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Biology

PART 2
st
1 edition

WAHID WANIS

Human biology 1 Wahid Wanis

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Contents

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Topic page
1- Excretion
Urinary system
Kidney failure
2- Homeostasis.
Negative feed back
3- Form and movement
Skeleton
Bone structure
joints
muscles
4- Coordination
Human nervous system
Human eye
Human ear
Hormonal control
5 Reproduction
Menstrual cycle
Birth control
Growth and development
6- Inheritance
DNA
Monohybrid inheritance
Codominance
Sex-liked
Mitosis and meiosis
Variation
Selection

Microorganisms and disease

Non pathogenic organisms
Environment

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(8)
Homeostatic
mechanism

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EXCRETION
Importance of excretion
 Avoid accumulation of waste products
 Some products of metabolism are toxic, therefore they have to be removed.
 For homeostasis as excretion removes excess substances.
 For osmoregulation
( Osmoregulation is the process by which the balance of water and dissolved solutes is
regulated.)
The main excretory organs
1- lungs : excrete CO2 , H2O
2- Kidneys : excretes urine which consists mainly of urea, uric acid , salts, water ,and
modified hormones.
3- Skin : excretes sweat which consists mainly of water, salts , low concentration of urea

The human urinary system

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- The functional unit of kidney is known as nephron.
Structure of nephron

Nephron without blood vessels

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Part of nephron with its blood vessels

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Extraction of urine in nephron takes place in two main steps
1- Ultrafiltration

2- Selective reabsorption

Ultra filtration

1- Because the afferent arteriole has a wider lumen than the efferent arteriole , the blood
pressure in glomerulus is higher than most of the other blood capillaries in the body, and
because the bloodcapillaries of glomerulus are permeable , part of the blood plasma leaks
through the capillary walls .

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2- The filtrate does not contain blood cells or plasma proteins as they are too large to pass

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through capillaries.

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3- The glomerular filtrate consists mainly of water, dissolved salts, glucose , amino acids ,
urae and uric acid.

4- The filtrate from glomerulus collects in the renal capsule (Bowmans capsule) and passes
down in the proximal convoluted tubule..

Selective reabsorption
1- As filtrate passes through the first or proximal convoluted tubule, amounts of useful
material such as glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by active transport to pass to the
surrounding blood vessels in order not to be lost with urine.

2- An amount of water which is required for the body is reabsorbed by the cells of loop of
Henle and that of the collecting duct to reach the surrounding blood vessels in order not to
be lost with urine.

Adaptation of the wall of the first or proximal convoluted tubule for its
function
 Convoluted and its cells contain microvilli to increase surface area for reabsorption.
 The cells forming walls of proximal convoluted tubule contain more mitochondria to be
used in production of energy by aerobic respiration to be used in active uptake .

Role of kidney in osmoregulation

It excretes excess water and salts to maintain proper water potential in the body

 If the blood contains too much water, less water is reabsorbed ,leaving more to enter the
bladder.
 If blood is too concentrated , more water is reabsorbed back into the blood from the kidney
tubules.

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Factors affecting the amount of urine

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1-The amount of water taken.
2-Taking salts or sugars that leads to more water - intake.
3-Temperature .
The higher the temperature, the less urine because more sweat is excreted.
In this case urine becomes more concentrated, as the main component of sweat is water.
4-Excersise.more sweat, less urine

Urine analysis and disease

- When there is glucose in urine the person is diabetic.
- When there is protein in urine the person has kidney malfunction
( as protein being of large molecules can not filter out the blood capillaries in kidney.)

Notice
Urea is formed in liver as a result of breakdown of excess amino acids by a process
known as deamination.
Alcohol , drugs and hormones are broken down in liver and then excreted by kidneys
with urine.

ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

It is made in neurons in hypothalamus then released from pituitary gland

When water potential in the tissue fluid and blood becomes lower than normal, a
specific sensory (osmoreceptor) cells in region of the brain called hypothalamus
stimulates production of ADH which is carried in the blood stream to reach kidneys
causing walls of collecting duct to become more permeable to water to increase rate
of reabsorption of water therefore volume of water in urine decreases.

When water potential in blood and tissue fluid returns back to its
normal level
Secretion of ADH stops and permeability of collecting duct returns back to its normal.

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Dehydration

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Takes place after loss of much water such as in case of diarrhoea and vomiting that

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take place after bacterial infection in the gut.
It can lead to brain and kidney damage and can lead to death.

Oral rehydration method

Pack containing salts and glucose which is mixed with water to replace the water and
minerals lost during diarrhea and vomiting.

Kidney failure
When the two kidneys become unable to work.

Harms of kidney failure

 Increase in the amount of water in the body.
 Accumulation of urea that leads to coma and then death.
 Useful materials such as proteins can pass out with urine.

Main causes of kidney failure

 Bacterial infection.
 Damage of nephrons by poisons such as mercury.
 Accidents that cause kidney damage.
 Inadequate flow of blood.

Ways to overcome kidney failure

 By kidney transplantation.
 By using dialysis machine.

Kidney transplant

Problem facing kidney transplant .

 To find suitable donors.
 Tissue rejection.
 Expensive.
 Risk of surgical operation.

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How to overcome tissue rejection ?

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 Choosing donors which have tissues as similar as those of the patient.

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 By using immuno- suppressive drugs which suppress the production of lymphocytes and

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their antibodies.
( but these medicines have disadvantages as they reduce the immunity of the patients
therefore he may be affected easily by germs ).

Dialysis or partial permeability

It is the separation of small molecules from large molecules in a solution by a partially

permeable (or semi-permeable.) membrane.

The dialysis machine

Aim of dialysis
To maintain glucose and protein concentration in blood and diffusion of urea from blood to
dialysis fluid.
consists of :
1- Dialysis tubing
-It is a partially permeable tube allows only small molecules to filtre out of it .
2- A water - bath or dialysis solution :
-Consists of salts, sugars and other substances in the correct proportions like blood .
3- Pumps
-To pump the blood from the
patient to the machine and from
machine to the patient by a
proper pressure.
3- Filter to trap air bubbles as
presence of air in circulatory
system is harmful.
4- Anticlotting substance is added
tostop clotting during flow of
blood outside blood vessels to
flow through the machine.

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The work of the dialysis machine

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 Patient's blood from an artery in the patients armis pumped gradually with suitable
pressure into the dialysis machine where urea, modified hormones and excess salts pass out
the dialysis tubing because they have small molecules and are not found in the dialysis
solution .

 Other components in blood have small molecules such as glucose and amino acids but they
can not diffuse outside the dialysis tubing because their concentration inside the tubing is
similar to their concentration in the dialysis solution .

 The dialysis solution has to be replaced regularly to avoid back diffusion of urea from the
dialysis solution to the patient’s blood when its concentration in the dialysis solution
increases .

 Blood is pumped back gradually into the patient’s blood vessel.

Kidney transplant Dialysis

Advantages Long term solution. No need for a donor.

Save time of dialysis. No risk of surgical

operation.
Can have wider diet.

Better quality of life.

disadvantages Donor is needed. Time consuming ( twice or

three times a week)
Risk of surgical operation.
Expensive.

May transmit disease such

as AIDS .

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Homeostasis
It is to maintain the internal environment of an organism’s body constant .

Organs responsible for

1- Lungs : keep the conc. of CO2 and O2constant .

2- Skin : Regulates body temperature.

3- Kidneys : Regulate the conc. of water and urea.

Structure of Skin

Ways of loosing heat

1- Evaporation of sweat. 2- Excretion of warm urine.
3- Excretion of warm feaces. 4- Expiration of warm air.

Regulating body temperature

 Brain contains temperature receptors.
 If temperature of blood rises above the normal , brain sends messages along nerves to the
parts of the body to reduce temperature.

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 If the temperature becomes lower than normal, the opposite takes place.

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( Only birds and mammals have a constant body temperature they are called
homeothermic or endothermic while other organisms are cold blooded, they are called
poikilothermic or ectothermic.)

Role of skin in regulating body temperature.

1-In case of over-cooling :

(a) Vasoconstriction
 It means that the blood vessels of skin constrict, this reduces excretion of sweat and heat
loss from warn blood when it comes near the body surface.

(b) Erection of hair

 The hair erector muscles contract to erect hair
 Hair traps air .
(Air is a bad conductor of heat therefore it reduces the rate of heat loss.)

(c) Storing fats under the skin .

(fats are bad conductors of heat therefore they reduce the rate of heat loss)
.
(d) shivering
shivering reflex causesMuscle groups around the vital organs begin to shake in small
movements in an attempt to create warmth by expending energy.

2- In case of over-heating
(a) By vasodilatation :
 Means to keep the blood vessels in the skin wider.
 This helps in getting rid of the excessive heat from the warm blood to the surrounding.

(b) By lowering of hair :

 This helps in getting rid of the excessive heat by reducing the amount of trapped air that
acts as an insulator
(c) - By production of sweat.
Evaporation of sweat requires heat energy, an amount of this energy is gained from the
body decreasing its temperature.

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Negative feed-back.

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Definition
 It is the process by which the different internal conditions of the body such as level of
circulating hormones is controlled, to maintain homeostasis

This process includes sequence of steps.

1-A sense organ, detects a change.

2-A control center sends a message to the responding organ to decrease or increase its

production .

3-The information from the responding organ is detected by the sense organ.

Example

A- When blood glucose level increases ;

 Pancreas secretes the hormone insulin to stimulate the body cells to use glucose and the
liver cells to store it as glycogen .
 When the blood glucose returns to its normal levelit causes negative feed back mechanism
on pancreas causing secretion of insulin to be switched off.

B- When glucose level decreases :

 Pancreas secretes the hormone glucagon which stimulates the conversion of glycogen to
glucose to be added to the blood stream .
 When the blood glucose returns to the normal levelit causes negative feed back
mechanism on pancreascausing secretion of glucagon to be switched off.

Now try to explain negative feedback in controlling body temprature

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Bones, muscles and
joints

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Human skeleton

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Humans are vertebrates
 Means have a vertebral column (also known as spinal column or backbone)
 Vertebrates have internal skeleton or endoskeleton.

Structure of the human skeleton

1-Axial skeleton
Consists of skull, vertebral column and ribcage.
2-Appendicular skeleton
Consists of scapula, clavicles, pelvis and limbs bones.

Functions of the skeleton

 Makes some components of blood (red and white blood cells are made in bone marrow)
 Support the body
 Allow movement
 Protect the internal organs
A. Skull (or cranium) protects brain , eyes and ears
B. Vertebral column protects spinal cord
C. Ribcage protects lungs and heart

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Human biology
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Structure of the long bone

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 Bone is a living organ, it is formed of cells known as osteocytes.
 Bone contains nerves and blood vessels.
 The outside of the bone consists of a layer of connective tissue called the
periosteum. The outer shell of the long bone is compact bone.
 The deeper layer is spongy bone .
 The middle cavity contains bone marrow.

