UCK 441E

Flight Stability and Control

Lecture #4: Aircraft Dynamics

Aircraft Nonlinear EOM
Linearization - Dynamics
Linearization – Forces & Moments
Stability Derivatives and Coefficients
 Aircraft Dynamics

• Note can develop good approximation of key aircraft motion

(phugoid) using simple balance between kinetic and potential
energies.

• Consider an aircraft in steady, level flight with speed 𝑈! and

height ℎ! . The motion is perturbed slightly so that;

𝑈! → 𝑈 = 𝑈! + 𝑢 (1)

ℎ! → ℎ = ℎ! + ∆ℎ (2)

• Assume that 𝐸 = "# 𝑚𝑈 # + 𝑚𝑔ℎ is constant before and after the

$∆&
perturbation. It then follows that 𝑢 ≈ −
'!

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 Aircraft Dynamics

• From Newton’s laws we know that, in the vertical direction;

𝑚ℎ̈ = 𝐿 − 𝑊
"
where weight 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 and lift 𝐿 = 𝜌𝑆𝐶( 𝑈 # (S is the wing
#
area).
We can then derive the equations of motion of the aircraft:

1
𝑚ℎ̈ = 𝐿 − 𝑊 = 𝜌𝑆𝐶( 𝑈 # − 𝑈!# (3)
2
1 1
= 𝜌𝑆𝐶( 𝑈! + 𝑢 #
− 𝑈!# ≈ 𝜌𝑆𝐶( 2𝑢𝑈! (4)
2 2
𝑔∆ℎ
≈ −𝜌𝑆𝐶( 𝑈! = − 𝜌𝑆𝐶( 𝑔 ∆ℎ (5)
𝑈!

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 Aircraft Dynamics

• Since ℎ̈ = ∆ℎ̈ and for the original equilibrium flight condition

"
𝐿=𝑊= 𝜌𝑆𝐶( 𝑈!# = 𝑚𝑔, we get that;
#
𝜌𝑆𝐶( 𝑔 𝑔 #
=2
𝑚 𝑈!
Combine these results to obtain;
$
∆ℎ̈ + Ω# ∆ℎ = 0 , Ω ≈ 2
'!

• These equations describe an oscillation (called the phugoid

oscillation) of the altitude of the aircraft about its nominal
value.
- Only approxiamte natural frequency (Lenchester), but value
close.

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 Aircraft Dynamics

• The basic dynamics are:

̇
𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑣)̇ * and 𝑇 = 𝐻 *

"
⇒ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑣)̇ , + ,*𝜔×𝑣⃗) (Transport Thm.)
+
̇
⇒𝑇=𝐻 ,
+ ,*𝜔×𝐻
• Basic assumptions are;
- Earth is an inertial reference frame.
- A/C is a rigid body.
- Body frame B fixed to the aircraft (⃗𝚤, 𝚥⃗, 𝑘)

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 Aircraft Dynamics

• Instantaneous mapping of 𝑣⃗) and !"𝜔 into the body frame:

!"
𝜔 = 𝑃⃗𝚤 + 𝑄⃗𝚥 + 𝑅𝑘 𝑣⃗) = 𝑈𝚤⃗ + 𝑉⃗𝚥 + 𝑊𝑘⃗

𝑃 𝑈
⇒ !"𝜔! = 𝑄 ⇒ (𝑣# )! = 𝑉
𝑅 𝑊

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 Aircraft Dynamics

• By symmetry, we can show that 𝐼-. = 𝐼./ = 0, but value of 𝐼-/

depends on specific frame selected. Instantaneous mapping
of the angular momentum;

𝐻 = 𝐻- 𝚤⃗ + 𝐻. 𝚥⃗ + 𝐻/ 𝑘

into the Body Frame given by;

𝐻- 𝐼-- 0 𝐼-/ 𝑃
𝐻, = 𝐻. = 0 𝐼.. 0 𝑄
𝐻/ 𝐼-/ 0 𝐼// 𝑅

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 Aircraft Dynamics

• The overall equations of motion are then;

