INTRODUCTION

Oersted in 1820 established the relationship between electricity and magnetism by

demonstrating that magnetic field is developed due to the electric current. Since
nature loves symmetry, scientists made the view that electric effect of magnet must
also be possible. Faraday performed a large number of experiments on this aspect
and discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.

Electromagnetic or magnetic induction is the production of an electromotive force

(emf) across an electrical conductor in a changing magnetic field.

Michael Faraday is generally credited with the discovery of induction in 1831, and
James Clerk Maxwell mathematically described it as Faraday's law of induction.
Lenz's law describes the direction of the induced field. Faraday's law was later
generalized to become the Maxwell–Faraday equation, one of the four Maxwell
equations in his theory of electromagnetism.

Electromagnetic induction has found many applications, including electrical

components such as inductors and transformers, and devices such as electric
motors and generators.

Faraday Oersted
Electro Magnet:

An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by

electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off.

Induction:

This process of generating current in a conductor by placing the conductor in a

changing magnetic field is called induction.

Electromagnetic Induction:

Electromagnetic induction is the production of a potential difference (voltage) across

a conductor when it is exposed to a varying magnetic field.

Electromagnetic induction is when an electromagnetic field causes molecule in

another object to flow. Induction can produce electricity (in coils), heat (in ferrous
metals), or waves (in a radio transmitter).

Finally, it refers to the phenomenon where an emf is induced when the magnetic flux
linking a conductor change.

Magnetic Flux is defined as the product of the magnetic flux density and the area
normal to the field through which the field is passing. It is a scalar quantity and its
S.I. unit is the weber (Wb).

Φ= ΒΑ
 MAGNETIC FLUX

If we consider a plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, then the product of

the magnitude of the field and the area of the plane is called the ‘magnetic flux’ (Φ)
linked with that plane.

Fig.1(a) shows a plane of area A placed perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B⃗.
The magnetic flux linked with this plane is given by Φ =BA

If the magnetic field B⃗, instead of being perpendicular to the plane, makes an angle
θ with the perpendicular to the plane as in Fig.1 (b), then the magnetic flux linked
with the plane will be equal to the product of the component of the magnetic field
perpendicular to the plane and the area of the plane.

Thus,

Φ= B cosθ A=BA cosθ

MAGNETIC FLUX Φ is positive if the outward normal to the plane is in the same
direction as B⃗. It is negative if the outward normal is opposite to B⃗.
If a coil of area A having N turns is held at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of
flux density B, then magnetic flux passing through it will be Φ =NBA. The SI unit of
magnetic flux Φ is ‘weber’ (Wb). Since B= Φ /A, the magnetic field is also expressed
in ‘weber/meter2’ (Wb-m-2). That is why the magnetic field induction B is also called
the ‘magnetic flux density’.

Dimension of ɸ: Φ =BA From the formula F=BIL (force on a current-carrying

conductor in a magnetic field), we have

 MOTIONAL EMF
Magnetic flux depends on three factors: the strength of the magnetic field, the area
through which the field lines pass, and the orientation of the field with the surface
area. If any of these quantities varies, a corresponding variation in magnetic flux
occurs. So far, we’ve only considered flux changes due to a changing field. Now we
look at another possibility: a changing area through which the field lines pass
including a change in the orientation of the area.

Two examples of this type of flux change are represented in Figure .1. In part (a), the
flux through the rectangular loop increases as it moves into the magnetic field, and in
part (b), the flux through the rotating coil varies with the angle θ.

Figure 1: (a) Magnetic flux changes as a loop moves into a magnetic field; (b)
magnetic flux changes as a loop rotates in a magnetic field.

It’s interesting to note that what we perceive as the cause of a particular flux change
actually depends on the frame of reference we choose. For example, if you are at
rest relative to the moving coils of Figure 1b, you would see the flux vary because of
a changing magnetic field—in part (a), the field moves from left to right in your
reference frame, and in part (b), the field is rotating. It is often possible to describe a
flux change through a coil that is moving in one particular reference frame in terms of
a changing magnetic field in a second frame, where the coil is stationary. However,
reference-frame questions related to magnetic flux are beyond the level of this
textbook. We’ll avoid such complexities by always working in a frame at rest relative
to the laboratory and explain flux variations as due to either a changing field or a
changing area.

