texts?

(a) Debates took place in the kutagarashala.

(b) Many of the teachers questioned the authority of the Vedas.
(c) In these debates the kings tried to convince one another as well as laypersons about the
validity of their philosophy or the way they understood the world.
(d) If a philosopher succeeded in convincing one of his rivals, the
followers of the latter also became his disciples.

बौद्ध ग्रंथों में जीवंत ििािओं और बहसों के संबंध में निम्िलिखित में से कौि सा कथि गित है ?

(ए) कुटागरशािा में बहस हुई।

(बी) कई लशक्षकों िे वेदों के अचधकार पर सवाि उठाया।

(सी) इि बहसों में राजाओं िे एक-दस

ू रे के साथ-साथ आम िोगों को भी उिके दशिि की वैधता या
दनु िया को समझिे के उिके तरीके के बारे में समझािे की कोलशश की।

(डी) यहद कोई दाशिनिक अपिे ककसी प्रनतद्वंद्वी को समझािे में सफि हो जाता है

बाद के अिय
ु ायी भी उिके लशष्य बि गए।

Q.8 Choose the correct option: 1

(a) Ibn-Battuta travelled extensively in China.

(b) Al-Biruni found the Indian cities quite populated.
(c) Al-Biruni was greatly influenced by the Indian postal system.
 (d) According to Ibn-Battuta. crown ownership of land was quite disasterous for farmers.
सही ववकल्प िुिें:

(ए) इब्ि-बतूता िे िीि में बड़े पैमािे पर यात्रा की।

(बी) अि-त्रबरूिी िे भारतीय शहरों को काफी आबादी वािा पाया।

(सी) अि-त्रबरूिी भारतीय डाक प्रणािी से बहुत प्रभाववत था।

(डी) इब्ि-बतत
ू ा के अिस
ु ार। भलू म का स्वालमत्व ककसािों के लिए काफी वविाशकारी था।

Q.9 Consider the following 1

List 1 List 2

1.Al-Biruni i. Rihla

2. Ibn-Battuta ii. Kitab-ul-Hind

3. Francois

Bernieriii. iii.Travels in Mughal

Empire

Correctly match them.

निम्ि पर वविार करें

सूिी 1 सूिी 2

1.अि- त्रबरूिी i. ररहिा

2. इब्ि-बतत
ू ा ii. ककताब-उि-हहन्द

3. फ्रेंकोइस

बनिियर iii.मग़
ु ि में यात्राएाँ साम्राज्य

इिका सही लमिाि करें .

a. l- (ii), 2 - (i), 3 - (iii)

b. 1 - (i), 2 - (ii), 3 - (iii)
c. I- (iii), 2 - (i), 3 - (iii)
d. l - (ii), 2 - (iii), 3 - (i)

Q.10 Consider the following statements. 1

1.Montesquieu used Bernier's accounts to develop his idea of oriental despotism.

1. Bernier gave a detailed report on rural society.

3. According to Bernier, crown ownership of land was good for peasants.

4. Bernier onsidered Indian King was the king of beggars. Which of the given statement is/are
 correct?

निम्िलिखित कथिों पर वविार करें .

1.मोंटे स््यू िे प्राच्य निरं कुशता के अपिे वविार को ववकलसत करिे के लिए बनिियर के िातों का
उपयोग ककया।

1. बनिियर िे ग्रामीण समाज पर ववस्तत

ृ ररपोटि दी।

3. बनिियर के अिुसार, भूलम का मुकुट स्वालमत्व ककसािों के लिए अच्छा था।

4. बनिियर पक्षपाती भारतीय राजा लभिाररयों का राजा था। हदए गए कथिों में से कौि सा/से सही
है/हैं?

