CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY 1

(BKC1752)

Title of Experiment : PRESSURE CHANGE ANALYSIS

Date of Experiment : 03 APRIL 2023
Instructor’s Name : DR. SITI HATIJAH BINTI MORTAN
Group No. : 04
Section : 02G

List of Students:
Name ID
1. KHAIRUNNISA BINTI ZAKARIA KA22048
2. NOOR SYAFIRAH BINTI TAZMI KA22059
3. HAFIRATUL ABIDAH BT MD SIDIKI KA22065
4. NUR ADIBAH SOFIYA BINTI SAELAN KA22051
5. YONG HUIH MING KA22075
Marks:
1. Abstract 6. Results
2. Methodology flowchart 7. Discussion
3. Data Tabulation 8. Conclusions
4. Graph 9. References
5. Calculations 10. Grammar and Spelling
TOTAL

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

NO. CONTENTS PAGE

1.0 ABSTRACT 3

2.0 METHODOLOGY 4

3.0 RESULTS 5

4.0 DISCUSSIONS 5-7

5.0 GRAPH 8

6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 9

7.0 REFERENCES 10

8.0 APPENDIX 11

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1.0) ABSTRACT

A pressure difference occurs when the channel narrows. This pressure difference
results in a net force on the fluid because the pressure times the area equals the force, and this
net force does work. The net work done increases the fluid’s kinetic energy. As a result, the
pressure drops in a rapidly moving fluid whether or not the fluid is confined to a bottle.
Bernoulli's equation relates the pressure, speed, and height of any two points in a steady
streamline flowing fluid of density. Bernoulli's equation is usually written as follows,

1 2 𝑃
2
𝑣 + ρ
+ 𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

The variables v, P, ρ, g, h, refer to the velocity, pressure, density, gravity acceleration, height.
The objective from this experiment is to observe the effect of cross-sectional area to the fluid
velocity and pressure at various points. Next is to relate the effect of each parameter with
Bernoulli's principle. To prepare for this experiment, we need a 1.5 L plastic bottle, 3
different sizes of nail, Bunsen burner, tapes, beaker, and stopwatch. First step is to prepare
three bottles of mineral water 1 liter and above. Next, Mark a scale every 200 mL on the
bottle from bottom of the bottle until 1000 mL. The third step is using a nail sized 2 mm,
make a hole at the scale of 200 mL. Then, refill the water in the bottle till 1000 mL. The fifth
step is to carefully remove the nail and start the stopwatch. Then observe and record the time
when the water decreases every 200 mL. Next, repeat step 3 until 6 by replacing the size of
the nail to 3 mm and 4 mm. And the last step is to repeat steps 3 to 6 by using oil as liquid in
the bottle. The time taken for water to come out of the bottle is shorter than that of oil. The
bigger the hole, the faster the water and oil flows out.

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2.0) METHODOLOGY

4
3.0) RESULTS

TIME (s)

VOLUME 2 mm 3 mm 4 mm

(mL) WATER OIL WATER OIL WATER OIL

1000 - 800 23.05 50.28 20.05 26.95 18.25 22.98

800 - 600 55.22 110.87 25.29 46.24 24.67 30.83

600 - 400 95.17 193.59 36.77 77.14 33.02 43.88

400 - 200 315.93 423.16 199.78 212.42 99.48 156.87

4.0) DISCUSSION

In modern fluid dynamics, Bernoulli’s principle states that if the rate of a fluid
element flow increases during such elements along the horizontal direction of flow, the fluid
pressure is certainly decreased, and vice versa (Halliday, 2010). In simpler words, the
velocity of a flowing liquid will increase as the pressure decreases. This shows that a fluid’s
pressure will be greater when it is flowing at a low speed compared to when it is flowing at a
high speed. In this experiment, the effect of cross-sectional area to the liquid and pressure at
various points are studied in accordance to the Bernoulli’s principle. Bernoulli’s equation was
derived by taking into account the balance of momentum along a streamline, for the special
case of steady, incompressible, inviscid flow in an inertial reference frame, with gravity
acting as the only significant body force (Steven B. Segletes, 2001). Since there is no energy
loss in inviscid flows, Bernoulli's equation can also be derived from considerations of energy
conservation.
A quantitative statement of the Bernoulli’s principle is the Bernoulli’s equation,
written as follows:
1 2 𝑃
2
𝑣 + ρ
+ 𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

where,
v: velocity
P: pressure
ρ: density
g: gravity acceleration
h: height

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 In this experiment, the effect of cross-sectional area to the liquid and pressure at
various points are studied in accordance with Bernoulli’s principle. Three different 1.5 L
bottles with different hole sizes, 2 mm, 3 mm, and 4 mm were used to see the correlation
between cross-sectional area with the fluid’s pressure at every 200 mL interval. The liquid
was allowed to flow out from 1000 mL to 200 mL and the time taken was recorded at every
200 mL interval. The effect of the other parameters such as the density and height were
observed as well. The experiment was carried out twice with two different types of liquids
which are water and oil which have different densities.
Pressure can be defined as the force per unit perpendicular area over which the force
is applied. The pressure formula is shown as below:
Pressure = Force/Area
From the formula above, we know that pressure is inversely proportional to the area.
As the area increases, the pressure will decrease.. As shown from the result, the time taken
for both the water and oil to flow out at every 200 mL interval decreases as the size of the
hole increases from 2 mm to 3 mm and then to 4 mm. This shows that cross-sectional area
does affect the dynamic pressure of fluid.
The next parameter being observed is the height and how it affects the velocity of
liquid. The amount of pressure that it exerts on the fluid depends on the height of the fluid.
The higher the height of the fluid, the greater the pressure exerted at the base of the bottle.
Hence, from the result of the experiment we can observe that as the height of water decreases,
the time taken for it to flow out completely increases due to lower pressure and lower force
exerting on the water. As for oil, the time taken for it to flow out also increases as the height
decreases. Pressure and velocity are inversely proportional to each other. Hence, as the height
increases, the velocity will decrease.
According to Bernoulli’s principle, density is one of the parameters that will affect the
velocity of a liquid. Two different liquids were used in this experiment which were water and
oil as they have different densities. Water has higher density than oil. According to
Bernoulli's principle, higher density will result in a decrease in the velocity. However, from
the results of the experiment, we can see that the water flows faster than oil as the size of the
hole increases. Taking 2 mm cross-sectional area as example, the total time taken for water to
flow out from 1000 mL to 200 mL is 489.37 s while for oil it is 777.9 s. The oil took 288.53 s
more than the water to flow out. This is due to the fact that oil has higher viscosity than
water. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of fluid to a change in the shape or movement
of adjacent components relative to one another. A fluid with higher viscosity will experience
more resistance during flow and vice versa.