1
𝐹⃗ = 𝑣#̇ ! + !"𝜔×𝑣#
𝑚

1 𝑋 𝑈̇ 0 −𝑅 𝑄 𝑈
𝑌 = 𝑉̇ + 𝑅 0 −𝑃 𝑉
𝑚 −𝑄 𝑃 0
𝑍 𝑊̇ 𝑊

𝑈̇ + 𝑄𝑊 − 𝑅𝑉
= 𝑉̇ + 𝑅𝑈 − 𝑃𝑊
𝑊̇ + 𝑃𝑉 − 𝑄𝑈

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 Aircraft Dynamics

• The overall equations of motion are then (continued);

̇
𝑇=𝐻 ,
+ ,*𝜔×𝐻

𝐿 𝐼-- 𝑃̇ + 𝐼-/ 𝑅̇ 0 −𝑅 𝑄 𝐼-- 0 𝐼-/ 𝑃

𝑀 = 𝐼.. 𝑄̇ + 𝑅 0 −𝑃 0 𝐼.. 0 𝑄
𝑁 𝐼// 𝑅̇ + 𝐼-/ 𝑃̇ −𝑄 𝑃 0 𝐼-/ 0 𝐼// 𝑅

𝐼-- 𝑃̇ + 𝐼-/ 𝑅̇ + 𝑄𝑅 𝐼// − 𝐼.. + 𝑃𝑄𝐼-/

= 𝐼.. 𝑄̇ + 𝑃𝑅 𝐼-- − 𝐼// + 𝑅 # − 𝑃# 𝐼-/
𝐼// 𝑅̇ + 𝐼-/ 𝑃̇ + 𝑃𝑄 𝐼.. − 𝐼-- − 𝑄𝑅𝐼-/

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 Aircraft Dynamics

• Clearly these equations are very nonlinear and complicated,

and we have not even said where 𝐹⃗ and 𝑇 come from.
⇒ Need to linearize !!
- Assume that the aircraft is flying in an equilibrium condition
and we will linearize the equations about this nominal flight
condition.

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 Axes

• But first we need to be a little more specific about which Body

Frame we are going use. Several standards:
1. Body Axes: X aligned with fuselage. Z perpendicular to X
in plane of symmetry (down). Y perpendicular to XZ plane,
to the right.
2. Wind Axes: X ligned with 𝑣⃗) . Z perpendicular to X (pointed
down). Y perpendicular to XZ plane, off to the right.
3. Stability Axes: X aligned with projection of 𝑣⃗) into the
fuselage plane of symmetry. Z perpendicular to X (pointed
down). Y same.

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 Axes

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 Axes

• Advantages to each, but typically use the stability axes.

- In different flight equilibrium conditions, the axes will be
oriented differently with respect to the A/C principal axes ⇒
need to transform (rotate) the principal inertia components
between the frames.
- When vehicle undergoes motion with respect to the
equilibrium, Stability Axes remain fixed to airplane as if
painted on.

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 Axes

• Can linearize about various steady state conditions of flight.

- For steady state flight conditions must have;
𝐹⃗ = 𝐹⃗0123 + 𝐹⃗$20456. + 𝐹⃗6&2786 = 0 and 𝑇 = 0
Ø So for equilibrium condition, forces balance on the
aircraft
𝐿 = 𝑊 and 𝑇 = 𝐷
- Also assume that 𝑃̇ = 𝑄̇ = 𝑅̇ = 𝑈̇ = 𝑉̇ = 𝑊̇ = 0
- Impose additional constraints that depend on flight
conditions:
Ø Steady wings-level flight → 𝛷 = 𝛷̇ = 𝛩̇ = 𝛹̇ = 0