Now let’s look at a conducting rod pulled in a circuit, changing magnetic flux. The
area enclosed by the circuit ‘MNOP’ of Figure 1 is lx and is perpendicular to the

magnetic field, so we can simplify the integration of into a

multiplication of magnetic field and area. The magnetic flux through the open
surface is therefore;

Φm=Blx.

Since B and l are constant and the velocity of the rod is v=dx/dt, we can now
restate Faraday’s law, Equation 1, for the magnitude of the emf in terms of the
moving conducting rod as

The current induced in the circuit is the emf divided by the resistance or

Furthermore, the direction of the induced emf satisfies Lenz’s law, as you can verify
by inspection of the figure.

This calculation of motionally induced emf is not restricted to a rod moving on

conducting rails. With F⃗ =qv⃗ ×B⃗as the starting point, it can be shown
that ϵ=−dΦm/dt holds for any change in flux caused by the motion of a conductor.
We saw in Faraday’s Law that the emf induced by a time-varying magnetic field
obeys this same relationship, which is Faraday’s law. Thus, Faraday’s law holds for
all flux changes, whether they are produced by a changing magnetic field, by
motion, or by a combination of the two.

 A conducting rod is pushed to the right at constant velocity. The resulting

change in the magnetic flux induces a current in the circuit.

From an energy perspective, F⃗ a produces power Fav, and the resistor dissipates
power I2R. Since the rod is moving at constant velocity, the applied force Fa must
balance the magnetic force Fm=IlB on the rod when it is carrying the induced
current I. Thus, the power produced is

The power dissipated is;

In satisfying the principle of energy conservation, the produced and dissipated

powers are equal.
Example: (i) If a conducting rod pointing east-west is dropped down freely, it cuts the
flux lines of the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field. Hence, a PD is
induced across the ends of the rod. If the same rod is pointing north-south, then on
dropping it down freely, it will not cut any flux lines and no PD will be induced.

(ii) The axle of the wheels of a train running on rails cuts the flux-lines of the vertical
component of earth’s magnetic field and so a potential difference is induced between
the ends of the axle. The potential difference across the wings of an airplane flying
horizontally at a definite height is also developed due to the cutting of the flux-lines of
the vertical component of earth’s magnetic field. If, however, the airplane is landing
down and its wings are in the east-west direction, then the wings cut the flux-lines of
the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field and again a potential
difference is induced. If, while landing, the wings of the airplane are in the north-
south direction, no flux-lines due to any component of earth’s magnetic field are cut
and no potential difference is induced.

(iii) If a player is running along east-west, then his body is cutting the flux -lines of the
horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field and so a PD is induced between his
head and feet. If, however, he runs along north-south, no PD is induced.
 EDDY CURRENTS
A motional emf is induced when a conductor moves in a magnetic field or when a
magnetic field moves relative to a conductor. If motional emf can cause a current in
the conductor, we refer to that current as an eddy current.

Eddy currents can produce significant drag, called magnetic damping, on the
motion involved. Consider the apparatus shown in Figure below, which swings a
pendulum bob between the poles of a strong magnet. (This is another favourite
physics demonstration.) If the bob is metal, significant drag acts on the bob as it
enters and leaves the field, quickly damping the motion. If, however, the bob is a
slotted metal plate, as shown in part (b) of the figure, the magnet produces a much
smaller effect. There is no discernible effect on a bob made of an insulator. Why
does drag occur in both directions, and are there any uses for magnetic drag?

Figure: A common physics demonstration device for exploring eddy currents and
magnetic damping. (a) The motion of a metal pendulum bob swinging between the
poles of a magnet is quickly damped by the action of eddy currents. (b) There is little
effect on the motion of a slotted metal bob, implying that eddy currents are made
less effective. (c) There is also no magnetic damping on a nonconducting bob, since
the eddy currents are extremely small.
Figure b)shows what happens to the metal plate as it enters and leaves the magnetic
field. In both cases, it experiences a force opposing its motion. As it enters from the
left, flux increases, setting up an eddy current (Faraday’s law) in the
counterclockwise direction (Lenz’s law), as shown. Only the right-hand side of the
current loop is in the field, so an unopposed force acts on it to the left (RHR-1).
When the metal plate is completely inside the field, there is no eddy current if the
field is uniform, since the flux remains constant in this region. But when the plate
leaves the field on the right, flux decreases, causing an eddy current in the clockwise
direction that, again, experiences a force to the left, further slowing the motion. A
similar analysis of what happens when the plate swings from the right toward the left
shows that its motion is also damped when entering and leaving the field.