Example
femur and tibia,

Adaptation of bone to its function

 Bone contains calcium salts, mainly calcium phosphate that makes bones rigid and resist
compression.
 Bone contains protein fibres so that bones are tough ,not too brittle.
 Bone contains living cells and Blood vessels so that bones can be repaired.

Notice

 Matrix of the bone contains calcium phosphate and protein fibres.

 The ends of epiphyses are covered with cartilage
 If a bone is left in a beaker containing acid, it become soft as acid dissolves calcium
phosphate.
 Spongy bone contains spaces and fewer calcium salts.

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Osteoporosis

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Osteoporosis is a condition that weakens bones, making them fragile and more likely to break.

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It develops slowly over several years and causes bone fracture easily

Causes
1-High intake of
 Protein: Protein is an essential part of a healthy diet, but a diet very high in animal
protein may cause calcium loss.
 Caffeine: High caffeine intake (more than four cups of coffee per day) inhibits calcium
absorption and leads to calcium loss through the urine
 Sodium: Consuming too much salt causes loss of calcium through the kidneys.

2-Lack of Exercise

3-Low Sex Hormones

When women reach menopause, their estrogen levels drop significantly. Estrogen is
important to new bone production

In men, testosterone protects bone. When testosterone levels drop, it can lead to bone
loss.

Treatment
Good diet
1. Eating food containing enough calcium for growth and strength of bones
2. Eating food containing enough vitamin D which is needed for absorption and precipitation
of calcium in bones.

5-Other vitamins and minerals such as Magnesium, phosphorous and vitamin B,

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Treatment with hormones

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Symptoms

 Backache
 A gradual loss of height and an accompanying stooped posture
 Fractures of the spine, wrist, or hip

Joints
A joint is a point where two bones meet and articulate.

Types of joints
1. Freely movable such as elbow and hip ( called ball and socket joints).
2. Partially movable joints which allow slight degree of movement such as joints between
vertebrae (intervertebral joints).
3. Immovable such as those in the skull.

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Structure of the synovial joint

Structure and adaptation of synovial joints

1. Contain synovial fluid which is an oily fluid secreted by synovial membrane.
( its function is to acts as lubricant to reduce friction between the ends of the bones.)
2. The ends of the bones are covered with a layer of cartilage
( its function is to act as shock absorber between the ends of the bones.)
3. Joint is surrounded by tough fibrous capsule for protection.
4. Bones of the joint are held together by ligaments which allow joints to bend without being
dislocated.

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( ligaments are composed of fibres which have tensile strength which means that they resist

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stretching.)

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Notice
 Both ligaments and tendons have tensile strength, but ligaments are fairly elastic while
tendons are inelastic.
 Hinge joint in elbow allows movement in one plane.
 Ball and socket joint in hip allows movement in three planes.

Muscles

 Muscle cells form muscle tissue.

 Muscles like biceps and triceps are organs .
 Muscles are attached to bones , when contract they pull on the bones.
( muscles cannot push , can only pull)
 Muscles are attached to the bones by tendons.
( tendons have tensile strength in order not to stretch when muscle contracts.)

Antagonistic muscles

A pair of muscles when one of them contracts the other relaxes.

Example biceps and triceps muscles

When biceps muscle contracts, it bends or flexes the arm therefore it is known as flexor
muscle.

When triceps muscle contracts, it straighten or extends the arm therefore it is known as
extensor muscle.

The place where the muscle is attached to the stationery bone is called the origin.

The place where the muscle is attached to the moving bone is called the insersion.

When a muscle contracts , the insersion moves towards the origin.

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Notice

You have to know the names of the associated bones to the biceps and triceps in arms and
shoulder as shown in the above diagram.

The dietary factors for healthy development of muscles and bones

3. Eating food containing enough calcium for growth and strength of bones
4. Eating food containing enough vitamin D which is needed for absorption and precipitation
of calcium in bones.
5. Eating food containing enough protein for growth and strength of muscles.
6. Eating food containing enough carbohydrates to be stored in the form of glycogen in
muscle cells.

5-Other vitamins and minerals such as Magnesium, phosphorous and vitamin B,

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Coordination
Nervous
Eye
Ear
Hormones
Drugs

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Coordination

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Definitions related to coordination

Sense organs
Group of receptor cells respond to specific stimuli.
Example
 Eye has light receptors.
 Skin has temperature and pressure receptors.
 Nose and tongue have chemical receptors.

Effector
A part of the body that goes into action when receives impulses.

Examples
 Muscles
 Glands.

Coordination or communication
The way in which receptors pick up stimuli and then pass information to effectors.

Systems needed for coordination

 Nervous system.
 Endocrine system

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HUMAN

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NERVOUS SYSTEM
It consists of :
1- Central nervous system ( CNS )
Composed of brain and spinal cord .

2- Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Composed of

a- Cranial nerves ( nerves branched from brain.)

b- Spinal nerves ( nerves branched from spinal cord )

Functions of the central nervous system

 Receive impulses from different receptors
 Integrates the received messages or impulses.
 Produce nerve impulses to the proper effector.

Areas of the brain

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Brain is protected by the skull

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The main parts of the brain

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1. Cerebrum
2. Cerebellum
3. Medulla oblongata
4. Hypothalamus
5. Midbrain
6. Pituitary

Cerebrum
 Made of two cerebral hemispheres.
 Its outer layer is called cortex, it has darker colour and therefore it is known as grey matter

Functions of cerebrum
1. Site of all conscious thoughts.
2. It contains sensory areas that receive and process information.
3. It contains motor areas which originate all our voluntary actions.
4. It is the origin of higher activities such as memory , reasoning , emotions and personality.

Cerebellum
Coordinates contraction of sets of muscles to maintain balance.

Medulla
 Known as brain stem

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 Control basic involuntary functions of the body such as breathing, blood pressure and

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peristalsis.

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 Pathway of impulses from brain to the spinal cord.

Hypothalamus
Contains receptors such as temperature receptors and osmoreceptors.

Midbrain
associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness) and
temperature regulation.

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The spinal cord

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Protected by :
- Vertebral column

Its regions
- White matter to the outside
- Gray matter to the inside .

Its functions :
1. Controls reflex actions in the parts
below the neck .
2. Conducts impulses from the sense
organs below the neck to the brain.
3. Conducts impulses form the brain to the
effectors ( muscles or glands below the
neck ).

Building units of nervous system

Are the nerve cells(neurones.)

Types of neurones
Sensory neurone
 Its function is to carry impulses from a sensory organ or receptor to CNS
 It has a long dendron and a short axon.

Motor or effector neurone

 Its function is to carry impulses from CNS to an effector .
 It has many dendrites and a long axon

Connector or relay neurone

Connects neurons in the CNS

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Myelin sheath

 Made of cells rich in fat and protein.

 Contains narrow gaps called node of Ranvier

Functions of myelin sheath

 Protection, insulation and increases speed of transmission of nerve impulses.
 Speed in myelinated nerve cell 100 metres per second while in non myelinated nerve cell is
only 0.5 metres per second.

Nerve impulses :
Series of electro-chemical signals travel down nerve fibres

Ganglion :
Swelling in the sensory nerve contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons .

Nerve cell is adapted to its function

 Has long axon or dendron to transmit nerve impulses.
 Has nerve ending to transmit impulses to another nerve cell or effector.
 Has dendrites to receive nerve impulses from other cells.
 May have myelin sheath for protection, insulation and to speed transmission of nerve
impulses.

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Reflex action and reflex arc.

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Reflex action

It is a rapid involuntary response to stimulus.

Example : withdrawal of a hand when it touches a hot object .

Its importance
 Has a survival value, as it is rapid and does not consume time in thinking as it does not
involve the higher centres in the brain.
 Reflex action has a role in learning skills such as walking and driving.

Reflex arc
It is the pathway of impulses in a reflex action .

Stages of a reflex action

1- Receptor cells send sensory impulses along a sensory neuron to CNS ( spinal cord )
through the dorsal root .

2- Sensory neuron forms a synapse with the connector neuron.

3- Impulses are transmitted through the connector to the motor neuron also through a
synapse.
4- Motor neuron carries impulses through ventral root to the muscle to contract to move the
hand away .

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Example withdrawal reflex

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Notice
Cell body of a sensory neurone is found in the ganglion of the dorsal root.

Cell bodies of motor and relay neurones are found in grey matter of brain or spinal cord.

Other example knee jerk

also called patellar reflex, sudden kicking movement of the lower leg in response to a sharp tap
on the patellar tendon, which lies just below the kneecap. One of the several positions that a
subject may take for the test is to sit with knees bent and with one leg crossed over the other
so that the upper foot hangs clear of the floor.

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Synapse
A junction between nerve cells consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by
diffusion of a neurotransmitter substance.

Structure of synapse
 The gap is known as synaptic cleft.
 The end of a nerve cell is called synaptic knob.
 In synaptic knob vesicles containing neurotransmitter substance are made.

Transmission of impulse along a synapse

1- Impulse arrives at end of synaptic knob.
2- Transmitter substance secreted into synaptic gap or cleft to reach the adjacent neurone
where it binds to special receptors( neurotransmitter substance and receptors act as lock
and its key).
3- New impulse is generated in the adjacent neurone.

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Importance of synapse
 Ensures one way transmission of nerve as neurotransmitter are only produced in synaptic
bulb ( knob) while receptors for neurotransmitter substance are found in the post synaptic
membrane.
 Slower transmission as time is needed for release of neurotransmitter to diffuse across
synaptic cleft and also time is needed for neurotransmitter molecules to bind with the
receptors.
Types of muscles as an effector
1-voluntary(striated)

 It is striated due to presence of protein filaments in the cell.

 Many nuclei per cell.
 Not branched.

Importance of voluntary muscles

Rapid contraction to move bones Under voluntary control by the brain.

2-involuntary ( smooth muscles)

(Non-striated because protein filaments are absent)

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 One nucleus per cell.
 Not branched.
 Cell tapered at ends.
Importance
 Slow, rhythmic contraction in walls of gut, blood vessels
 Not under voluntary control by the brain.

3-Cardiac muscle

 Striated.
 Many nuclei per cell.
 Branched cells
 Only present in the heart.
Importance
 Contracts rhythmically and constantly throughout life without tiring.
 Not under voluntary control

Voluntary actions Involuntary actions

- The action which you can decide whether or - Actions which happen automatically, you
not you carry out the action. can not decide whether or not you carry
out the action.

- It starts in medulla oblongata, or spinal

- It starts in the cerebrum.
cord in case of reflex action.

- Unlearned action.
- It is a learned action.
- Usually faster.

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- Usually slower

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Example : Picking up a book. Example : peristalsis

Diseases affect nervous

Alzheimer's disease
is an irreversible, progressive brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills,
and eventually the ability to carry out the simplest tasks.

Alzheimer's is the most common cause of dementia among older adults.

Cause
The cause is not well understood
it seems to be due to a build-up of two proteins in brain cells, called amyloid and tau. they damage and
kill brain cells.