(a) 1, 2, 3, 4
(b) l,2,3
(c) l,2,4
(d) 2, 3, 4

Q.11 Krishndev Rai constructed ______ to mark his accession. 1

a. A hall in front of the Virupaksh temple b. Central shrine

c. A hall of Vitthal temple d. Eastern gateway

िृष्णदे वराय ने _________ अपने राज्यारोहर् िे उपिक्ष्य में बनवाया था |

a. नवरूपाक्ष मंनदर िा सभागार b. िेंद्रीय दे वािय

c. नवट्ठि मंनदर िा सभागार d. पूवी गोपुरम

Q.12 What do you understand by the term Khud-Kashta? 1

a. Peasants who were residents of the village

b. Non-resident cultivators
c.Revenue collectors
d. Head of jati panchayat

िुद-कष्टा शब्द से आप ्या समझते हैं?

a. ककसाि जो गांव के निवासी थे

b. अनिवासी कृषक

c.राजस्व संग्राहक

d. जानत पंिायत के मुखिया

Q.13 The scenes from Ramayana were sculpted on the inner walls of which of the building? 1

(A) Lotus Mahal (B) Virupaksha Temple

(C) Hazara Rama Temple (D) Vitthala Temple

रामायण के र्दश्यों को ककस इमारत की आंतररक दीवारों पर गढा गया था?

 (ए) िोटस महि (बी) ववरुपाक्ष मंहदर

(ग) हजारा राम मंहदर (घ) ववठ्ठि मंहदर

Q.14 Which of the following crops were considered as jins-i-Kamil? 1

(i).Cotton and sugarcane

(ii) Maize and sugarcane
(iii) Rice and wheat
(iv) Chillies and potatoes

निम्िलिखित में से ककस फसि को जजन्स-ए-कालमि मािा जाता था?

(i) कपास और गन्िा

(ii) म्का और गन्िा

(iii) िावि और गेहूं

(iv) लमिि और आिू

Q.15 In the following questions, a statement of Assertion(A) is followed 1

by a statement of Reason(R). mark the correct choice as:

(A) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A

(B) Both A and R are true, and R is not the correct explanation of A
(C) A is true, but R is false

(D) A is false, but R is true.

Assertion(A): Awadh was, in fact called the ''Nursery of the Bengal Army".

Reason(R) : the large majority of the sepoys of the Bengal Army were

recruited from the villages of Awadh and eastern Uttar Pradesh many of them were Brahmins
or from the ''upper" castes

निम्िलिखित प्रश्िों में, अलभकथि (ए) का एक कथि अिुसरण ककया गया है

कारण(R) के एक कथि द्वारा। सही ववकल्प को इस प्रकार चिजह्ित करें :

(ए) ए और आर दोिों सत्य हैं, और आर, ए का सही स्पष्टीकरण है

(बी) ए और आर दोिों सत्य हैं, और आर, ए का सही स्पष्टीकरण िहीं है

(सी) ए सत्य है, िेककि आर गित है

(डी) ए गित है, िेककि आर सि है।

दावा (ए): वास्तव में अवध को ''बंगाि सेिा की िसिरी'' कहा जाता था।

कारण (आर): बंगाि सेिा के अचधकांश लसपाही थे अवध और पव

ू ी उिर प्रदे श के गांवों से भती ककए
गए उिमें से कई ब्राह्मण या ''उच्ि'' जानतयों से थे

Q.16 The Non-Cooperation movements were suspended due to which of the following reasons? 1

A. Incident of Chauri –Chaura

 B. Jalliyanwala Bagh Massacre

C. Lahore Session of Congress

D. Caliphate issue

असहयोग आंदोििों को निम्िलिखित में से ककस कारण से नििंत्रबत कर हदया गया था?

क. िौरी-िौरा की घटिा

बी. जलियांवािा बाग िरसंहार

C. कांग्रेस का िाहौर अचधवेशि

घ. ििीफा का मुद्दा

Q.17 When did Gandhiji started Dandi March from Sabamati? 1

a. July 18, 1942

b. March 12, 1930

c. December 13, 1887

d. January 1, 1912

गांधीजी िे साबामती से दांडी मािि कब शुरू ककया था?

एक। 18 जि
ु ाई 1942

बी। 12 मािि, 1930

सी। 13 हदसंबर, 1887

डी। 1 जिवरी, 1912

Q.18 Which of following is an incorrect match for centre of the revolt and their leaders? 1

(a)Kanpur – Nana Sahib

(b)Jhansi - Rani Lakshami Bai

(c)Awadh – Shah Mal

(d)Faizabad- Moulavi Ahammedulla ननम्ननिखित में से िौन नवद्रोह िे िेंद्र और उनिे नेताओं िे
निए एि गित मेि है?

(a) िानपुर - नाना सानहब

(b) झाँसी - रानी िक्षमी बाई

(c) अवि - शाह मि

(d) फैजाबाद- मौिवी अहमदु ल्ला

Q.19 Assertion(A): The notions of freedom were different for every social group. 1

Reason(R) Every class and group felt the effects of colonialism differently .