Fig
ure : A more detailed look at the conducting plate passing between the poles of a
magnet. As it enters and leaves the field, the change in flux produces an eddy
current. Magnetic force on the current loop opposes the motion. There is no current
and no magnetic drag when the plate is completely inside the uniform field.
When a slotted metal plate enters the field (Figure c), an emf is induced by the
change in flux, but it is less effective because the slots limit the size of the current
loops. Moreover, adjacent loops have currents in opposite directions, and their
effects cancel. When an insulating material is used, the eddy current is extremely
small, so magnetic damping on insulators is negligible. If eddy currents are to be
avoided in conductors, then they must be slotted or constructed of thin layers of
conducting material separated by insulating sheets.

Figure- Eddy currents induced in a slotted metal plate entering a magnetic field form
small loops, and the forces on them tend to cancel, thereby making magnetic drag
almost zero.

APPLICATIONS OF EDDY CURRENTS/ MAGNETIC DAMPENING:

One use of magnetic damping is found in sensitive laboratory balances. To have
maximum sensitivity and accuracy, the balance must be as friction-free as possible.
But if it is friction-free, then it will oscillate for a very long time. Magnetic damping is a
simple and ideal solution. With magnetic damping, drag is proportional to speed and
becomes zero at zero velocity. Thus, the oscillations are quickly damped, after which
the damping force disappears, allowing the balance to be very sensitive. In most
balances, magnetic damping is accomplished with a conducting disc that rotates in a
fixed field.

Figure: Magnetic damping of this sensitive balance slows its oscillations. Since
Faraday’s law of induction gives the greatest effect for the most rapid change,
damping is greatest for large oscillations and goes to zero as the motion stops.

Since eddy currents and magnetic damping occur only in conductors, recycling
centres can use magnets to separate metals from other materials. Trash is dumped
in batches down a ramp, beneath which lies a powerful magnet. Conductors in the
trash are slowed by magnetic damping while nonmetals in the trash move on,
separating from the metals. This works for all metals, not just ferromagnetic ones. A
magnet can separate out the ferromagnetic materials alone by acting on stationary
trash.
Figure: Metals can be separated from other trash by magnetic drag. Eddy currents
and magnetic drag are created in the metals sent down this ramp by the powerful
magnet beneath it. Nonmetals move on.

Other major applications of eddy currents appear in metal detectors and braking
systems in trains and roller coasters. Portable metal detectors consist of a primary
coil carrying an alternating current and a secondary coil in which a current is
induced. An eddy current is induced in a piece of metal close to the detector, causing
a change in the induced current within the secondary coil. This can trigger some sort
of signal, such as a shrill noise.

INDUCED ELECTRIC FIELDS

The fact that emfs are induced in circuits implies that work is being done on the
conduction electrons in the wires. What can possibly be the source of this work? We
know that it’s neither a battery nor a magnetic field, for a battery does not have to be
present in a circuit where current is induced, and magnetic fields never do work on
moving charges. The answer is that the source of the work is an electric field E⃗ that
is induced in the wires. The work done by E⃗ in moving a unit charge completely
around a circuit is the induced emf ε; that is,

where ∮ represents the line integral around the circuit. Faraday’s law can be written
in terms of the induced electric field as

There is an important distinction between the electric field induced by a changing

magnetic field and the electrostatic field produced by a fixed charge distribution.
Specifically, the induced electric field is nonconservative because it does net work in
moving a charge over a closed path, whereas the electrostatic field is conservative
and does no net work over a closed path. Hence, electric potential can be associated
with the electrostatic field, but not with the induced field. The following equations
represent the distinction between the two types of electric field:

Our results can be summarized by combining these equations:

 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION:
INDUCED EMF

Faraday, in 1831, discovered that whenever the number of magnetic lines of force, or
magnetic flux, passing through a circuit changes, an emf is produced in the circuit. If
the circuit is closed, a current flows through it. The emf and the current so produced
are called ‘induced emf’ and ‘induced current’ and last only while the magnetic flux is
changing. This phenomenon is known as ‘electromagnetic induction’.