Other cause is the life style such as

 Lack of exercise
 Obesity
 Smoking or exposure to secondhand smoke
 High blood pressure
 High cholesterol
 Poorly controlled type 2 diabetes

Symptoms
 forgetting recent events, names and faces.
 becoming increasingly repetitive, e.g. asking the same question after a short
 period of time
 Forget conversations, appointments or events, and not remember them later
 Get lost in familiar places
 Have trouble finding the right words to identify objects, express thoughts or take part
in conversations
Brain changes that occur in Alzheimer's disease can affect moods
and behaviors. Problems may include the following:

 Depression
 Social withdrawal
 Mood swings
 Distrust in others
 Irritability and aggressiveness

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 Changes in sleeping habits

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 Loss of inhibitions

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 Delusions, such as believing something has been stolen

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Treatment
As yet, there is no cure for Alzheimer’s.
In the early stages some people are helped by a drug that increases the amount of a
neurotransmitter called acetylcholine.

May be encouraged to take part in activities that stimulate thinking skills, such as games and
discussion groups.

Vascular dementia

It is caused by diseased and damaged blood vessels in the brain

The blood vessels become blocked or leak, reducing the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the brain cells.
This causes the brain cells to die.

Symptoms
problems with memory loss, thinking and reasoning.

Treatment
There is no cure, and drugs used to treat Alzheimer’s do not work with vascular dementia. It is possible to
slow down the development of the disease by treating the cause. Such as drugs to reduce high blood
pressure or lower blood cholesterol and reduce the risk of strokes.

Encourage them to take part in activities that stimulate the

brain.

Symptoms may be most obvious when they happen soon after a major stroke. Sudden post-
stroke changes in thinking and perception may include:

 Confusion.
 Disorientation.
 Trouble speaking or understanding speech.
 Vision loss.

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Parkinson's disease

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Cause
It normally begins in middle age or later life.
It is caused by the death of certain neurones in the brain. These neurones produce a neurotransmitter
called dopamine.

A decrease in dopamine levels

produces abnormal brain activity, leading to the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease.
research has shown that the brain cells of people with the disease contain structures called Lewy
bodies. Lewy bodies contain several substances, in particular a protein called alpha-synuclein.

Symptoms
 Vary from person to person, but they generally start with a tremor (shaking) in the hand or fingers.
 Over time, the person’s movements become slow, steps shorten and it becomes difficult
 for them to walk.
 Muscle stiffness can occur, which causes pain and slows movement.
 Their posture becomes bent over and the person may have problems with balance.
 There is a loss of automatic movements, such as blinking, smiling and the normal swinging of the
arms
 during walking.
 The person may have difficulty speaking clearly.

Treatment
Although there is no cure, medication can control the symptoms of the disease.
The most effective is called levodopa. This is a natural chemical that passes into the patient’s brain and
is converted into dopamine.

Other drugs include:

dopamine agonists, which mimic the action of dopamine in the brain
chemicals that inhibit the enzymes that break down dopamine in nerve cells
chemicals that block the transmission of impulses to the muscles, to control tremors.
Another treatment that is used is a type of surgery called deep brain stimulation (DBS).

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Mental illnesses

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are health conditions that involve abnormal changes in a person’s thoughts, emotions or behaviour.
These changes cause distress or problems in functioning in family, work or social situations.

Examples
schizophrenia and depression.

Schizophrenia
Most people who are diagnosed with the condition are aged between18 and 35.

Symptoms:
 a lack of interest in things
 becoming anxious and confused
 feeling disconnected from their surroundings
 difficulty in concentrating
 wanting to avoid people
 having hallucinations – seeing things that are not there
 hearing voices
 having delusions – believing things to be true when they are not (refusing to accept reality)
 suffering from paranoia – being suspicious of other people and thinking that people want to harm
them.
 158 UNIT 3 COORDINATION
Causes
caused by a combination of factors:
 Dopamine: The same neurotransmitter that is lower than normal in patients with Parkinson’s disease
is higher than normal in people with schizophrenia.

 It is thought that high levels of dopamine may help to start the development of schizophrenia.

 Stress:

 Heredity: In some families, the condition occurs more

 Drug abuse

 such as cannabis and cocaine.

 other factors such as brain injuries and viruses

Treatment
Antipsychotic drugs are used to treat symptoms such as hallucinations and hearing voices.
(they do not work for all patients, and can cause unpleasant side effects.

Non-drug treatments such as

talking regular time and place to talk about their troubles with a trained health professional

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cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) which is a particular type of talking treatment, where the patient is

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practical ways to manage any negative patterns of thinking or behaviour

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family intervention therapy: which aims to help families develop communication, problem solving,
information sharing and skills to deal with different situations.

RESSION

HUMAN EYE
- Found in a groove in the skull called orbit or socket.

- It moves in its orbit by three pairs of muscles called eye muscles.

It is protected by :
Skull, eye lids, lashes and tears.

Components of tears
Water ,sodium bicarbonate, sodium chloride

and enzyme called lysozyme.

Functions of tears
 Reduces friction between lids and eye .
 Lysozyme kills microbes.
 Washe the eye.

Functions of the different structures of the eye

Sclera (sclerotic coat)
- Protects the eye.
- Attached to the eye muscles which move the eye in its orbit.
- Does not envelop all the eye because it is opaque, therefore its front part is transparent and is
called cornea.

Cornea
Has a curved surface where most refraction ( bending or converging ) of light happens, so that
light rays are collected to enter the eye.

Choroid
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- Contains dark pigments to prevent reflection of light inside the eye for formation of clear

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sharp image.

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- Contains blood vessels to supply the eye with food and oxygen and to carry away wastes of
metabolism of the eye.

Retina
- It contains the light receptors (cells that can detect light.).
- There are two types of light receptors cones and rods.

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Rods cones

 Larger in number .  Smaller in number .

 Spread in all retina but much less in fovea  Concentrated in fovea.
and absent in blind spot.
 Sensitive to low light intensity therefore can
detect dim light.  Sensitive to bright light .
 Cannot detect colours
 Each group share one nerve connection “
therefore it is less accurate in vision  Detect colours.
 Each has its own nerve connection
therefore it is more accurate.
 There are three types of cones each type
absorbs light of certain wave length.

Two important regions are found in the retina ,fovea or yellow spot and blind spot.
Fovea or Yellow spot
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The point of accurate vision because it contains most cones .

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Blind spot

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- The point where optic nerve and blood vessels leave the eye.
- It is so called because it contains no light receptors therefore it cannot detect images.
How to determine blind spot ?

Hold the book about 50 cm away.

Close the left eye and concentrate on the cross with the right
Eye. Slowly bring the book closer to the face. When the image
Of the dot falls on the blind spot it will seem to disappear.

Notice
If you look straight at an object in dim light you cannot see it clear as it falls on fovea that
contain cones which cannot detect dim light but you can see it clear if you look at one side as
the image falls on rods.
Optic nerve
Carries impulses from the eye to the centre of vision in the brain.
Vitreous humour
- Jelly- like fluid .
- Keeps shape of eye .
- Supports retina to be attached to the choroid .
- Helps refraction ( bending) of light to be focused on the retina .
Aqueous humor
- Saline solution ( contains salts) .
- Supply food to the lens and cornea.
- Helps refraction ( bending) of light
Conjunctiva
Protects cornea
Iris
- Controls the amount of light that enters the eye.
Pupil
- An opening in the iris.
-It is the pathway of light into the eye.
Lens
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- Adjust (focus) the light rays on the retina.

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Ciliary body

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- It is the edge of the choroid .
- Secretes eye fluids.
Ciliary muscles
- Alter the shape of the lens to focus the image on the retina.
Suspensory ligaments
- Attach the lens to the ciliary muscles

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Controlling amount of light by lris“ pupil reflex or light reflex .
It importance

- In bright light it reduces the amount of light that enters the eye so it protects the light
receptors against bright light that may harm them.
- In dim light it allows enough light to enter the eye for clear vision.

How iris controls the amount of light that enters the eye

In dim light in bright light

- Radial muscles of the iris contract . - Radial muscles of the iris relax .

- Circular musclesrelax . - Circular musclescontract .

- Pupil becomes larger so that enough light - Pupil becomes smaller to reduce the amount
can enter the eye . of light that enters the eye to protect the
light receptors.

Focusing light ( accommodation of the eye )

Means adjustment of shape of the eye lens to focus light on retina to be able to see far objects
and near objects.

Near object Far object

- Ciliary musclescontract . - Ciliary musclesrelax .

- Suspensory ligamentsslacken . - Suspensory ligaments become stretched .

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- The eye lens becomes thicker . - The eye lens becomes thinner .

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- Pupil becomes small . - Pupil becomes larger .

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Mechanism of vision or pathway of light
- Light rays come to the eye from an object .

- Light rays become converged by cornea , and then pass through pupil to the lens .

- The lens focus the image on fovea( the formed image is small and inverted ).

- Light receptors convert light energy to nerve impulses to be carried by the optic nerve to the
center of vision in the brain .

- In the brain the image is detected .

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Advantages of having two eyes
 Cancelling blind spot effect on vision.
 Provide a wider field of vision.
 Provide a stereoscopic vision (3D vision)
 Each eye forms a slightly different image of an object, the brain combines the information
from each eye giving 3D vision which allowing us to judge distance and depth of an object
and allows us to estimate speed of a moving object.

LONG AND SHORT SIGHT

long sight
the lens is not convex enough (i.e. it is too flat) or the eyeball is too short from front to back, so that light
rays from a nearby object are focused behind the retina
This means that the
image falling on the retina will be out of focus.

A long-sighted person has difficulty focusing on nearby objects

Long sight can be corrected by using convex lenses or glasses which converge the light rays before
they enter the eye

short sight
the lens is too convex or the eyeball is too long, so that the light rays from a distant object are focused in
front of the retina

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This produces an out-of-focus image. A short-sighted person has problems focusing on distant

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Can be corrected using concave lenses,
which diverge (spread out) the light rays before they enter the eye (Figure 8.6 (b)).

Long sight Short sight

ASTIGMATISM

Just like long sight and short sight, astigmatism is not a disease or health
problem. It is just a minor defect in the structure of the eye that causes blurred
vision. There are two types of astigmatism, called regular and irregular.
Regular astigmatism occurs when the surface of the cornea or lens is not a
perfectly spherical shape like a football, but is rounder in one direction than
the other (Figure 8.7). This shape means that the person’s eye will be in focus
in one direction (e.g. up and down) but not the other (e.g. side-to-side). This is
easily corrected by wearing glasses or contact lenses.
No

Irregular astigmatism is where the curvature of the surface of the cornea or

lens is uneven in more than one direction. This cannot be corrected by wearing
glasses, but it can be corrected with contact lenses.
CATARACTS
Both long and short sight are more common in older people. However, the
elderly can also develop a number of more serious defects of vision, including
cataracts. A cataract is a condition where the lens of the eye becomes cloudy
and opaque, so that the person is unable to see. It cannot be corrected with
glasses or contact lenses, and can only be treated by surgery. The surgeon
opens up the front of the eye and removes the affected lens, replacing it with
an artificial lens. The patient will be able to see again, but they will need to
wear glasses.
CORNEAL TRANSPLANTS
When a cornea is diseased or damaged by an injury, it is possible to carry out
a corneal transplant. The diseased cornea is removed from the patient and
replaced with a cornea taken from a donor. Corneal transplants are generally
highly successful. The majority result in restored vision and there is a low rate
of rejection of the donated tissue, with the replaced corneas lasting many

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years or a lifetime. In a small number of cases, where transplant of a living

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cornea is not possible, artificial corneas made of transparent plastic have

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been used.