(a)Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A.

(b)Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.

 (c)A is true but R is false.

(d)A is false but R is true

अलभकथि (ए): स्वतंत्रता की धारणाएं हर सामाजजक समूह के लिए अिग थीं।

कारण (R) हर वगि और समूह िे उपनिवेशवाद के प्रभावों को अिग तरह से महसस

ू ककया।

(क) A और R दोिों सत्य हैं और R, A का सही स्पष्टीकरण है।

(ि) A और R दोिों सत्य हैं िेककि R, A का सही स्पष्टीकरण िहीं है।

(ग) A सत्य है िेककि R असत्य है।

(घ) A असत्य है िेककि R सत्य है

Q.20 "“A cherry that will drop into our mouth one day” -/यह चेरी एि नदन हमारे मुहं मे आिर नगरे गा 1
ये िथन निसिा था -"

(A)Governor genral Lord Dalhoujie /गवनवर जनरि िाडव डिहौजी

(B) Governor genral Lord Hardinge /गवनवर जनरि िाडव हानडिं ग

(C) Governorf general Lord William /गवनवर जनरि िाडव नवनिंयम

(D)Governor general Lord Canning /गवनवर जनरि िाडव िैननंग bb

Q.21 Identify the image and who painted it? छवव को पहिािें और इसे ककसिे चित्रत्रत ककया? 1

(A) Relief of Lucknow by Thomas Jones Barker

(B) Relief of Lucknow by Joseph Neol Panton
(C) In Memorian by Thomas Jones Barker
(D) In Memorian by Joseph Neol Panton
(ए) थॉमस जपन्स बाकिर द्वारा िििऊ की राहत
(बी) जपसेफ नियपि पैंटि द्वारा िििऊ की राहत
(सी) थॉमस जपन्स बाकिर द्वारा मेमपररयि में
(डी) मेमपररयि में जपसेफ नियपि पैंटि द्वारा

NOTE: Question for Visually impaired candidates-

Who had painted “In Memoriam” picture?

(A) Thomas Jones Barker

(B) Joseph Neol Panton
(C) Subhadra kumari Chauhan
(D) None
िपट: दृनिबानित अभ्यनथियपों के निए प्रश्न-
“इि मेमपररयम” नचत्र नकसिे बिाया था?
(ए) थॉमस जपन्स बाकिर
 (बी) जपसेफ नियपि पैंटि
(सी) सुभद्रा कुमारी चौहाि

(डी) कपई िहीों

Section -B

Q.22 Give reasons for the emergence of new religious sects during sixth- century B.C.E. 3

Or

Describe the similarities between Jainism and Buddhism.

छठी शताब्दी ईसा पूवि के दौराि िए धालमिक संप्रदायों के उद्भव के कारण बताएं।

या

जैि धमि और बौद्ध धमि के बीि समािताएं बताएं।

Q.23 How Harappan seals and sealing were's used by facilitating long distance communication? 3
What did the sealing's convey?

िंबी दू री िे संचार िो सुनविाजनि बनाने िे निए ह़िप्पा िी मुहरों और सीनिंग िा उपयोग िैसे
निया जाता था? सीनिंग ने क्या संदेश नदया?

or

Mention the possible reason for the end of the Harappan Civilization

हड़प्पा सभ्यता के अंत के संभाववत कारणों की ििाि करें ।

Q.24 Highlight the contribution of Krishnadeva Raya in the expansion of Vijaynagar Empire. 3

ववजयिगर साम्राज्य के ववस्तार में कृष्णदे व राय के योगदाि पर प्रकाश डालिये।

Q.25 Describe the role played by women in agricultural production. 3

कृवष उत्पादि में महहिाओं द्वारा निभाई गई भूलमका का वणिि करें .

Q.26 Why and when did the Simon Commission come to India? Why was the Simon Commission 3
opposed?

Or

The Salt March of Gandhiji was notable for at least three reasons. mention these three
reasons?

साइमि कमीशि भारत ्यों और कब आया? ्यों था साइमि कमीशि िे ववरोध ककया?

या

गांधीजी का िमक मािि कम से कम तीि कारणों से उल्िेििीय था। इि तीि कारणों का उल्िेि करें ?