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 Axes

• Key Point: While nominal forces and moments balance to

zero, motion about the equilibrium condition results in
perturbations to the forces/moments.
9
- Recall from basic flight dynamics that lift 𝐿! = 𝐶(" 𝛼! where:
o 𝐶(" : Lift curve slope – function of the equilibrium
condition.
o 𝛼! : Nominal angle of attack (angle that wing meets air
flow)
- But, as the vehicle moves about the equilibrium condition,
would expect that the angle of attack will change;
𝛼 = 𝛼! + Δ𝛼

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 Axes

• Key Point (continued):

- Thus the lift forces will also be perturbed;
9
𝐿9 = 𝐶(" 𝛼! + Δ𝛼 = 𝐿! + Δ𝐿9
• Can extend this idea to all dynamic variables and how they
influence all aerodynamic forces and moments.

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 Gravity Forces

• Gravity acts through the CoM in vertical direction (inertial

frame +Z)
- Assume that we have a nonzero pitch angle Θ!
- Need to map this force into the body frame
- Use the Euler angle transformation (2–15)

0 −sin Θ
$
𝐹! = 𝑇% Φ 𝑇& Θ 𝑇' Ψ 0 = 𝑚𝑔 sin Φ cos Θ
𝑚𝑔 cos Φ cos Θ

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 Gravity Force

• For symmetric steady state flight equilibrium, we will typically

assume that Θ ≡ Θ! , Φ ≡ Φ! = 0, so;

−sin Θ!
$
𝐹, = 𝑚𝑔 0
cos Θ!

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 Gravity Force

• Use Euler angles to specify vehicle rotations with respect to

the Earth frame ;

Θ̇ = 𝑄 cos Φ − 𝑅 sin Φ

Φ̇ = 𝑃 + 𝑄 sin Φ tan Θ + 𝑅 cos Φ tan Θ

Ψ̇ = (𝑄 sin Φ + 𝑅 cos Φ) sec Θ

- Note that if Φ ≈ 0, then Θ̇ ≈ 𝑄

• Recall: 𝛷 ≈ 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑙, 𝛩 ≈ 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ, 𝛹 ≈ 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

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 Linearization

• Define the trim angular rates and velocities.

𝑃 𝑈!
,* !
𝜔, = 𝑄 (𝑣) )!, = 0
𝑅 0

which are associated with the flight condition. In fact, these

define the type of equilibrium motion that we linearize about.

Note:

- 𝑊! = 0 since we are using the stability axis.

- 𝑉! = 0 because we are assuming symmetric flight.

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 Linearization

• Proceed with linearization of the dynamics for various flight

conditions.

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 Linearization

• Perturbed axis

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 Linearization

• Perturbed axis (continued)

- The equilibrium condition was that the aircraft was angled
up by Θ! with velocity 𝑉:! = 𝑈! . The vehicle’s motion has
been perturbed (𝑋! → 𝑋) so that now Θ = Θ! + 𝜃 and the
velocity is 𝑉: ≠ 𝑉:! .

- Note that, 𝑉: is no longer aligned with the X-axis, resulting

in a non-zero 𝑢 and 𝑤. The angle 𝛾 is called the flight path
angle, and it provides a measure of the angle of the velocity
vector to the inertial horizontal axis.

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 Linearization

• Linearization for symmetric flight

𝑈 = 𝑈! + 𝑢, 𝑉! = 𝑊! = 0, 𝑃! = 𝑄! = 𝑅! = 0
Note that the forces and moments are also perturbed.
1
𝑋! + ∆𝑋 = 𝑈̇ + 𝑄𝑊 − 𝑅𝑉 ≈ 𝑢̇ + 𝑞𝑤 − 𝑟𝑣 ≈ 𝑢̇
𝑚
1
𝑌! + ∆𝑌 = 𝑉̇ + 𝑅𝑈 − 𝑃𝑊 ≈ 𝑣̇ + 𝑟 𝑈! + 𝑢 − 𝑝𝑤 ≈ 𝑣̇ + 𝑟𝑈!
𝑚
1
𝑍! + ∆𝑍 = 𝑊̇ + 𝑃𝑉 − 𝑄𝑈 ≈ 𝑤̇ + 𝑝𝑣 − 𝑞 𝑈! + 𝑢 ≈ 𝑤̇ − 𝑞𝑈!
𝑚
1 ∆𝑋 𝑢̇ 1
⇒ ∆𝑌 = 𝑣̇ + 𝑟𝑈! 2
𝑚 𝑤̇ − 𝑞𝑈!
∆𝑍 3