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The ear
Function
 Detects sound
 Organ of balance

Structure of ear
Ear is formed of three parts
outer ear, middle ear and inner ear

1- Outer ear

Consists of
 Fleshy visible pinna (also called the auricle).
 The ear canal (auditory canal).
 The outer layer of the eardrum(also called the tympanic membrane).

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The first part of the canal is surrounded by cartilage, while the second part near the

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eardrum is surrounded by bone.

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The skin surrounding the ear canal contains sebaceous glands that produce protective ear
wax.

Function of outer ear

to direct sound waves to the ear drum causing it to vibrate

2-middle ear

Consists of
 air-filled cavity called the tympanic cavity
 three ossicles and their attaching ligaments.
 the auditory tube;
 round and oval windows.

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Ossicles

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ossicles are three small bones that function together to receive, amplify, and transmit the

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sound from the eardrum to the inner ear.

The ossicles are the malleus (hammer),incus (anvil), and the stapes (stirrup).

Notice
The stapes is the smallest named bone in the body.

The middle ear also connects to the upperthroat at the nasopharynx via the pharyngeal
opening of the Eustachian tube.[3][7]

The inner ear

 Formed of cochlea which contains receptor cells that convert the vibrations into nerve
impulses.
 The receptor cells are found in cochlea in a structure called organ of Corti

Mechanism of hearing
1. Sound waves enter the ear causing ear drum to vibrate.
2. Vibrations pass across ear ossicles and through the oval window.
3. Vibrations pass along the outer canal of cochlea.
4. Vibrations stimulate sensory cells in organ of Corti.
5. Sensory cells send nerve impulses to brain via auditory nerve.
6. Vibrations pass along length of outer canal and out through round window.

Determining pitch ( frequency) and loudness

 The sensory cells nearest to the oval window are sensitive to high frequency sounds while
nearest to the round window are sensitive to low frequency sounds.
 The loudness of sound is determined by amplitude (size) of the vibrations of the sensory
hair cells

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Role of ear in balance

Parts responsible for balance

 Semicircular canals
 Sacculus
 Utriculus
Mechanism of balance
 The semicircular canals are arranged in three planes at right angle to each other so that
they can detect movement in any direction.
 At the ends of semicircular canals there are hairs embedded in a jelly-like mass called
capula

 Movement of fluid in the semicircular canals causes the capula to pull on the hair cells
stimulating them to send nerve impulses to the brain.

 The sacculus and utriculus also contain hair cells embedded in a jelly containing calcium
carbonate crystals called otolith, when there is a movement of head the weight of otolith
pulls on the hairs so that they produce nerve impulses to give the brain information about
the position of the head.

Every day we experience sound in our environment, such as the noise from
traffic, machinery or people talking. Normally, sounds are at safe levels that
do not damage our hearing. Loud sounds, however – especially if they are
long lasting – can be very harmful to the ears. They can damage the sensitive
structures within the ear, producing noise-induced hearing loss, or NIHL.
A one-off exposure to a very loud noise, such as an explosion, can rupture
(tear) the eardrum or damage the delicate bones in the inner ear, although the
ear can recover from this. Exposure to loud noise for longer periods of time

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can cause temporary deafness. It may also cause a ringing or buzzing sound in

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the ears, called tinnitus.

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What is less well understood by many people is that prolonged exposure to

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moderately loud or very loud noise can cause damage to the ears that results
in permanent hearing loss. The intensity of sound is measured in units called
decibels. Here are some examples of the decibel rating of different sounds:
◾◾ a humming refrigerator 45 decibels
◾◾ normal conversation 60 decibels
◾◾ heavy traffic 85 decibels
◾◾ an MP3 player at full volume 105 decibels
◾◾ loud fireworks 150 decibels
Even after long-term exposure, sounds of less than 75 decibels are unlikely to
cause hearing loss. However, long periods of exposure to sounds above 85
decibels can permanently damage the ears.
NIHL is caused by damage to the delicate hair cells in the inner ear. This is
a gradual process: when it starts to happen, the person may not notice, or
they may ignore the signs of hearing loss until they become worse. Over time,
sounds become distorted or muffled, so the person may struggle to follow a
conversation, or may have to turn up the volume on their television.
NIHL is completely preventable. All you need to do is avoid exposure to
sounds over 85 decibels, and if you are taking part in an activity that involves
loud noises, wear earplugs or ear protectors.
semicircular
canal
ampulla
cupula (movement
of fluid moves
cupula, pulling
on hair cells)
nerve to
brain
hair cells
▲▲ Figure 8.12 Cross-section of an ampulla
showing how movement is detected.

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Hormones

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Are organic substances (many are proteins such as insulin) secreted in small amounts by
endocrine glands into the blood stream directly to reach and affect certain organs or tissues

( known as target organs or tissues,) its function is to alter the activity of the target organs and
then deactivated usually in liver.

Notice
Hormones are also called chemical messengers because they can carry the messages from
one part of the body to another to respond in a particular way.

Examples
Hormones secreted by pituitary gland
1. ADH (see excretion)
2. Follicle stimulatin hormone (FSH) will be explained in reproduction

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3. Luteinising hormone (LH) will be explained in reproduction

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(FSH and LH are gonadotrophic hormones as they stimulate gonads which are
testis and ovaries)

Hormones secreted by Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas

1. Insulin
2. Glucagon

Hormone secreted by adrenal gland

Adrenaline

Hormones secreted by thyroid gland

Thyroxin
 Controls the body’s metabolic rate ( how fast chemical reactions take place in
cells)as it stimulates cells to respire aerobically to produce more ATP.
 It increases protein synthesis in the body therefore it is needed for growth and
development.

How production of thyroxine is controlled

 When there is a drop in metabolic rate thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH) is
released from hypothalamus.
 TRH stimulates pituitary gland to release thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) that
stimulates synthesis and release of thyroxine.

Notice
Thyroxine contains iodine , therefore lack of iodine leads to enlargement of the thyroid
gland ( this disease in known as goiter)

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Insulin

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 A hormone secreted by certain cells in the pancreas called Islets of langerhans .

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 It is a protein.
 Its function is to lower the blood glucose level.

How insulin can lower blood glucose level when its level becomes higher than the
normal :

(a) Stimulates the liver cells to store excess glucose in the form of glycogen.
(b) Stimulates the muscle cells to store excess glucose in the form of glycogen.
(c) Stimulates the conversion of excess carbohydrates to fats.
(d) Stimulates the body cells to use glucose.

Glucagon hormone
- It is also secreted by Islets of Langerhans in pancreas.
- It is secreted when blood glucose level drops below normal.
- It stimulates liver to break down amount of stored glycogen into glucose, until glucose level
becomes normal.

Adrenaline
- It is a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands ( supra - renal glands ) which are found

above the kidneys .

- It is known as fight, and flight hormone as

it prepares the body for action in the following ways :

(a) Increases the rate of heat beats.

(b) Increases the blood pressure.

(c) Increases the rate of breathing.

(d) Causes constriction of the blood vessels in skin and digestive system to increase flow of
blood to muscles.

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(e) Converts glycogen stored in liver to glucose , and fats to fatty acids .

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(The above actions to provide the muscles with enough food and oxygen to produce the

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energy required for rapid and efficient response and also to allow blood to carry away the
waste products of this metabolism.)

(f)pupil dilates to increase visual sensitivity to movement

Notice
 Insulin can not be taken through mouth but as an injection because insulin being protein it
will be digested by the effect of proteases if taken through mouth.

 Diabetes is a disease caused due to lack of insulin, it is dangerous as it damages tissues

especially in brain and heart as it decreases water potential in blood as a result of this water
moves from body cells to blood causing the cells to shrink and die.

Nervous control Hormonal control

- The message is electro- chemical. - The message is chemical.

- The message travels very quickly. - Message travels more slowly.

- The impulse is transmitted in nerves. - Hormones are transmitted via blood.

- Localised( means that the impulse is sent - Widespread ( means that hormones are
directly to target organ.)
dispersed through out the body )
- Short term effect.
- Long term effect

Development
Development is the increase in complexity of the organism by cell differentiation and
specialization leading to formation of different tissues and organs that can perform
different functions.

Specialization of cell
-Means that the cell becomes adapted for a particular function within an organism.
- Growth is followed by development.
Drugs are chemicals that affect the normal chemical reactions taking place
in a person’s body. Many drugs are useful. For example, aspirin is an effective

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painkiller. A number of drugs, however, act by interfering with the nervous

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system, and some of these can have very harmful side effects. This is one

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reason why many drugs are illegal. We will look at some legal and illegal drugs.

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PARACETAMOL One of the most widely used legal drugs is paracetamol. This is a medication
that is taken by mouth and used to treat common ‘aches and pains’ such as
headache and toothache. It also reduces a high temperature (fever) caused
by a cold or flu. Despite its widespread use, we do not know for sure how
paracetamol works! It may inhibit an enzyme that controls the production of
chemicals called prostaglandins. These naturally-occurring substances have
various protective roles in the body, but one of their side effects is that they
produce pain and fever. Paracetamol is an effective painkiller and is safe if
you take no more than the recommended dose. An overdose of paracetamol,
however, can cause permanent liver damage and death.