Q.27 Examine the views of R.V.Dhulekar and Smt. Durgabai on the question of National language. 3

आर.वी.िुिेिर और श्रीमती दु गाव बाई िा राष्टरभाषा पर प्रश्न िे नवचारों िा परीक्षर् िरें ।.

Section - C

Q.28 What does Asokan inscriptions tell about the Mauryas? Describe the limitations of the 8
inscriptional evidences.
 or

To what extent the epigraphists face limitations of inscriptional evidence? Explain

अशोि िे नशिािेि मौयों िे बारे में क्या बताते हैं ? अनभिेिीय साक्ष्यों िी सीमाओं िा वर्वन िरें ।

या

अनभिेिशाखियों िो निस हद ति नशिािेिीय साक्ष्य िी सीमाओं िा सामना िरना प़िता है ?

व्याख्या िरना

Q.29 Discuss the major beliefs and practices that characterised Sufism. 8

or

Analyses, illustrations, why bhakti and sufi thinkers adopted a variety of languages in which
to express their opinions.

सूफीवाद की ववशेषता वािी प्रमुि मान्यताओं और प्रथाओं पर ििाि करें ।

या

ववश्िेषण, चित्रण, ्यों भज्त और सूफी वविारकों िे अपिी राय व्य्त करिे के लिए ववलभन्ि
भाषाओं को अपिाया।

Q.30 Describe the pattern of 1857 revolt? 8

Or

Why peasants Taluqdars, sepoy ,zamindar joined revolt in awadh.

1857 के ववद्रोह के पैटिि का वणिि करें ?

या

अवध में तािक

ु दार, लसपाही, जमींदार आहद ककसाि ववद्रोह में ्यों शालमि हुए?

Section - D

Q.31 Read the passage carefully and answer the questions given below: 1+1+
2=4
Read the given excerpts carefully and answer the questions:

According to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could be kings. However, several important ruling
lineages probably had different origins. The social background of the Mauryas, who ruled
over a large empire, has been hotly debated. While later Buddhist texts suggested they were
Kshatriyas, Brahmanical texts described them as being of "low" origin. The Shungas and
Kanvas, the immediate successors of the Mauryas, were Brahmanas. In fact, political power
was effectively open to anyone who could muster support and resources, and rarely depended
on birth as a Kshatriya. Other rulers, such as the Shakas who came from Central Asia, were

regarded as mlechchhas, barbarians or outsiders by the Brahmanas. However, oneof the

earliest inscriptions in Sanskrit describes how Rudradaman, the best-known Shaka ruler (c.
second century CE), rebuilt Sudarshana lake . This suggests that powerful mlechchhas were
familiar with Sanskritic traditions. It is also interesting that the best-known ruler of the
Satavahana dynasty, Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani, claimed to be both a unique Brahmana (eka
bamhana) and a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas. He also claimed to have ensured that
there was no intermarriage amongst members of the four vamas. At the same time, he entered
into a marriage alliance with the kin of Rudradaman. As you can see from this example,
 integration within the framework of caste was often a complicated process. The Satavahanas
claimed to be Brahmanas, whereas according to the Brahmanas, kings ought to have been
Kshatriyas. They claimed to uphold the fourfold vama order, but entered into marriage
alliances with people who were supposed to be excluded from the system. And, as we have
seen, they practised endogamy instead of the exogamous system recommended in the
Brahmanical texts.

i) Who were the Mlechchhas?

ii) Who was Gotami-Puta-Siri-Satakani?

iii) Who was Rudradaman.