The magnetic flux through a circuit may be changed in a number of ways; e.g.
(i) By moving a magnet relative to the circuit
(ii) By changing current in a neighbouring circuit
(iii) By changing current in the same circuit
(iv) By rotating a coil in a magnetic field.

Expt. 1

In Fig. 2 are shown a magnet and a coil connected to a galvanometer. When the
magnet is quickly moved towards the coil with its north pole facing the coil [Fig
(a)], the galvanometer deflects while the magnet is moving. This indicates a
momentary current in the coil.

When the magnet is withdrawn [Fig (b)], the galvanometer again deflects, but in
the opposite direction which means that the current in the coil is now in the
opposite direction.

If the experiment is repeated with South Pole of the magnet facing the coil, the
deflections are reversed [Fig (c) and (d)].

It is further observed that faster the motions of the magnet, larger are the
deflections.

If the magnet is kept stationary and the coil is moved towards or away from the
magnet, even then there is a deflection in the galvanometer. This shows that the
current in the coil is produced due to relative motion between the coil and the
magnet; it does not matter whether the coil is moving or the magnet is moving.
Expt. 2
Fig.3 shows a primary coil P connected to a battery and a secondary coil S
connected to a galvanometer. When a current in primary coil is started by closing the
key K [Fig 3(a)], the galvanometer deflects momentarily, showing an induced current
in the secondary in the direction opposite to that in the primary. Similarly, when the
current in primary is stopped [Fig. 3 (b)], there is again a momentary current in the
secondary, but in the same direction as in primary. Similar effects are observed while
increasing or decreasing the primary current or changing the relative position of the
coils. When the coils are wound on a piece of iron, the strength of induced current is
much more increased. The induced current is increased still more when the coils are
wound on the same closed iron ring.
 FARADAY’S LAWS OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Faraday's Law of EMI “Electromagnetic Induction”, is also called the law of

electromagnetism. This law explains the operational principle of electric generators,
electric inductors, electrical transformers, and electric motors. It helps in
understanding important points that lead to the Electromagnetic Induction or
production of electricity. Faraday's Law is conducted to see the way magnetic fields
change due to the flow of current in wires.

This law was first projected in 1831 by a chemist and physicist “Michael Faraday”.
Because of him, the law got its name. Faraday's Law is the outcome of the
observations of the three main experiments that he had conducted. Through these
experiments, he found the principle of Electromagnetic Induction.

FARADAY’S FIRST LAW

The first law of Faraday’s Electromagnetic Induction explains that when a wire is
kept in a field that experiences a constant change in its magnetic field, then an
electromagnetic field is developed. This phenomenon of development of the
electromagnetic field is called an induced emf. If it is a closed circuit, then a current
also gets induced inside the circuit. It is called “Induced Current”.

If ΔΦB be the change in magnetic flux in a time-interval Δt, then the emf induced in
the circuit is given by
e = − ΔΦB/ Δt

At the limit Δt→0, we write

e = − dΦB/dt
If dΦB is in ‘weber’ and dt in ‘second’, then the induced emf e will be ‘volt’. This
equation represents an independent experimental law which cannot be derived from
other experimental laws.

If the circuit is a tightly-wound coil of N turns, then the emf will be induced in each
turn and the emf’s of all the turns will be added up. So, the induced emf in the whole
coil will be

e = -N dΦB/ dt = d (NΦB)/dt

N ΦB is called the ‘number of magnetic flux linkages’ in the coil. Its unit is ‘weber-
turns’.

FARADAY’S SECOND LAW

This is another law by Faraday on Electromagnetic Induction. The law explains that
the emf induced in a conductor is equivalent to the rate at which the flux is linked to
the circuit changes. Here, this flux is the product of the flux in the wire and the
number of turns present in the wire.
 LENZ’S LAW
The German physicist Heinrich Friedrich Lenz deduced a rule known as Lenz’s law
that describes the polarity of the induced emf.

Lenz’s law states that “The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a
current which opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it.”

The negative sign in the formula represents this effect. Thus, the negative sign
indicates that the direction of the induced emf and the change in the direction of
magnetic fields have opposite signs.

(Faraday also discovered this law, independently of Lenz.)