Alcohol is a legal ‘recreational’ drug in many countries around the world. The
alcohol in beer, wine and spirits slows down the nervous system, even when
drunk in small quantities, and increases the time a person takes to react to a
stimulus. This is why driving after drinking alcohol is so dangerous. The driver
will not be able to react quickly to sudden danger, such as a person walking
into the road (Figure 9.12).
▲▲ Figure 9.12 Alcohol in the bloodstream increases reaction times and is one cause of car accidents.
160 UNIT 3 COORDINATION
Larger amounts of alcohol in the body interfere with the drinker’s balance
and muscular control, and lead to blurred vision and slurred speech. High
concentrations of alcohol in the blood can even cause coma and death.
Many people drink moderate amounts of alcohol to relax. To some people,
however, alcohol is an addictive drug. Long-term alcohol abuse leads to
serious medical problems. Alcohol is quickly absorbed into the blood through
the stomach and intestines, and is taken around the body. The liver breaks
the alcohol down (a process called detoxification) but if a person drinks large
amounts regularly, the liver may not be able to cope. The person can develop
a disease called cirrhosis, where the liver does not perform its usual functions
properly and toxins in the blood build up to high levels. This disease is usually
fatal. Alcohol also damages the brain and stomach lining.
ILLEGAL DRUGS Most countries of the world have laws against the use of certain drugs that
cause serious harm to the drug-user’s body or to society as a whole, for
example, by causing the break-up of families or an increase in crime. We will
look at three examples of illegal drugs – cannabis, heroin and cocaine. All three
are psychoactive drugs – they are ‘mind-altering’, affecting brain function and
changing a person’s mood or consciousness.
CANNABIS
Cannabis is obtained from a plant called Cannabis sativa (Figure 9.13). It is
one of the most widely used illegal drugs in the world. The dried leaves of the
cannabis plant are smoked as marijuana or hashish. It contains a psychoactive
substance called THC or tetrahydrocannabinol.
The effect of this drug on the body depends on its strength and the amount
of cannabis used. The most common effects are a sense of relaxation,
cheerfulness and an increased awareness of sounds and colours. However,
cannabis has many dangerous effects. The user may become confused or
disorientated and suffer hallucinations. They can become anxious, depressed
and even suicidal. Cannabis is also dangerous to the lungs, since it is usually
smoked with tobacco.
HEROIN
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Heroin is both a legal and an illegal drug. It is a very strong painkiller – a

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used by doctors to treat people who are in severe pain (for example, cancer

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patients). However, most people will have heard of heroin as an illegal drug. A
heroin user normally injects the drug into a vein (Figure 9.14), although it may
be smoked or inhaled.
As well as being a painkiller, heroin is a narcotic, producing a powerful feeling
of pleasure and contentment known as a ‘high’. Heroin is also a powerful
depressant drug, slowing down the nervous system and producing deep
drowsiness.
When a person starts to use heroin, they rapidly develop a tolerance to the
drug. This means that they will need to inject more and more of the drug to
produce the same effects. Use of heroin rapidly leads to addiction, where the
person becomes psychologically dependent on taking the drug. Addicts are
unable to live without regularly injecting heroin, and their lives become centred
on obtaining and using the drug. People who are addicted to heroin often turn
▲▲ Figure 9.13 A cannabis plant.
▲▲ Figure 9.14 A heroin addict injecting the drug
into a vein in his arm.
UNIT 3 COORDINATION 161
to crime to fund their addiction. Their family and social lives suffer, and they
are less likely to be able to maintain a job.
If a heroin addict tries to stop or reduce their use of the drug, within hours
they will suffer from withdrawal symptoms. These include sweats, chills,
severe muscle and bone aches, vomiting, cramps and diarrhoea, along with
psychological symptoms such as anxiety and depression.
There are a number of other medical problems linked with heroin use.
Repeated injections can cause skin infections and abscesses. The illegallybought
heroin may be contaminated with other substances, which are added
to dilute the drug (making more profit for the drug dealer). These substances
are sometimes toxic. Addicts frequently die from an accidental overdose of the
drug, because they do not know how strong their supply is.
Addicts who inject the drug may share needles with other users. This greatly
increases their risk of catching a number of infectious diseases, including
hepatitis and HIV.
COCAINE
Cocaine is a drug made from the leaves of the coca plant, Erythroxylum coca.
It has some medicinal uses as a local anaesthetic, but is much more widely
known as an illegal drug. Cocaine is a white powder that is usually inhaled
(‘snorted’) through the nose. It can also be rubbed onto the gums or dissolved
in water and injected into the blood. Cocaine that has been processed to make
a solid ‘rock’ is heated to produce vapours that are inhaled. In this form, it is
called ‘crack’ cocaine.
Cocaine is a powerful stimulant drug. It affects synapses in the brain and
produces a short-term ‘high’ in the user. This involves unusual behaviour
patterns, such as:
◾◾ extreme happiness and energy
◾◾ mental alertness
◾◾ unusual sensitivity to sounds, touch and sights
◾◾ irritability
◾◾ extreme distrust of other people (paranoia).
Large amounts of cocaine can trigger bizarre, unpredictable and violent
behaviour in the user.
There are many health problems associated with cocaine use. It increases

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the heart rate and blood pressure to dangerously high levels. It can cause

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nosebleeds, dizziness, nausea (feeling sick), fever, seizures (fits), breathing

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difficulties, tremors, and muscle twitches. In addition, cocaine is highly

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addictive and long-term use can result in a number of severe medical
problems, such as a breakdown of the large intestine due to reduced
blood flow.
CHEMICAL COORDINATION – THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

R
REPRODUCTIONr

Rbb

REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS
Humans are characterized by :
1- Internal fertilization : means that gametes fuse inside the body of the female .

2-Internal development: means that the embryo grows inside the body of the female .

Gonads :
Are the organs responsible for producing gametes .

In humans :
 The male gonads are the testes.
 The female gonads are the ovaries .

The female reproductive system

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Properties and functions of the different parts

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Structure properties and functions

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1-Ovaries  Are two, right one and left one .
Functions :

a-Production of ova ( singular : ovum)

b-Production of the female hormones(which are known as oestrogen)

c-Each ovary produces an ovum each 2 months ( 56 days )

(Therefore there is only one ovum produced every 28 days by one of

the two ovaries ).

 Its front part is a funnel-shaped structure to receive ova.

2-Oviduct
( this part is called funnel of the oviduct )
“ Fallopian  Funnel of the oviduct and the oviduct contains cilia to push the ova
tubes “ into the uterus
 It is the site of fertilization
( because the ovum dies before leaving it )

3-Uterus or  A muscular organ.

womb  It is the site where the embryo is developed if the ovum is
fertilized.
 It consists of a muscular wall and a lining .
-The lining is soft, spongy with many blood vessels to supply the
embryo with food and oxygen .

- In the lining implantation of the embryo takes place .

( Implantation means that the embryo fixes itself to the lining of

uterus )
 If there is no fertilization the lining is broken down releasing blood,
this is called menstruation.
 Every month new lining is formed , except during pregnancy the
lining is not broken down and remain to support the embryo ..
 During birth it contracts to push the fetus out.
4-Cervix  It is a muscular ring that separates the uterus and vagina.
 It secretes mucus to help sperm to swim.

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5-Vagina  It is the organ of copulation .

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 Its exterior is called vulva .

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 It is folded to expand during birth .
 It secretes mucus to facilitate the movement of the male organ
during copulation .
 Secretes acid to kill bacteria and other microorganisms.

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The male reproductive system .

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Properties and functions of the different structures

Structure Properties and functions

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1-Testes a- Production of sperm.

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b- Production of the male sex hormone which is known as testosterone.

2-Scrotum or  A sac of skin

 Used to hold the testes outside the body at a lower temperature
scrotal sac. becauseincrease in temperature affects production of sperm.

3-Epididymis  A coiled tube

Its functions

a- Stores sperms

b- Contracts to help in ejaculation of sperms .

4-Sperm duct  Conducts sperm from the epididymis to the urethra .

 Contracts by a process like peristalsis to help in ejaculation.

5-Urethra  A common passage for both urine and semen .

( semen is the sperm plus the fluid produced by prostate gland and seminal

vesicles.)

 Has a muscular wall to contract to help in ejaculation .

 Urination cannot take place during ejaculation because the sphincter
muscle of the bladder contracts during ejaculation.

6-Seminal Secrete fluid known as seminal fluid to mix with sperm ,this fluid consists of
vesicles and :
prostate gland  Mucus ( produced by prostate gland) to facilitate copulation and
swimming of sperm.
 Sugars (fructose) to provide energy for sperm.
 Alkaline material to neutralize the acidity of the urethra and vagina.
( urethra is acidic due to the remains of acidic urine ).

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7-Penis  It is the organ of copulation .

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 Contains erectile tissue which has blood cavities, when penis is stimulated

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blood fills the cavities making the penis long and strong enough for
copulation ,this is known as erection.
 Covered with a piece of skin called fore skin which is removed during the
process of circumcision.

Sperm

It adaptive features
Head : Contains nucleus carries the inheritedinformation .
Can produce enzymes from an organelle in the
Head known as acrosome to penetrate wall of the
The ovum.

Neck : Contains mitochondria to produce the energy

required for its movement .
Tail or ( flagellum) Used for its movement.

Ovum

Adaptive features
 Contains stored food to be used in its growth and division.

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 Surrounded by jelly coat which becomes hard after fertilization to prevent any other sperm

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to enter.

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Comparison
Male gamete Female gamete

Size smaller larger

Structure Has flagellum and acrosome Has no flagellum and acrosome

Has no jelly coat. Has jelly coat.

Mortality motile Not motile

Or
mobility

number Larger in number Smaller in number

Intercourse

 Due to stimulation , the blood pressure increases in the penis,

so it becomes stiff and erect.

 The penis is then inserted into the vagina and moves

rhythmically, this stimulates it, and so the muscles of

the epididymis, sperm ducts and urethra contract in a

wave motion to push the sperms,

 During this, a fluid from seminal vesicles, and prostate gland is

secreted to be mixed with sperm that ejaculate inside vagina .

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Fertilization

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1- The semen is deposited at the top of vagina below the cervix.
2- Sperms swim using their tails through the cervix and the film of moisture lining the uterus.
3- Sperms are attracted towards the ovum due to the chemicals it produces.
4- Many sperms reach the egg, each sperm produces enzymes from its head to digest a way
into the egg.
5-The sperm leaves its tail outside, then the nucleus of the sperm and that of the ovum fuse
together forming a zygote.
6- Once one sperm has succeeded in penetrating the egg, a fertilization membrane is formed
quickly to prevent any other sperm to enter the ovum .

Zygote
A cell formed due to the fusion of a male gamete and a female gamete.

Embryo
A ball of cells formed due to the division of the zygote by mitosis.

Foetus (or fetus)

A mammalian embryo in fairly advanced stage of development .

What happens if there is no fertilization

Menstruation takes place.

Menstruation
 It is the break down of the lining of uterus in case if there is no fertiliztion .
 It takes place due to a drop in the level of a hormone called progesterone .
( Function of progesterone is to maintain the lining of uterus ).

Menstrual cycle

It is the changes in uterus and ovaries that take place between one menstruation and the other.

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Stages of the menstrual cycle

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1- The pituitary gland secretes the hormone ( FSH ) follicle stimulating hormone which
stimulates an ovum to develop into a larger structure called Graafian follicle.

2- Graafian follicle secretes the hormone oestrogenwhich :

A-Inhibits the production of FSH to avoid development of other ova during this period .
B-Stimulates building up of uterine lining.

3- The pituitary gland produces a hormone called LH ( Lutenising hormone ) to the Graafian
follicle to pop out an ovum into the oviduct and to develop the remaining of the follicle into
a structure called corpus luteum or yellow body.

4- The yellow body produces a hormone known as progesterone which causes the lining of
the uterus to become thicker and to maintain it.

5-About two weeks after ovulation, the yellow body withers away, therefore the level of
progesterone in the blood drops , as a result the lining breaks down and menstruation
occurs.

Role of oestrogen in the menstrual cycle

Oestrogen stimulates repair of the lining of uterus( lining of uterus is known as
endometrium)so that it becomes ready for implantation, also by negative feedback
mechanismit inhibits production of FSHso that no more ova canbe released and stimulate
production of LH for ovulation.