नदए गए अंशों िो ध्यानपूववि पढें और प्रश्नों िे उत्तर दें : शािों िे अनुसार िेवि क्षनत्रय ही राजा हो
सिते थे। हािाँनि, िई महत्वपूर्व शासि वंशों िी उत्पनत्त संभवतः अिग-अिग थी। एि ब़िे साम्राज्य
पर शासन िरने वािे मौयों िी सामानजि पृष्ठभूनम पर गमावगमव बहस हुई है। जबनि बाद िे बौद्ध ग्रंथों
ने सुझाव नदया नि वे क्षनत्रय थे, ब्राह्मर् ग्रंथों ने उन्हें "ननम्न" मूि िा बताया। शुंग और िण्व, मौयों िे
तत्काि उत्तरानििारी, ब्राह्मर् थे। वास्तव में, राजनीनति शखक्त प्रभावी रूप से निसी भी व्यखक्त िे निए
िुिी थी जो समथवन और संसािन जुटा सिता था, और शायद ही िभी क्षनत्रय िे रूप में जन्म पर ननभवर
था। अन्य शासि, जैसे शि, जो मध्य एनशया से आये थे ब्राह्मर्ों द्वारा उन्हें म्लेच्छ, बबवर या बाहरी माना
जाता था। हािाँनि, संस्कृत िे सबसे पुराने नशिािेिों में से एि में वर्वन निया गया है नि िैसे सबसे
प्रनसद्ध शि शासि (िगभग दू सरी शताब्दी ईस्वी) रुद्रदामन ने सुदशवन झीि िा पुनननवमावर् निया था।
इससे पता चिता है नि शखक्तशािी म्लेच्छ संस्कृत परं पराओं से पररनचत थे। यह भी नदिचस्प है नि
सातवाहन वंश िे सबसे प्रनसद्ध शासि गौतमी-पुत नसरी-सातिनन ने एि अनद्वतीय ब्राह्मर् (एि
बम्हना) और क्षनत्रयों िे गौरव िो नष्ट िरने वािा दोनों होने िा दावा निया था। उन्होंने यह भी सुनननित
िरने िा दावा निया नि चारों वामों िे सदस्यों िे बीच िोई अंतनवववाह न हो। उसी समय, उन्होंने
रुद्रदामन िे ररश्तेदारों िे साथ नववाह गठबंिन में प्रवेश निया। जैसा नि आप इस उदाहरर् से दे ि
सिते हैं, जानत िे ढांचे िे भीतर एिीिरर् अक्सर एि जनटि प्रनक्रया थी। सातवाहन ब्राह्मर् होने िा
दावा िरते थे, जबनि ब्राह्मर्ों िे अनुसार राजाओं िो क्षनत्रय होना चानहए था। उन्होंने चार गुना वामा
आदे श िो बनाए रिने िा दावा निया, िेनिन उन िोगों िे साथ नववाह गठबंिन में प्रवेश निया नजन्हें
इस प्रर्ािी से बाहर रिा जाना चानहए था। और, जैसा नि हमने दे िा है , उन्होंने ब्राह्मर् ग्रंथों में
अनुशंनसत बनहनवववाह प्रर्ािी िे बजाय सजातीय नववाह िा अभ्यास निया।

i) म्लेच्छ िौन थे? 1

ii) गौतमी-पुता-नसरी-सातािानी िौन थी? 1
iii) रुद्रदामन िौन था? 2
Q.32 Read the passage carefully and answer the questions given below: 1+1+
2=4
The Bird leaves its Nest

This is an excerpt from the Rihla :

My departure from Tangier, my birthplace, took place on Thursday... I set out alone, having
neither fellow-traveller nor caravan whose party I might join, but swayed by an overmastering
impulse with me and a desire long-cherished in my bosom to visit these illustrious
sanctuaries. So I braced my resolution to quit all my dear ones, female and male and forsook
my home as birds forsake their nests My age at that time was twenty-two years. Ibn Battuta
returned home in 1354, about 30 years after he had set out.

Questions:

1. What is Rihla? 1

2. Why did lbn Battuta set out of his house all alone? How old was he at that time? 2

3. Why did he compare himself with the birds? 1

 गद्यांश को ध्यािपूवक
ि पढें और िीिे हदए गए प्रश्िों के उिर दें :

पक्षी अपिा घोंसिा छोड़ दे ता है

यह ररहिा का एक अंश है :

मेरे जन्मस्थाि टें जीर से मेरा प्रस्थाि गुरुवार को हुआ... मैं अकेिे ही निकि पड़ा, मेरे पास कोई
सहयात्री या कारवां िहीं था जजसकी पाटी में मैं शालमि हो सकंू , िेककि मेरे साथ एक अत्यचधक
प्रभुत्वपूणि आवेग और िंबे समय से मेरे हृदय में दबी एक इच्छा से प्रभाववत होकर मैं निकि पड़ा।
इि शािदार अभयारण्यों का दौरा करिे के लिए। इसलिए मैंिे अपिे सभी वप्रयजिों, महहिा और
परु
ु ष, को छोड़िे का संकल्प लिया और अपिा घर त्याग हदया जैसे पक्षी अपिे घोंसिे छोड़ दे ते हैं, उस
समय मेरी उम्र बाईस वषि थी। इब्ि बतत
ू ा अपिे प्रस्थाि के िगभग 30 वषि बाद, 1354 में घर िौट
आया।