Lenz’s law can also be considered in terms of conservation of energy. If pushing a

magnet into a coil causes current, the energy in that current must have come from
somewhere. If the induced current causes a magnetic field opposing the increase in
field of the magnet we pushed in, then the situation is clear. We pushed a magnet
against a field and did work on the system, and that showed up as current. If it were
not the case that the induced field opposes the change in the flux, the magnet would
be pulled in produce a current without anything having done work. Electric potential
energy would have been created, violating the conservation of energy.

To determine an induced emf ϵ, you first calculate the magnetic flux ΦmΦ and then
obtain dΦm/dt. The magnitude of ϵ is given by

Applying Lenz’s law: to Figure1 (a). We designate the “front” of the closed
conducting loop as the region containing the approaching bar magnet, and the
“back” of the loop as the other region.
The change in magnetic flux caused by the approaching magnet induces a current in the loop. (a) An
approaching north pole induces a counterclockwise current with respect to the bar magnet. (b) An

approaching south pole induces a clockwise current with respect to the bar magnet.

As the north pole of the magnet moves toward the loop, the flux through the loop due
to the field of the magnet increases because the strength of field lines directed from
the front to the back of the loop is increasing. A current is therefore induced in the
loop.
By Lenz’s law, the direction of the induced current must be such that its own
magnetic field is directed in a way to oppose the changing flux caused by the field of
the approaching magnet. Hence, the induced current circulates so that its magnetic
field lines through the loop are directed from the back to the front of the loop. By
RHR-2, place your thumb pointing against the magnetic field lines, which is toward
the bar magnet. Your fingers wrap in a counterclockwise direction as viewed from
the bar magnet. Alternatively, we can determine the direction of the induced current
by treating the current loop as an electromagnet that opposes the approach of the
north pole of the bar magnet. This occurs when the induced current flows as shown,
for then the face of the loop nearer the approaching magnet is also a north pole.

Part (b) of the figure shows the south pole of a magnet moving toward a conducting
loop. In this case, the flux through the loop due to the field of the magnet increases
because the number of field lines directed from the back to the front of the loop is
increasing. To oppose this change, a current is induced in the loop whose field lines
through the loop are directed from the front to the back. Equivalently, we can say
that the current flows in a direction so that the face of the loop nearer the
approaching magnet is a south pole, which then repels the approaching south pole
of the magnet. By RHR-2, your thumb points away from the bar magnet. Your fingers
wrap in a clockwise fashion, which is the direction of the induced current.
Another example illustrating the use of Lenz’s law is shown in the Figure below the
switch is opened, the decrease in current through the solenoid causes a decrease in
magnetic flux through its coils, which induces an emf in the solenoid. This emf must
oppose the change (the termination of the current) causing it. Consequently, the
induced emf has the polarity shown and drives in the direction of the original current.
This may generate an arc across the terminals of the switch as it is opened.

Figure: (a) A solenoid connected to a source of emf. (b) Opening switch S terminates
the current, which in turn induces an emf in the solenoid. (c) A potential difference
between the ends of the sharply pointed rods is produced by inducing an emf in a
coil. This potential difference is large enough to produce an arc between the sharp
points.

DIRECTION OF INDUCED CURRENT

Fleming’s right-hand rule: “If we stretch the right-hand thumb and two nearby fingers
perpendicular to one another, and the first finger points in the direction of the
magnetic field and the thumb in the direction of motion of conductor, then the middle
finger will point in the direction of the induced current”. (Fig 5)
Fleming’s left-hand rule: Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule states that if we arrange our
thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the left-hand perpendicular to each other, then
the thumb points towards the direction of the force experienced by the conductor, the
forefinger points towards the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger
points towards the direction of the electric current.

INDUCED CHARGE AND CURRENT

If in a coil of N turns the rate of change of magnetic flux be ΔɸB/Δt, then the induced
emf in the circuit is

e = -N ΔɸB/Δt (Faraday’s law)

 If the coil be closed and the total resistance of its circuit be R, then the induced
current in the circuit will be

I = e/R = N/R ΔɸB/Δt

This equation indicates that the induced current in the circuit depends upon the
resistance (whereas the induced emf is independent of resistance). The charge
flowed through the circuit in a time-interval Δt will be given by

q = I × Δt = N/R ΔɸB/Δt × Δt

= N/R ΔɸB = number of turns ×change in magnetic flux/resistance

Substituting ΔɸB in weber and R ohm, q will be in coulomb. The above equation
shows that the induced charge does not depend upon the time-interval. Whether the
change in magnetic flux is rapid or slow, the charge in the circuit will remain the
same.