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 On the other hand, water and oil have different density which is 1.00 g/mL for water and
0.92 g/mL for oil. The statement that says oil has higher density than water is proven when
we are doing the experiment. So to compare the density between water and oil, water flows
faster than oil. Also by referring to the hydrostatic pressure equation, P1 = ρgh, the height and
the density of the fluid are directly proportional to the dynamic pressure. Therefore, for any
points at the same level, the forces are always identical, as the weight of the liquid is acting
downward due to gravity. (William B. et al., 1894). Accordingly, the column weight typically
depends on the volume of the container, which derives from its height, width and length. The
greater the depth of the liquid, the more the weight, resulting in higher pressure exerted on
the surface. In the observation of the experiment, the velocity of the water and cooking oil at
different levels in the container was noticed.

Figure 1: Graph of Volume of Water (mL) vs Time (s) Figure 2: Graph of Volume of Oil (mL) vs Time (s)

By comparing Figures 1 and 2, an observation can be obtained that the water flows more
faster than oil to finish flowing out. This time taken shows that the greater the cross-sectional
area and velocity, the shorter the time is taken for the liquid to flow out. It is due to the
difference in viscosity, where the oil had thicker and more viscous than water. Viscosity is
defined as the resistance of the fluid to flow, which is caused by the cohesive force between
liquid molecules.

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5.0) GRAPH

Figure 1: Graph of Volume of Water (mL) vs Time (s)

Figure 2: Graph of Volume of Oil (mL) vs Time (s)

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6.0) CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The experiment carried out demonstrated the applicability of Bernoulli's principle in a

circumstance where a larger cross-sectional area will provide a higher fluid velocity and a
lower dynamic pressure. Several hole diameters were used in the study to examine the impact
of the cross-sectional area, and it also documented how long it took for the fluids to complete
in the bottle. Also, as water and cooking oil had varied densities and viscosities, the impact
was also seen. When comparing the hole diameters, the 4mm hole has the highest velocity
and requires less time for both liquids to exit. That happens because the largest
cross-sectional area enables more particles to speed out of the bottle's hole. In addition, oil
took longer to drain than water because it was a more viscous fluid and its particles had a
stronger cohesive force than those of water molecules, which reduced the flow rate. The fluid
velocity decreases and surface pressure increases with increasing viscosity. Bernoulli's
principle in fluid dynamics states that an increase in a fluid's speed happens concurrently with
a decrease in stationary pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. Contrarily, the
fluid's height or depth had an effect on the fluid's pressure.As was already mentioned, the
fluid's height has a direct impact on the hydrostatic pressure The hydrostatic pressure exerted
on a fluid increases with its depth. The investigation showed that the 200ml level had a faster
fluid flow rate than the 800ml level. The hydrostatic pressure acting on the bottle's surface
soon increased due to the bottle's rising hole level. As a result, the fluid velocity decreased,
adhering to Bernoulli's principle.

A few suggestions are made in this experiment to get more precise and accurate data.
First off, because some of the nails were rusty, the hole diameter that was made by the nail
might not be accurate enough. As a result, the holes will not be exactly the same size, which
will eventually impact the experiment's data. In order to obtain correct results, the nails used
must not be rusty, and the hole diameter should be measured using a precise tool, such as a
vernier caliper. Also, if the marked heights were varied, the time it took for the fluids to finish
flowing at various levels might not be accurate. As a result, in order to obtain accurate
results, the bottle's weight must be measured using the same measuring device. Also, as the
fluids will experience variable atmospheric pressure at various levels, the bottles should be
positioned at the same level. To obtain an average set of results, the experiment should be
repeated several times.

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7.0) REFERENCES

1. Halliday, D., Resnick, R. and Walker, J. (2011). Fundamentals of physics. 9th Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

2. Steven B. Segletes, William P. Walters. (2001). A note on the application of the

extended Bernoulli equation.

3. Khan, S. (2015). What is Bernoulli’s equation? (article). Khan Academy.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/fluids/fluid-dynamics/a/what-is-bernou
llis-equation

4. Arakeri, J. H (2000). Bernoulli’s equation. Resonance, 5(8), 54-71

5. Franklin, W. S. (1911). Bernoulli’s Principle. School of Science and Mathematics,

11(1), 7-14

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8.0) APPENDIX

Figure 1: Apparatus used in the experiment

Figure 3: Heating of the nail

Figure 5: Observing the time taken for

water to decrease until 200 ml.

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Figure 7: Results of the experiment

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