Role of progesterone
Role of progesterone during the menstrual cycle

 Maintains the lining of uterus ( endometrium) to be prepared for implantation.

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 Inhibits production of FSH and LH by negative feedback mechanism.

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Role of progesterone during pregnancy

 Stops menstrual cycle.

 Maintains the lining which is needed for supporting the embryo.
 Stimulates development of mammary glands.

Ovulation

 Means the release of an ovum into the oviduct.

 It takes place at day 14 of the menstrual cycle ( first day in the menstrual cycle is the day at
which breakdown of lining of uterus and release of blood or menstruation takes place)

What happens if there is fertilization ?

1- Formation of embryo due to the successive division of the zygote by a method of division
called mitosis.

2- The menstrual cycle stops, until after the baby has been born, this is because production of
progesterone continues to maintain the lining of uterus .

(Maintenance of the lining is necessary to support the embryo .)

3- Implantation takes place

Implantation means the process by which the embryo attach to the lining of uterus.

4- Formation of amnion and placenta.

Amnion ( amniotic sac or a water sac )

- Secretes amniotic fluid.

- Protects fetus against pathogens

Functions of amniotic fluid

- Acts as shock absorber.
- Protects the embryo against adhesion of organs.

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- Facilitates the movement of the fetus.

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- Provides a suitable temperature for the fetus.

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- During pregnancy it sterilizes the pathway of the fetus.
- Collects wastes of the foetus.

Placenta .

Formation of placenta :

- Some of the cells of the embryo grow into projections called villi that fix into
the uterus.

- The uterus also grows projections .

- The maternal ( mother’s ) villi, and the fetal villi grow closely together forming
the placenta.

The blood in placenta includes :

 Maternal blood from the uterine artery.

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 Fetal ( orfoetal) blood from the umbilical artery and the umbilical vein in the umbilical

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cord.

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Importance of placenta
1- Exchange of gases
a- Oxygen from the mother’s blood diffuses into the fetal blood .
b- CO2 from the fetal blood diffuses into the mother’s blood .

2- Nutrition

Food materials such as glucose and amino acids diffuse or taken by active uptake into the
fetal blood .

3- Excretion

Waste products such as urea diffuse from the fetal blood to mother’s blood .

4- Secretion of hormones
Secretes oestrogen and progesterone to :

a-Keep the uterine lining to support the embryo.

b-Stimulate the growth of milk- producing tissues in the woman’s breast.

c- Prevent any more ova to be released during pregnancy .

5-Makes fetal blood and maternal blood never mix in placenta therefore :
(a) It protects the fetus against high blood pressure.
(b) It protects the fetus against bacteria( If found in mother’s blood ), but viruses like HIVand
rubellacan pass through placenta because they are very small.
( rubella is a virus that causes German measles.)

(c) It protects the fetus and mother against blood agglutination if mother’s blood group and
that of the fetus are not matched.

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C- Umbilical Cord

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- It connects placenta and fetus.
-It contains:
1- Umbilical artery carries CO2 and other waste products of the fetus to placenta.
2-Umbilical vein carries O2 and food materials from placenta to fetus.

Development of a fetus

Ante - natal care.

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Means care of fetus before birth to help the fetus to develop into healthy baby and to make

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birth easier.

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Ante- natal care includes the following :
1-Diet
Must include :
 More proteins for building cells.
 More carbohydrates and fats for more energy.
 More minerals such as calcium to build bones and iron to form haemoglobin.

2- Drugs
 Must be avoided because they can pass through the placenta to fetal blood and harm the
fetus, especially during the first weeks leading to mutations (abnormalities).

3- Smoking
Must be avoided, it can result in small and less healthy baby because :
 CO of smoking can reduce the oxygen supply as it combines with hemoglobin forming stable
carboxyhemoglobin .
 Nicotine makes the fetal heart beats more quickly .

4- Alcohol
Should be avoided because they :
 May form abnormalities in the fetus.
 May result in premature baby .
 May lead to miscarriage.

5- Diseases
 Viral diseases may cause damaging effect e.g German measles which may cause deafness of
baby .

6- Exercise
 Helps mother to keep fit, and this helps in birth .
 Helps to keep her circulatory system working efficiently.

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BIRTH

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 It is the process by which the fetus leaves the uterus.
 Takes place about nine months after fertilization
Stages of birth (or labour)

1- First stage :
a- Oxytocin hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland to stimulate contraction of uterus.
b- The cervix becomes soft and dilates.
c-Rupture of the amniotic sac and the amniotic fluid .

2- Second Stage :
- The head of the baby is pushed out by the effect of the uterine contractions, and so the
rest of its body slides quickly .

3- Third stage
a- The umbilical cord is then tied and cut ,
( This does not hurt neither the mother or the baby because it contains no nerves.)
b- The uterus contracts to expel the placenta.
c- Cold air stimulates the lungs of the baby, so breathing through lung starts.

Breast milk and bottle feeding

Breast milk Bottle feeding

1- Contains nearly all the types of food except - Contains more protein , sodium and phosphorus
for iron in the right proportion. also, it increases ,

according to the demand of the baby. but less sugar, vitamin A and D than the human

milk but it can be modified .

.2- Free from bacteria .- May contain bacteria

3-Provides emotional and psychological

benefits to both mother and baby.

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4- Its temperature is suitable to the baby . - Its temperature may be higher or lower than the

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temperature of the baby.

5- Costs nothing . - May be expensive.

1- Ready. - Needs time to be prepared.

Disadvantages Its advantages :

 Some drugs such as nicotine can pass from  Can be used to measure the amount needed
mother to the baby. by the baby .
 Mother may be unable to produce enough  People other than mother can feed the baby.
milk.
 Suckling may be painful if nipples are
inflamed.

Methods of birth control

contraceptive methods or family planning .

Types of methods of birth control:

1- Natural methods 2- Chemical methods (hormonal)

3- Mechanical methods(using barrier) 4- Surgical methods (sterilization)

1-Natural methods

Method Advantages Disadvantages

1-Abstinence ( No intercourse at all ). -100% successful - Not suitable for most

couples.

2-Rhythm method or safe period -Acceptable to all

-The signs of this
 Means to avoid intercourse in the time religions and
period may not be
where an ovum in the oviduct .
cultures clear
 This period can be recognized as follows :
-The menstrual cycle

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a- Slight rise in temperature - Has no side may be irregular as a

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b-The mucus of vagina becomes more effects
ovulationcan not be
viscous.
determined accurately.

2-Chemical methods

Method Advantages Disadvantages

1- Contraceptive pills : - 100% successful . - Long term use may

cause side effects such
- Contain oestrogen and progesterone to - The female can
as headaches and
be
prevent ovulation by their negative allergies.
pregnant after
feedback effect . - Can not be used by
leaving it. diabetics and those
- It is taken daily for three weeks, during who have liver
diseases.
this period the lining of the uterus is

formed normally

- Then taking pills stops for a week

therefore the lining breaks down leading

to menstruation.

( Instead of pills the female can be given

injection of long lasting contraceptive
hormones)

2- Morning after pills : -Works several - May cause side

effects like the
- Contains hormones days after
contraceptive pills.
- Taken after intercourse intercourse .

- Prevent implantation - The female can

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pregnant after

leaving it.

3- Spermicides: - Easy to be used . - sperm can pass

without being killed,
- A creamy substance that kills sperm.
therefore it must be
- It is put into the vagina before used beside condom.

intercourse.

2- Intrauterine system (IUS)

-A deviceplaced in the uterus

-It releases hormones to

preventimplantation and
interferewithability of the sperm to find
and ferrtilise an ovum.

3- Mechanical Methods

Methods Advantages Disadvantages

1- Intra - uterine device IUD or loop - Effective . - May cause bleeding

and infection if not
- it prevents implantation as it is put - The female can be
fitted well.
on the lining of uterus
pregnant after
- Pregnancy may take
removing it . place if not fitted
2- Diaphragm or cap well.

- It is a dom-shaped piece of rubber

- Female can place
with a metal spring around it .
- Sperm can enter
and remove it by
- It is placed in vagina before
uterus if cap is not
intercourse. herself.
fitted well .

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3- Condom - Can also provide - Any defect in its
manufacture may
- It is a sheath of rubber placed over protection against
allow sperm to pass
the male organ during intercourse
sexually through vagina .
to prevent sperms to reach vagina .
transmitted

diseases.
4- femidom ( female condom)

Placed in vagina to prevent release of

sperm through cervix

4- Surgical methods

Method Advantages Disadvantages

1- Tubal ligation( or female - 100% effective . - Irreversible.

sterilization)
- Does not affect the female - stress of surgical
- Cut and tie the oviducts to close the
characteristics as they are operation.
way through which sperm reach ova
controlled by the hormones - Expensive

secreted by ovaries into the

blood stream
2- Vasectomy in males :

- Cut and tie the sperm ducts to

prevent ejaculation of sperm. - 100% effective. - Irreversible.

- does not affect the male - stress of surgical

characteristics as they are operation.

controlled by testosterone - Expensive.

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which is secreted by testes

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into the blood stream .

- The male ejaculates semen

but without sperms .

condom

IUD

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Methods to increase chances for fertilization
1-Surgery if the oviducts are blocked.

2-Fertility drugs such as those containing FSH and LH to stimulate ovulation

( one disadvantages of this that many follicles may be produced leading to multiple birth)

3-Artificial insemination

Healthy sperm are placed in the woman’s uterus at the time of ovulation.

4-In vitro fertilization (test tube babies)

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Method Advantages Disadvantages

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In vitro fertilisation:  Helps women who have  Put the male and
blockage in their oviducts female under
 Ripen ova are taken from a to be pregnant. stress of surgical
female and placed with the  If the male is unable to methods
male’s sperms in certain produce healthy sperms ,
apparatus. sperms from a donor can  Expensive.
 Sperms fertilize ova, forming be used.  usually many
zygotes. embryos are
implanted , one is
 Zygotes are left to divide
used while others
forming young embryos ( just
are killed or used
ball of cells )
in researches.
 .The embryo is implanted into
the females uterus.
Sex hormones .

Male sex hormones ( Androgens ) Female sex hormone (estrogen)

Example : testosterone

Produce primary sexual characteristics such as Produce Primary sexual characteristics such as

 Development of sex organs .  Ovulation

 Erection in case of stimulation .  Menstruation.
 Production of sperm.
Produce secondary sexual characteristics :
Produce secondary sexual characteristics such as
 Rough voice ( deep voice).
 growth of facial and pubic hair.  Hips widen
 Muscle development.  Breast increases in size.
 Broad shoulders .  High pitched voice.

Twins
1- Identical twins 2- Non identical twins

Caused when a sperm fertilizes an ovum forming a Caused when two sperm fertilize two separate
zygote ,which divides forming a ball of cells , and ova forming two separate zygotes , each grows
then for unknown reasons the ball of cells divides forming an individual
forming two embryos, each grows separately

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forming two individuals .

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The non identical twins :

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The identical twins :

- share the same placenta . - each has a placenta.