APPLICATIONS OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Modern society has numerous applications of Faraday’s law of induction, as we will

explore in this chapter and others. At this juncture, let us mention several that involve
recording information using magnetic fields.
Some computer hard drives apply the principle of magnetic induction. Recorded
data are made on a coated, spinning disk. Historically, reading these data was made
to work on the principle of induction. However, most input information today is
carried in digital rather than analog form—a series of 0s or 1s are written upon the
spinning hard drive. Therefore, most hard drive readout devices do not work on the
principle of induction, but use a technique known as giant magnetoresistance.
Giant magnetoresistance is the effect of a large change of electrical resistance
induced by an applied magnetic field to thin films of alternating ferromagnetic and
nonmagnetic layers. This is one of the first large successes of nanotechnology.

Graphics tablets, or tablet computers where a specially designed pen is used to

draw digital images, also applies induction principles. The tablets discussed here are
labelled as passive tablets, since there are other designs that use either a battery-
operated pen or optical signals to write with. The passive tablets are different than
the touch tablets and phones many of us use regularly, but may still be found when
signing your signature at a cash register. Underneath the screen, shown in Figure 1,
are tiny wires running across the length and width of the screen. The pen has a tiny
magnetic field coming from the tip. As the tip brushes across the screen, a changing
magnetic field is felt in the wires which translates into an induced emf that is
converted into the line you just drew.
Figure 1: A tablet with a specially designed pen to write with is another application of
magnetic induction.

Another application of induction is the magnetic stripe on the back of your

personal credit card as used at the grocery store or the ATM machine. This works
on the same principle as the audio or video tape, in which a playback head reads
personal information from your card.

A magnet moves by your mechanical work through a wire. The induced current
charges a capacitor that stores the charge that will light the lightbulb even while you
are not doing this mechanical work.

Electric and hybrid vehicles also take advantage of electromagnetic induction. One
limiting factor that inhibits widespread acceptance of 100% electric vehicles is that
the lifetime of the battery is not as long as the time you get to drive on a full tank of
gas. To increase the amount of charge in the battery during driving, the motor can
act as a generator whenever the car is braking, taking advantage of the back emf
produced. This extra emf can be newly acquired stored energy in the car’s battery,
prolonging the life of the battery.

Another contemporary area of research in which electromagnetic induction is being

successfully implemented is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). A host of
disorders, including depression and hallucinations, can be traced to irregular
localized electrical activity in the brain. In transcranial magnetic stimulation, a rapidly
varying and very localized magnetic field is placed close to certain sites identified in
the brain. The usage of TMS as a diagnostic technique is well established.
Applications of electromagnetic induction:

1. Electromagnetic induction in AC generator

2. Electrical Transformers

3. Magnetic Flow Meter

1) Electromagnetic induction in AC generator

An Ac generator consists of two poles i.e. is the north pole and south pole of a
magnet so that we can have a uniform magnetic field. There is also a coil which is
rectangular in shape that is the armature. These coils are connected to the slip
rings and attached to them are carbon brushes.

The slip rings are made of metal and are insulated from each other. The brushes
are carbon brushes and one end of each brush connects to the ring and other
connects to the circuit. The rectangular coils rotate about an axis which is
perpendicular to the magnetic field. There is also a shaft which rotates rapidly.
Working of an AC generator

When the armature rotates between the poles of the magnet upon an axis
perpendicular to the magnetic field, the flux which links with the armature changes
continuously. Due to this, an emf is induced in the armature. This produces an electric
current through the galvanometer and the slip rings and brushes.

The galvanometer swings between the positive and negative values. This indicates that
there is an alternating current flowing through the galvanometer.

Emf induced in an AC generator

If the coil of N turn and area A is rotated at v revolutions per second in a uniform
magnetic field B, then the motional emf produced is e = NBA(2πv)sin(2πv)t, where we
assume that at time t = 0 s, the coil is perpendicular to the field. The direction of the
induced emf is given by Fleming’s right-hand rule or the Lenz’s law.