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 Linearization

• Attitude motion:

𝐿 𝐼-- 𝑃̇ + 𝐼-/ 𝑅̇ + 𝑄𝑅 𝐼// − 𝐼.. + 𝑃𝑄𝐼-/

𝑀 = 𝐼.. 𝑄̇ + 𝑃𝑅 𝐼-- − 𝐼// + 𝑅 # − 𝑃# 𝐼-/
𝑁 𝐼// 𝑅̇ + 𝐼-/ 𝑃̇ + 𝑃𝑄 𝐼.. − 𝐼-- − 𝑄𝑅𝐼-/

∆𝐿 𝐼-- 𝑝̇ + 𝐼-/ 𝑟̇ 4
⇒ ∆𝑀 = 𝐼.. 𝑞̇ 5
∆𝑁 𝐼// 𝑟̇ + 𝐼-/ 𝑝̇ 6

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 Linearization

• Key aerodynamic parameters are also perturbed:

Total velocity:
𝑉: = ( 𝑈! + 𝑢 # + 𝑣 # + 𝑤 # )"⁄# ≈ 𝑈! + 𝑢
Perturbed sideslip angle:
𝛽 = sin<" 𝑣 ⁄𝑉: ≈ 𝑣 ⁄𝑈!
Perturbed angle of attack:
𝛼- = tan<" (𝑤 ⁄𝑈) ≈ 𝑤 ⁄𝑈!

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 Linearization

• To understand these equations in detail, and resulting impact

on the vehicle dynamics, we must investigate the terms
∆𝑋, … , ∆𝑁.

⃗ 𝑇)
- We must also address the left-hand side (𝐹,

- Net forces and moments must me zero in equilibrium

condition.

- Aerodynamic and gravity forces are a function of

equilibrium condition AND the perturbations about this
equilibrium.

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 Linearization

• Predict the changes to the aerodynamic forces and moments

using a first order expansion in the key flight parameters.
𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋$
∆𝑋 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊 + ∆𝑊̇ + ∆Θ + ⋯ + ∆Θ + Δ𝑋 )
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊̇ 𝜕Θ 𝜕Θ
𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋$
= 𝑢+ 𝑤+ 𝑤̇ + 𝜃 +⋯+ 𝜃 + Δ𝑋 )
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑊 𝜕𝑊̇ 𝜕Θ 𝜕Θ
=>
• ='
called stability derivative – evaluated at eq. condition.

• Gives dimensional form; non-dimensional form available in

tables.
• Clearly approximation since ignores lags in the aerodynamic
forces (assumes that forces only function of instantaneous
values)
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 Stability Derivatives

• First proposed by Bryan (1911) – has proven to be very

effective way to analyze the aircraft flight mechanics – well
supproted by numerous flight test comparisons.

• The forces and torques acting on the aircraft are very complex
nonlinear functions of the flight equilibrium condition and the
perturbations from equilibrium.

- Linearized expansion can involve many terms

𝑢, 𝑢,̇ 𝑢,̈ … , 𝑤, 𝑤,̇ 𝑤,̈ …

- Typically only retain a few terms to capture the dominant

effects.

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 Stability Derivatives

• Dominant behavior most easily discussed in terms of the:

- Symmetric variables: 𝑈, 𝑊, 𝑄 and forces / torques: 𝑋, 𝑍, 𝑀

- Asymmetric variables: 𝑉, 𝑃, 𝑅 and forces / torques: 𝑌, 𝐿, 𝑁

• Observation – for truly symmetric flight 𝑌, 𝐿 and 𝑁 will be

exactly zero for any value of 𝑈, 𝑊, 𝑄

⇒ Derivatives of symmetric forces / torques with respect to the

symmetric motion variables are zero.