प्रशि:

1. ररहिा ्या है ? 1

2. एिबीएि बतत
ू ा अपिे घर से अकेिे ्यों निकिा? उस समय उसकी उम्र ककतिी थी? 2

3. उसिे अपिी ति
ु िा पक्षक्षयों से ्यों की? 1

Q.33 Read the passage carefully and answer the questions given below 1+1+
2=4
On Clearance and Settled Cultivation Passing through one village in the lower Rajmahal hills,
Buchman wrote:The view of the country is exceedingly fine, the cultivation, especially the
narrow valleys of rice winding in all directions, the cleared lands with scattered trees, and the
rocky hills are in perfection; all that is wanted is some appearance of progress in the area and
vastly extended and improved cultivation, of which the country is highly susceptible,
Plantations of Asan and Palas, for Tessar (tassar silk worms) and Lac, should occupy the
place of woods to as great an extend as the demand will achieve remainder might be all
cleared, and the greater part cultivated, while what is not fit for the purpose, might near
Plamira (Palmyra) and Mowa (mahua).

Questions:

i)Who was Buchana? Which landscape is described by him in this passage? 1

ii)Mention four features of the landscape described above. 2

iii)When Buchanan wrote about a landscape,what did he highlight? 1

गद्यांश को ध्यािपव
ू क
ि पढें और िीिे हदए गए प्रश्िों के उिर दें

निििी राजमहि पहाडड़यों के एक गााँव से गुजरते हुए साफ और व्यवजस्थत िेती पर, बुिमैि िे
लििा: दे श का र्दश्य बहुत अच्छा है, िेती, ववशेष रूप से सभी हदशाओं में घुमावदार िावि की संकीणि
घाहटयााँ, त्रबिरे हुए पेड़ों के साथ साफ भलू म, और िट्टािी पहाडड़यााँ पण
ू त
ि ा में हैं; जो कुछ िाहहए वह है
क्षेत्र में कुछ प्रगनत और बड़े पैमािे पर ववस्ताररत और उन्ित िेती, जजसके लिए दे श अनतसंवेदिशीि
है, टे सर (टै सर रे शम के कीड़े) और िाि के लिए आसि और पिास के बागािों को जंगि की जगह
िेिी िाहहए जजतिी बड़ी सीमा तक मांग प्राप्त होगी शेष सभी को साफ ककया जा सकता है , और बड़े
 हहस्से की िेती की जा सकती है , जबकक जो इस उद्दे श्य के लिए उपयु्त िहीं है , वह प्िालमरा
(पािमायरा) और मोवा (महुआ) के पास हो सकता है।

प्रशि:

(i) बुिािा कौि थी? इस पररच्छे द में उिके द्वारा ककस पररर्दश्य का वणिि ककया गया है ? 1

ii) ऊपर वखणित पररर्दश्य की िार ववशेषताओं का उल्िेि करें । 2

iii)जब बुकािि िे पररर्दश्य के बारे में लििा, तो उन्होंिे ककस पर प्रकाश डािा? 1

Section - E

Q.34 (34.1) On the given political outline map of India, locate and label the following with 3+2=
appropriate symbols: 5

A. Sanchi a Stupa site

सााँिी स्तूप स्थि or

Patliputra capital of Magadh,

पाटलिपुत्र – मगध की राजधािी

B. Nageshwar, Harappan site

िागेश्वर –ह़िप्पा स्थि

C. center of Indian National Movement,

राष्टरीय आन्दोिन िा िेंद्र

Dandi -डांडी

or Champaran –चम्पारन

(34.2) On the same outline map two places have been marked as A and B . Identify them and
write their correct names on the lines marked near them.
नोट:-दृष्टिबाष्टित उम्मीदवारोों के ष्टिए प्रश्न---

Note:- Question for Visually impaired candidates

(30.1). 1857 िे नवद्रोह िे निन्हीं 2 िेंद्रों िे नाम बताइए ।1+1

Name any 2 centers of the 1857 revolt.

(30.2). निसी भी तीन ह़िप्पा स्थिों िा नाम बताइए। 1+1+1

Name any three Harappan Sites.