- have similar features and have the same sex. - have different features.

- may be of different sexes.

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Growth and development

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DNA and

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heredity

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Deoxyribonucleic acid

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DNA

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It carries the inherited information

Its structure
 Formed of two strands that twist together forming a spiral known as double helix.
 Each strand is formed of sequence of sugar and phosphate joined to nitrogen bases.

 Bases of one strand form hydrogen bonds with bases of the other strand.

DNA bases
 There are four types represented by adenine represented by A , thymine, represented by
T, cytosine represented by C and gunine represented by G.
 A and T are joined together by two hydrogen bonds.
 C and G are joined together by three hydrogen bonds.

Building point of DNA

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Importance of DNA bases
 The sequence of bases provides codes for the types of proteins that have to be made in the
cells, each 3 nucleotides code for synthesis of certain amino acid.
 The different types of proteins lead to development of characteristics, for example black
hair is a protein while yellow hair is other protein.
 The different types of proteins may be enzymes or hormones that affect activity of the
body or maybe antibodies for immunity.
DNA replication
Steps of DNA replication
1-DNA unwinds, unzips and hydrogen bonds between nitrogen-containing bases break by the
effect of helicase enzyme.

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2-Free nucleotides are added to DNA strands such that A binds with T by two

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hydrogen bonds and C binds with G by three hydrogen bonds.

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4-DNA polymerase enzyme catalises joining of nucleotides of the new strand by formation

of phosphodiester bonds while the extra phosphate groups of activated nucleotides are

released.

(The above method of DNA replication is known as semi-conservative method.)

Why it is known as semi-conservative method?

Because each of the produced DNA molecule contains half ( one polynucleotide chain) is
conserved ( old , from parent DNA) while the other is newly formed.

Importance of DNA replication before mitosis ( during interphase)

Enables each of the produced daughter cells to receive identical copy of DNA like that of the
mother cell.

In DNA
Gene

 A length of DNA codes for formation of a certain polypeptide.

Each gene starts with a promoter region and ends with a stop region

 The genetic information is coded on only one strand of DNA , this strand is known as refrence
strand, sense strand or coding strand , while the other strand is known as non-coding strand ,
complementary or antisense strand.

Importance of the complementary DNA strand

 Used as template in DNA replication.
 Necessary for DNA repair process which takes place when there is any change in DNA as a result of
certain chemicals or radiation.
 Necessary for keeping DNA stable as it does not leave unpaired nitrogen-containing bases so that
they can not bind or react with other structures which may disturb DNA structure.

code
A triplet in sense strand of DNA codes for formation of a certain amino acid.

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Types of RNA

1-Messenger RNA 2- Ribosomal RNA 3-Transfer RNA

(mRNA) (rRNA) (tRNA)
 Single strand of  Single strand of  Single strand of
polynucleotides, non folded. polynucleotides has paired polynucleotides , has paired
and unpaired portions. and unpaired portions.
 Its function is to transfer  Found in ribosomes, has a role  Its function is to carry amino
information from DNA to in protein synthesis. acids from cytoplasm to the
ribosome for protein ribosomes to be used in
synthesis. protein synthesis.

How a protein is made

(protein synthesis
Takes place in two stages
1-Transcription
 The process of synthesis mRNA using the coding or refrence DNA strand of a gene as a template.
 It takes place in the nucleus.

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2-Translation

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 It is the process of synthesis of a polypeptide using the information encoded in mRNA.
 Takes place in the ribosome.

Steps of transcripton

 The gene needed to be transcribed unwinds, unzips and hydrogen bonds between its bases break.
 In presence of RNA polymerase enzyme, activated RNA nucleotides pair with exposed bases of the
refrence or coding strand strand.
 The formed strand of mRNA leaves the nucleus .
 DNA winds again.

Steps of translation

 mRNA binds to the a ribosome, and six bases (two codons ) of this mRNA

 A tRNA with the complementary anticodon to the DNA codon carrying the required amino acid bind
to this codon.

 A second tRNA molecule with an anticodon complementary to the next codon reaches and pairs
with the codon.

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 The two amino acids carried by the two tRNA are joined by peptide bond

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 The ribosome moves along mRNA and the process is repeated until the needed polpeptide chain is

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formed.

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INHERITANCE

It is the transmission of genetic information from generation to generation .

Chromosome
- A coiled thread of DNA and protein found in the nucleus of cells,

it is made up of string of genes.

- Every species is characterized by having a certain number of chromosomes.

Example:

humans have 46 chromosomes in every cell of the body except

for gametes ( gamete has only 23 chromosomes.)

- Chromosomes can be seen clearly in the cell by the light microscope

only when the cell is dividing because at this stage they become shorter and fatter.

- Chromosomes carry genes.

Gene

-A specific length of DNA occupying a position called locus in a chromosome which codes for
making a particular protein.

Allele
- Allele is one of two or more different forms of a gene.

Example :

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The gene which codes for fur colour in an animal may have two forms (alleles), a form (an

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allele) codes for white colour and a form ( an allele) codes for black colour.

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Notice
All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but in each cell only the genes needed by
the cell are expressed.

Example
Cell in salivary gland and cell of stomach each contain all the genes on 46 chromosomes but in
salivary gland the gene coding for production of amylase is expressed while in stomach the
gene coding for production of pepsin is expressed

Types of nuclei
Diploid Haploid

- A nucleus which has two sets of - A nucleus which has one set of unpaired
chromosomes chromosomes.

- In all body cells except gametes. - In gametes.

Homologous chromosomes

- Chromosomes which carry genes for the same characteristics in the same position.
- Have the same position of centromere.
- One comes from the father (paternal) while the other comes from the mother ( maternal).
Types of chromosomes
Autosomes Sex chromosomes

- Are the chromosomes responsible for different - Are the chromosomes responsible for sex

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characteristics except sex . determination.

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- Are represented by X and Y .

(Y is shorter than X).

- In males X and Y chromosomes are present.

- In females two X chromosomes re present.

The chromosomal structure in humans

and sex determination

Chromosomes in male Chromosomes in female

44+XY 44+XX

Probability of Sex
Parents male female

genotype 44+XY 44+XX

gametes 22+X 22+Y 22+X 22+X

genotype 44+XX 44+XX 44+XY 44+XY

phenotype female female male male

Probability 50% female 50% male

Who determines sex ?

Males because they produce gametes that contain the chromosome Y.

Monohybrid inheritance
Means that cross between organisms which show contrasting variations of only one
characteristic.

Example

Black animal crossed with a white one.

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If all their offspring is black, the allele for black is said to be dominant and is represented by a

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capital letter (B) while the allele for white is ressisiveand is represented by the same letter but

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small (b)

Each individual receives two alleles for each characteristic

- One from the father and one from the mother.

- If the two alleles are identical for example BB or bb the individual is called homozygous.

- If the two alleles are different for example Bb the individual is called heterozygous

Dominant allele

An allele that is expressed on the phenotype of an organism if it is present whether the

organism is homozygous or heterozygous.

Recessive allele

- An allele that is only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present.

- The organism which has the recessive phenotype is always homozygous

Genotype

It is the genetic makeup of an organism in terms of the alleles present.

The genotype of the organism is homozygous or heterozygous.

Phenotype

It is the physical or other features of an organism due to both its genotype and its environment.

Example

An animal its fur colour is black, therefore:

- Its phenotype is back

- Its genotype may be :

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 Homozygous black

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( BB ).

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 Heterozygous black

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( Bb.)

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Homozygous
Means having two identical alleles of a particular gene.

Heterozygous
Means having two different alleles of a particular gene.

Results of simple cross

1- If two homozygous individuals with different phenotypes are

crossed
The result is 100% heterozygous dominant.

Example

Parental phenotype Red white

genotype RR rr

gamete R R r r
F1 genotype Rr Rr Rr Rr
Phenotype red red red red
Phenotype ratio 100 % red
Genotype ratio
100 % heterozygous red

2- If two heterozygous individuals with the same phenotype

Example

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Parental phenotype Red red

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genotype Rr Rr

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gametes R r R r
F1 genotype RR Rr Rr rr
Phenotype red red red white

The phenotype ratio is : 3 dominant : 1 recessive or 75 % dominant : 25 % recessive.

The genotype ratio is : 1 homozygous dominant : 2 heterozygous : 1 homozygous recessive

OR 25% homozygous dominant : 50% heterozygous : 25% homozygous recessive

3- If a heterozygous dominant and homozygous recessive are crossed

Example

Parental phenotype Red white

genotype Rr rr

gametes R r r r
F1 genotype Rr Rr rrrr
Phenotype red red white white

The phenotype ratio is : 1 dominant : 1 recessive or 50 % dominant : 50 % recessive.

The genotype ratio is : 1 heterozygous dominant : 1 homozygous recessive

In any of the above examples you can use (punnett) squares as

shown below

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Blood groups
There are four blood groups
A , B , A B and O

Blood groups are controlled by 3 alleles

IA , IB and IO

- Both IA and IB are dominant while IO is recessive

Blood group Its genotype

A Homozygous ( IAIA )or heterozygous ( IA IO )

B Homozygous (IB IB )or heterozygous ( IB IO)

AB Heterozygous (IA IB ) only

O homozygous (IO IO )only

Role of blood groups in transport of blood (Compatible Blood Types)

 Donors with blood type A... can donate to recipients with blood types A
and AB
 Donors with blood type B... can donate to recipients with blood types B
and AB
 Donors with blood type AB... can donate to recipients with blood type
AB only

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

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Donors with blood type O... can donate to recipients with blood types

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A, B, AB and O (O is the universal donor: donors with O blood are

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compatible with any other blood type)

There are four main blood groups defined by the ABO system:
 blood group A has A antigens on the red blood cells with anti-B antibodies in the
plasma.
 blood group B has B antigens with anti-A antibodies in the plasma.
 blood group O has no antigens, but both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the plasma.

Blood groups as an example of multiple alleles

As blood groups are controlled by more than one pair of alleles while normal cases of
inheritance are cotrolled by only one pair of alleles.

Co- dominance

- It is the existence of two alleles for a characteristic where neither is dominant over the other
but both are equally dominant and influence of both alleles is shown in the phenotype.

- In case of Co-dominance both alleles are represented by capital letters.

Example
If a plant with red flowers and a plant with white flower re crossed together and
the produced offspring has pink flowers
Parental phenotype Red white

genotype RR WW

gamete R R W W
F1 genotype RW RW RW RW
Phenotype pink pink pink pink
Phenotype ratio 100 % pink
Genotype ratio
100 % heterozygous pink

Result of crossing F1

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Parental phenotype Pink Pink

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genotype RW RW

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gamete R W R W
F1 genotype RR RW RW WW
Phenotype Red pink pink white
Phenotype ratio 1 red : 2 pink : 1 white

Genotype ratio1 homozygous red : 2 heterozygous pink : 1 homozygous white

NOTICE

- Breeding true or pure breading means homozygous individual .

Test cross or back cross

Means crossing an individual that has the dominant phenotype with other individual that has
the recessive phenotype to know if it is homozygous or heterozygous .