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 Stability Derivatives

• Further (convenient) assumptions:

1. Derivatives of symmetric forces / torques with respect to
the asymmetric motion variables are small and can be
neglected.

2. We can neglect derivatives with respect to the derivatives

of the motion variables, but keep 𝜕𝑍⁄𝜕𝜔̇ and 𝑀@̇ = 𝜕𝑀⁄𝜕𝑤̇
(aerodynamic lag involved in forming new pressure
distribution on the wing in response to the perturbed angle
of attack).

3. 𝜕𝑋⁄𝜕𝑞 is negligibly small.

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 Stability Derivatives

• Further (convenient) assumptions (continued)

• Note that we must also find the perturbation gravity and thrust
forces and moments.
()! (,!
B
(* +
= −𝑚𝑔 cos Θ+, (* +
B = −𝑚𝑔 sin Θ+

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 Stability Derivatives

• Aerodynamic summary:

=> =>
1A Δ𝑋 = 𝑢+ 𝑤 ⇒ ∆𝑋 ~ 𝑢, 𝛼- ≈ 𝑤 ⁄𝑈!
=' ! =A !

2A ∆𝑌 ~ 𝛽 ≈ 𝑣 ⁄𝑈! , 𝑝, 𝑟
3A ∆𝑍 ~ 𝑢, 𝛼- ≈ 𝑤 ⁄𝑈! , 𝛼̇ - ≈ 𝑤̇ ⁄𝑈! , 𝑞
4A ∆𝐿 ~ 𝛽 ≈ 𝑣 ⁄𝑈! , 𝑝, 𝑟
5A ∆𝑀 ~ 𝑢, 𝛼- ≈ 𝑤 ⁄𝑈! , 𝛼̇ - ≈ 𝑤̇ ⁄𝑈! , 𝑞
6A ∆𝑁 ~ 𝛽 ≈ 𝑣 ⁄𝑈! , 𝑝, 𝑟

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 Stability Derivatives

• Result is that, with these force, torque approximations,

equations 1, 3, 5 decouple from 2, 4, 6.

- 1, 3, 5 are the longitudinal dynamics in 𝑢, 𝑤 and 𝑞.

∆𝑋 𝑚𝑢̇
∆𝑍 = 𝑚 𝑤̇ − 𝑞𝑈!
∆𝑀 𝐼.. 𝑞̇

𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑋#
𝑢+ 𝑤+ 𝜃 + Δ𝑋 $
𝜕𝑈 " 𝜕𝑊 " 𝜕Θ "
𝜕𝑍 𝜕𝑍 𝜕𝑍 𝜕𝑍 𝜕𝑍#
≈ 𝑢+ 𝑤+ 𝑤̇ + 𝑞+ 𝜃 + Δ𝑍 $
𝜕𝑈 " 𝜕𝑊 " 𝜕 𝑊̇ " 𝜕𝑄 " 𝜕Θ "
𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑀 𝜕𝑀
𝑢+ 𝑤+ 𝑤̇ + 𝑞 + Δ𝑀 $
𝜕𝑈 " 𝜕𝑊 " 𝜕 𝑊̇ " 𝜕𝑄 "

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 Stability Derivatives

• Result is that, with these force, torque approximations,

equations 1, 3, 5 decouple from 2, 4, 6.
- 2, 4, 6 are the lateral dynamics in 𝑣, 𝑝 and 𝑟
Δ𝑌 𝑚 𝑣̇ + 𝑟𝑈!
Δ𝐿 = 𝐼-- 𝑝̇ + 𝐼-/ 𝑟̇
Δ𝑁 𝐼// 𝑟̇ + 𝐼-/ 𝑝̇
𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑌
𝑣+ 𝑝+ 𝑟 + Δ𝑌 "
𝜕𝑉 ! 𝜕𝑃 ! 𝜕𝑅 !
𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐿
≈ 𝑣+ 𝑝+ 𝑟 + Δ𝐿"
𝜕𝑉 ! 𝜕𝑃 ! 𝜕𝑅 !
𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁 𝜕𝑁
𝑣+ 𝑝+ 𝑟 + Δ𝑁 "
𝜕𝑉 ! 𝜕𝑃 ! 𝜕𝑅 !