Fleming’s right-hand rule states that, stretch the forefinger, the middle finger and the
thumb of the right hand such that they are manually perpendicular to each other. If the
forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field, rhumb indicates the direction of
the motion of the conductor. The middle finger indicates the direction of the induced
current in the conductor.
 2) Electrical Transformers

A transformer is a device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The

transmission current is AC. It is commonly used to increase or decrease the supply
voltage without a change in the frequency of AC between circuits. The transformer
works on the basic principles of electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

Working Principle of a Transformer

The transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

and mutual induction.
There are usually two coils – primary coil and secondary coil – on the transformer
core. The core laminations are joined in the form of strips. The two coils have high
mutual inductance. When an alternating current passes through the primary coil, it
creates a varying magnetic flux. As per Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
this change in magnetic flux induces an EMF (electromotive force) in the secondary
coil, which is linked to the core having a primary coil. This is mutual induction.

Overall, a transformer carries out the following operations:

1. Transfer of electrical energy from one circuit to another

2. Transfer of electrical power through electromagnetic induction

3. Electric power transfer without any change in frequency

4. Two circuits are linked with mutual induction

EMF Equation of Transformer

N1 – Number of turns in the primary

N2 – Number of turns in the secondary

Φm – Maximum flux in the weber (Wb)

T – Time period. It is the time taken for 1 cycle.

The flux formed is a sinusoidal wave. It rises to a maximum value of Φm and

decreases to a negative maximum of Φm. So, flux reaches a maximum in one-quarter
of a cycle. The time taken is equal to T/4.

Average rate of change of flux = Φm/(T/4) = 4fΦm

Where, f = frequency

T = 1/f

Induced EMF per turn = Rate of change of flux per turn

Form factor = RMS value / average value

RMS value = 1.11 (4fΦm) = 4.44 fΦm [form factor of a sine wave is 1.11]

RMS value of EMF induced in winding = RMS value of EMF per turn x No. of turns

Primary Winding

RMS value of induced EMF = E1 = 4.44 fΦm * N1

Secondary Winding

RMS value of induced EMF = E2 = 4.44 fΦm * N2

This is the EMF equation of the transformer.

For an ideal transformer at no load condition,

E1 = Supply voltage on the primary winding

E2 = Terminal voltage (theoretical or calculated) on the secondary winding

 3) Magnetic Flow Meter

Magnetic flow meter is a transducer device that processes liquid flow by the voltage
induced crossways the fluid by its movement through a magnetic field. A magnetic
field is delivered to the gaging tube, which possessions in a potential difference
proportionate to the flow velocity vertical to the flux outlines. The principle at it work
is Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Which states that rate of change of
flux is directly proportional to the induced voltage.

The magnetic flow meter needs a conducted fluid, for example, water that comprises
of ions, and an electrical protecting pipe superficial, for example, a rubber-lined steel
tube. If the magnetic field course were persistent, electrochemical and other
properties at the probes would make the potential difference hard to differentiate
from the liquid flow persuaded potential difference. To alleviate this in present
magnetic flowmeters, the magnetic field is continually upturned, stopping out the
electrochemical potential difference, which does not alter the way with the magnetic
field. This nevertheless stops the usage of permanent magnets for magnetic
flowmeters.
Working of Magnetic flow Meter
 The process of a magnetic flow meter is centered upon Faraday’s Law,
which explains that the voltage induced crosswise by any conductor as it
transfers at right angles over a magnetic field is proportional to the speed
of that conductor.
 As pragmatic to the enterprise of magnetic flow meters, Faraday’s Law
designates that signal voltage (E) is reliant on the typical fluid velocity (V)
the magnetic field (B) and the length of the conducting material (D) (which
in this illustration is the distance amid the electrodes).

According to faraday’s law:

E is proportionate to V * B * D where:
E = The voltage produced in a conductor V = The speed of the conductor B = The
magnetic field strength D = The length of the conductor

 To smear this principle to movement measurement with a magnetic flow

meter, it is essential first to explain that the liquid being dignified should be
electrical conducive for the Faraday principle to relate.
 As pragmatic to the enterprise of magnetic flow meters, Faraday’s Law
designates that signal voltage (E) is reliant on the average fluid velocity (V)
magnetic field (B) and the length of the conductor (D) (which in this
illustration is the distance amid the electrodes).
 In the circumstance of wafer-style magnetic flow meters, a magnetic field is
recognized through the complete cross-section of the flow tube. If this
magnetic field is deliberated as the measuring component of the magnetic
flow meter, it can be understood that the measuring component is
uncovered to the hydraulic circumstances through the complete cross-
section of the flow meter. With insertion-style flow meters, the magnetic
field releases the outer from the implanted leads.
 ELECTRIC GENERATORS AND BACK
EMF

Electric generators induce an emf by rotating a coil in a magnetic field, as briefly

discussed in Motional Emf. We now explore generators in more detail. Consider the
following example.