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• Consider changes in the drag force with forward speed U

1 #
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉: 𝑆𝐶B
2
𝑉:# = (𝑢! + 𝑢)# +𝑣 # + 𝑤 #

𝜕𝑉:# 𝜕𝑉:#
= 2 𝑢! + 𝑢 ⇒ = 2𝑢!
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 !

- Note that:

(-#$ (-#$
= 0 and =0
(. + (/ +

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• At reference condition;
𝜕𝐷 𝜕 𝜌𝑉:# 𝑆𝐶B
⇒ 𝐷7 ≡ =
𝜕𝑢 ! 𝜕𝑢 2 !

𝜌𝑆 # 𝜕𝐶B 𝜕𝑉:#
= 𝑢! + 𝐶B!
2 𝜕𝑢 ! 𝜕𝑢 !

𝜌𝑆 # 𝜕𝐶B
= 𝑢! + 2𝑢! 𝐶B!
2 𝜕𝑢 !

(0
- Note is the stability derivative, which is dimensional.
(1

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• Define nondimensional stability coefficient 𝐶B# as derivative of

𝐶B with respect to a nondimensional velocity 𝑢 ⁄𝑢!

0 (4'
𝐶0 = % ⇒ 𝐶0& ≡ and 𝐶0( ≡ (𝐶0 )+
2-#$ 3 (1⁄1( +
$

- So (∎)! corresponds to the variable at its equilibrium

condition.

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• Nondimensionalize:
𝜕𝐷 𝜌𝑆𝑢! 𝜕𝐶B
= 𝑢! + 2𝐶B!
𝜕𝑢 ! 2 𝜕𝑢 !

𝑄𝑆 𝜕𝐶B
= + 2𝐶B!
𝑢! 𝜕𝑢 ⁄𝑢! !

𝑢! 𝜕𝐷
= 𝐶B# + 2𝐶B!
𝑄𝑆 𝜕𝑢 !

- So given stability coefficient, can compute the drag force

increment.

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• Note that Mach number has a significant effect on the drag:

𝜕𝐶B 𝑢! 𝜕𝐶B 𝜕𝐶B
𝐶B# = = =𝑀
𝜕𝑢 ⁄𝑢! !
𝛼 𝜕 𝑢 𝜕𝑀
𝛼 !

!"C
where can be estimated from empirical results / tables.
!#

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• Thrust forces;
𝜕𝐶6 𝜕𝑇 1
𝐶6& = ⇒ = 𝐶6& 𝑄𝑆
𝜕𝑢⁄𝑢+ +
𝜕𝑢 + 𝑢+

- For a glider, 𝐶:# = 0

- For a jet, 𝐶:# ≈ 0

- For a prop plane, 𝐶:# = −𝐶B!

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• Lift forces similar to drag;

1 #
𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉: 𝑆𝐶(
2
𝜕𝐿 𝜌𝑆𝑢! 𝜕𝐶(
⇒ = 𝑢! + 2𝐶(!
𝜕𝑢 ! 2 𝜕𝑢 !

𝑄𝑆 𝜕𝐶(
= + 2𝐶(!
𝑢! 𝜕𝑢 ⁄𝑢! !

𝑢! 𝜕𝐿
= 𝐶(# + 2𝐶(!
𝑄𝑆 𝜕𝑢 !

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• Where 𝐶(! is the lift coefficient for the eq. condition and
(4)
𝐶7& = 𝑀 as before.
(8

• From aerodynamic theory, we have that;

𝐶( |DE! 𝜕𝐶( 𝑀
𝐶( = ⇒ = #
𝐶(
1 − 𝑀# 𝜕𝑀 1 − 𝑀
𝑀#
⇒ 𝐶(# = #
𝐶(!
1−𝑀

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• 𝛼 Derivatives: Now consider what happens with changes in

the angle of attack. Take derivatives and evaluate at the
reference condition:

- Lift: ⇒ 𝐶("

"IJ )"IL
- Drag: 𝐶$ = 𝐶$FGH + % & '( ⇒ 𝐶$K = % & '( 𝐶*K

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• Combine into 𝑋, 𝑍 forces

- At equilibrium, forces balance.
- Use stability axes, so 𝛼! = 0

- Include the effect in the force balance of a change in 𝛼

on the force rotations so that we can see the
perturbations.
- Assume perturbation 𝛼 is small, so rotations are by
cos 𝛼 ≈ 1 , sin 𝛼 ≈ 𝛼
𝑋 = 𝑇 − 𝐷 + 𝐿𝛼
𝑍 = −(𝐿 + 𝐷𝛼)

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• Combine into 𝑋, 𝑍 forces (continued)

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• So, now consider the 𝛼 derivatives of these forces:

𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐿
= − +𝐿+𝛼
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼
!+
- Thrust variation with 𝛼 very small
!, -
≈0

- Apply at the reference condition (𝛼 = 0), i.e.

𝜕𝐶)
𝐶)% =
𝜕𝛼 +

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• Nondimensionalize and apply reference condition:

𝐶>" = −𝐶B" + 𝐶(!
2𝐶( !
= 𝐶(! − 𝐶("
𝜋 𝑒 𝐴𝑅
• And for the 𝑍 direction;
𝜕𝑍 𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐿
= −𝐷 − 𝛼 −
𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼 𝜕𝛼
Giving;
𝐶M" = −𝐶B! − 𝐶("

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• Recall that 𝐶D" was already found during the static analysis.
• Can repeat this process for the other derivatives with respect
to the forward speed.

• Forward speed:
𝜕𝑋 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝐷 𝜕𝐿
= − +𝛼
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
So that;
𝑢! 𝜕𝑋 𝑢! 𝜕𝑇 𝑢! 𝜕𝐷
= −
𝑄𝑆 𝜕𝑢 ! 𝑄𝑆 𝜕𝑢 ! 𝑄𝑆 𝜕𝑢 !

⇒ 𝐶># ≡ 𝐶:# − 𝐶B# + 2𝐶B!

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 Basic Stability Derivative Derivation

• Similarly for the 𝑍 direction:

𝜕𝑍 𝜕𝐿 𝜕𝐷
=− −𝛼
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
So that;
𝑢! 𝜕𝑍 𝑢! 𝜕𝐿
=−
𝑄𝑆 𝜕𝑢 ! 𝑄𝑆 𝜕𝑢 !
⇒ 𝐶M# ≡ − 𝐶(# + 2𝐶(!
𝑀#
=− #
𝐶(! − 2𝐶(!
1−𝑀
• Many more derivatives to consider !

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 Summary

• Picked a specific Body Frame (stability axes) from the list of

alternatives;

⇒ Choice simplifies some of the linearization, but the inertias

now change depending on the equilibrium flight condition.

• Since the nonlinear behavior is too difficult to analyze, we

needed to consider the linearized dynamic behavior around a
specific flight condition;

⇒ Enables us to linearize RHS of equations of motion.

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 Summary

• Forces and moments also complicated nonlinear functions, so

we linearized the LHS as well;
⇒ Enables us to write the perturbations of the forces and
moments in terms of the motion variables.
- Engineering insight allows us to argue that many of the
stability derivatives that couple the longitudinal (symmetric)
and lateral (asymmetric) motions are small and can be
ignored.
• Approach requires that you have the stability derivatives.
- These can be measured or calculated from the aircraft plan
form and basic aerodynamic data.

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