We can get an expression for emf as a function of time by considering the motional
emf on a rotating rectangular coil of width w and height l in a uniform magnetic field,
as illustrated in Figure below.

Figure: A generator with a single rectangular coil rotated at constant angular velocity
in a uniform magnetic field produces an emf that varies sinusoidally in time. Note the
generator is similar to a motor, except the shaft is rotated to produce a current rather
than the other way around.
Charges in the wires of the loop experience the magnetic force, because they are
moving in a magnetic field. Charges in the vertical wires experience forces parallel to
the wire, causing currents. But those in the top and bottom segments feel a force
perpendicular to the wire, which does not cause a current.

We can thus find the induced emf by considering only the side wires. Motional emf is
given to be ϵ=Blv, where the velocity v is perpendicular to the magnetic field B. Here
the velocity is at an angle θ with B, so that its component perpendicular
to B is v sin θ (see Figure). Thus, in this case, the emf induced on each side
is ϵ=Blvsinθ and they are in the same direction. The total emf around the loop is then

This expression is valid, but it does not give emf as a function of time. To find the
time dependence of emf, we assume the coil rotates at a constant angular
velocity ω. The angle θ is related to angular velocity by θ=ωt, so that

Now, linear velocity v is related to angular velocity ω by v=rω. Here, r=ω/2, so

that v=(ω/2) ω, and

Noting that the area of the loop is A=lω, and allowing for N loops, we find that

This is the emf induced in a generator coil of N turns and area A rotating at a
constant angular velocity ω in a uniform magnetic field B. This can also be
expressed as

Where
is the peak emf, since the maximum value of sin(ωt) =1. Note that the frequency of
the oscillation is f=ω/2π and the period is T=1/f=2π/ω.

BACK EMF:

Generators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, whereas motors

convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Thus, it is not surprising that
motors and generators have the same general construction. A motor works by
sending a current through a loop of wire located in a magnetic field. As a result, the
magnetic field exerts torque on the loop. This rotates a shaft, thereby extracting
mechanical work out of the electrical current sent in initially. (Refer to Force and
Torque on a Current Loop for a discussion on motors that will help you understand
more about them before proceeding.)

When the coil of a motor is turned, magnetic flux changes through the coil, and an
emf (consistent with Faraday’s law) is induced. The motor thus acts as a generator
whenever its coil rotates. This happens whether the shaft is turned by an external
input, like a belt drive, or by the action of the motor itself. That is, when a motor is
doing work and its shaft is turning, an emf is generated. Lenz’s law tells us the emf
opposes any change, so that the input emf that powers the motor is opposed by the
motor’s self-generated emf, called the back emf of the motor
 CONCLUSION:

 Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating electric current with a

magnetic field. It occurs whenever a magnetic field and an electric conductor,
such as a coil of wire, move relative to one another.

 The principle of electromagnetic induction is used in electronic components

such as inductors and transformers. Electromagnetic induction is the basis of
all types of electric generators and motors used to generate electricity from
motion and motion from electricity.

 Electromagnets are used in:

o Electric buzzers and bells.

o Headphones and loudspeakers.
o Relays and valves.
o Data storage devices like VCRs, tape recorders, hard discs, etc.
o Induction cooker.
o Magnetic locks.
o MRI machines.
o Generators, motors and transformers.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Nootan ISC Physics Class XII (part 1)

 https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/Book
%3A_University_Physics_(OpenStax)/Book%3A_University_Physic s_II_-
_Thermodynamics_Electricity_and_Magnetism_(OpenStax)/13%3
A_Electromagnetic_Induction/13.08%3A_Applications_of_Electro
magnetic_Induction
 Electromagnetic Induction: Definition, Applications, Laws, Videos (toppr.com)
 magnetic fields - How to determine the direction of induced current flow? -
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