 If the result is 100% with dominant phenotype , we conclude that this individual is
homozygous .
 If the result is 50% with dominant phenotype , we conclude that this individual is
heterozygous .

SEX LINKAGE
 It is the inheritance of genes carried on the sex chromosomes .
 The sex linked alleles are carried on X chromosome but not on the Y chromosome because X
is longer than Y therefore it can carry more alleles .

Examples
1- Haemophilia
 It is a disease in which the blood of the affected person has a reduced ability to clot .
 This gene therefore has two alleles :
1-The normal allele , it is dominant.

2- The allele for haemophilia , it is a recessive allele.

If the allele codes for normal is represented by (N) while the allele codes for haemophilia
is represented by (n)

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A male his genotype XN Y is normal

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A male his genotype Xn Y is affected and not a carrier as one recessive allele is enough to

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show the recessive characteristic .

A female her genotype XNXN is normal.

A female her genotype XNXn is carrier.

Therefore the haemophelic males are more than the females as one recessive allele is enough
to develop the disease .

2-Red - green colour blindness

 It is a disease caused due to a recessive allele of a sex linked gene .

 In this disease the person cannot distinguish the green, yellow , orange and redcolours .
 This disease can be detected by using a card contains the above colours in a certain pattern
and so the infected person cannot detect this pattern .
 It is due to a defect in one of the three groups of colour sensitive cones .

If the allele for normal is (B or any other capital letter) so the possible genotypes
of males are:
normal male : XB Y

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affected male : Xb Y

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The possible genotypes of females are:

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normal female : XBXB

carrier female : XBXb

affected female: XbXb

polydactyly
(as an example of a condition caused by dominant allele)

A condition in which a person develops extra digits (fingers or toes) on the hands or
feet.
It is determined by a dominant allele.
The recessive allele causes the normal number of digits to develop.
If we use the symbol D for the polydactyly allele and d for the normal-number
Allele
genotypes and phenotypes of this condition
DD person has polydactyly (homozygous)
Dd person has polydactyly (heterozygous)
dd person has the normal number of digits (homozygous)

family pedigree
In biology, a pedigree is a diagram showing genetic relationships between members of a family.

It is used to analyze patterns of inheritance for specific genetic...

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In generation I : 1 and 2 are the parents

In generation II :1 and 3 are the sons while 2 is a daughter but 4 is a female married so 3

In generation III : 1and 2 are daughters of 3 and 4 in generatio II

Types of nuclear division

Mitosis
Meiosis

Stages of mitosis

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Stages of meiosis

Two main stages which are meiosis I and meiosis II

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Mitosis Meiosis( or reduction division)

- A type of nuclear division resulting in - A type of nuclear division that results in cells
genetically identical cells in which the with half the number of chromosomes found
chromosome number is maintained by the
in the parent cell.
exact duplication of chromosomes.

- Takes place ingrowth , tissue repair , and

asexual reproduction. - Takes place in formation of gametes in
sexual reproduction
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- Two daughter cells are produced from one

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- Four daughter cells are produced from one

mother cell. mother cell

- The produced cells are identical to each - The produced cells are not identical to each
other and to the mother cell.( Leads to
other and to the mother cell.( no variation). variation).

- Leads to selection and evolution

- Does not lead to selection and evolution.

Importace of meiosis in formation of gametes

To reduce the number of chromosomes to its half producing haploid gametes and this is
necessary to restore the normal diploid number of chromosomes after fertilization.
It leads to variation during formation of gametes , this variation is necessary for natural
selection and evolution.

How meiosis leads to variation

By forming new combinations of alleles from maternal and paternal chromosomes

Stem cell
An undifferentiated cell that can divide by mitosis to an unlimited number of
times.

Each of the cells produced as a result of division of stem cell has the
potential to:

 Remain as a stem cell

 Differentiate into specialised cell such as red blood cell or liver cell.

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Types of stem cells

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1-Embryonic stem cells
(Also known as totipotent and pluripotent)
are found in the early stage of development of the embryo. They can differentiate into
any type of cell.

2-Adult stem cells

(Are also known as multipotent)
are found in certain adult tissues, such as bone marrow, skin, and the lining of the
intestine.
They have lost the ability to differentiate into any type of cell but can form a number
of specialised tissues.
For example,
bone marrow cells can divide many times to produce different types of red and white
blood cell.

stem cell therapy

Is the use of stem cells to treat or prevent a disease, or to repair damaged tissues.

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Example

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stem cell therapy by using bone marrow transplants to treat leukaemia (a type of
blood cancer).

Bone marrow transplants supply stem cells that can divide and differentiate,
replacing cells lost from the body during chemotherapy.

Stem cells may also be able to repair nervous tissues damaged in accidents.

Scientists are able to isolate and culture embryonic stem cells, These are obtained from
fertility clinics where parents choose to donate their unused embryos for research. In
the future, it is hoped that we will be able to use embryonic stem cells to treat many
diseases such as diabetes, as well as brain disorders such as Parkinson’s disease.

advantages, disadvantages and ethics of using stem cells

advantages disadvantages

 (Embryonic Stem Cells) easy to  (Embryonic Stem Cells) embryo

extract from embryo destroyed when cells removed -
 (Embryonic Stem Cells) produce some people think embryos have
any type of cell a right to live
 (All Stem Cells) replace faulty cell  (Embryonic Stem Cells) body
with healthy cell, so the person is recognises the cells as 'different'
well again and will reject them without the
 (Adult Stem Cells) no embryo is use of drugs
destroyed so not an ethical issue  (All Stem Cells) may produce
 cancer cells instead of healthy
cells
(Adult Stem Cells) if taken from the  (Adult Stem Cells) difficult to find
person to be treated, will not cause and extract from tissue
rejection by the body
(Adult Stem Cells) produce only a few
types of cell

Genetic engineering

Taking a gene from one species and putting it into another species so that this gene can be
expressed in the phenotype.

Example: production of the human insulin

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Why it is produced

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People have the disease diabetes mellitus need injection of insulin every day as they can not

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produce insulin.

How insulin was obtained before genetic engineering

From the animals killed for food.

Disadvantages of obtaining insulin from animals

 Many people do not like the idea of using insulin from an animal.
 Insulin from animals is not identical to the human insulin as it does not have exactly the
same primary structure.
 Limited quantities can be produced.
 Expensive

Stages of production of human insulin by genetic engineering

1- Using certain enzyme known as restriction endonuclease, DNA in a human cell is cut into
short lengths forming sticky ends.

2- The particular length of DNA which codes for making insulin is identified and isolated.
3- A plasmid (which is a ring of DNA found in bacteria) is separated by centrifugation.
1- The same restriction endonuclease is used to cut the
plasmid forming complementary sticky ends.
2- A specific enzyme known as ligase is used to stick the gene
which codes for insulin and the plasmid of the bacteria.
3- The genetically engineered plasmids (the plasmid joined to
the gene coding for insulin ) are added to a culture of bacteria.
4- Many bacteria will take up one or more of the plasmids into
their cells, these bacteria can produce insulin .

The genetically engineered bacteria are allowed to

reproduce in fermenter to produce identical bacterial cells that
have the ability to produce insulin.

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Plasmid is used as a vector

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( vector is a structure or organism used to transfer something
from one organism to another)

Advantages of using plasmid as a vector

- Can be extracted easily from bacteria.
- Can be easily returned back into bacteria.
- The gene introduced to the plasmid can be expressed

Why bacteria is useful in genetic engineering

 Because bacteria has plasmids that can be isolated , modified and then introduced into
bacteria once more , also bacteria reproduce at a very high rate producing genetically
identical offspring.
 Lack of ethical concerns over their use.
 Have genetic code shared with all other organisms

Advantages of using insulin produced by genetically engineered bacteria rather

than obtaining insulin from animals
 Insulin produced by genetic engineering is identical to that of the human therefore it will not
lead to rejection or allergies while that obtained from animal is slightly different than that of
the human.
 Rate of production of insulin by bacteria is very high compared with obtained from animal.
 Insulin obtained from animal may lead to transmission of diseasesInsulin produced by
genetic engineering is identical to that of the human therefore it will not lead to rejection or
allergies while that obtained from animal is slightly different than that of the human.
 Rate of production of insulin by bacteria is very high compared with obtained from animal.
 Insulin obtained from animal may lead to transmission of diseases

Other examples of genetic engineering

– the insertion of genes into crop plants to be resistant to herbicides.
– the insertion of genes into crop plants to be resistant to insect pests.
– the insertion of genes into crop plants to provide additional vitamins.

Other example
Hepatitis B vaccine:
Yeast cells can be genetically modified to produce the surface proteins (antigens) of the hepatitis B virus.
These proteins are used to make a vaccine against hepatitis B.

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When the vaccine is injected into a patient, their body makes antibodies against the proteins, so the

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person becomes immune to the virus.

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Other example
Development of plants with better characteristics such as golden rice
that contain vitamin A

VARIATION

What is variation ?
Variation means that living organisms of the same species differ from each other in some of
their characteristics.

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Types of variation

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1- Discontinuous variation 2-Continuous variation

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Definition : Definition

Are the variations which is caused by genes Are the changes which occur when the
alone and results in a limited number of characteristic is determined by many pairs
distinct phenotypes with no intermediate of alleles leading to a gradual transition
forms. between two extremes of a characteristic .

It is influenced by genes and environment.

It is influenced by genes only.

Factors affecting it Factors affecting it

- Many pairs of alleles.
- A single pair or few pairs of alleles.
- Affected by environment.
-Is not effected by environment .

Examples : Examples

1. Blood groups 1. Height in humans

2. Tongue rolling 2. Intelligence
3. Weight
4. Finger prints.

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What causes genetic variation ?

Meiosis
 During meiosis a half of the chromosomes go into one gamete and a half into the other
gamete.
 Each set of chromosomes carries alleles with particular characteristics and this causes
variation.

2- Fertilization :
Fertilization leads to random combination of alleles for example :

One sperm from millions of sperms fuses with one ovum leading to the production of certain
characteristics which may be varied if another sperm fuses with that ovum.

3- Mutation .

It’s a sudden unexpected change in gene or genes, chromosome or chromosomes.

Environmental factors lead to mutation

Chemicals
Such as mustard gas, tobacco and some food preservatives.
Many chemicals alter structure of DNA when react with it .
Radiation
Such as X –rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet rays and cosmic radiation.
It may cause break in DNA .

Notice
Factors that cause mutation are known as mutagens.
Mutation may be harmful, neutral and a few are beneficial.
Variation is caused by evironmental factors, genetic factors or combination of both.

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Types of mutation

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1-Chromosome mutation 2-Gene mutation

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May be caused due to :  Caused due to a change in the
individual’s gene.
 A change in one or more chromosomes.
 Increase or decrease in number of
chromosomes
 A part of a chromosome get snapped
and lost. Example
Example
Sickle cell anaemia.
Down’s syndrome

Examples of inherited diseases caused by mutation

1. Sickle cell anaemia
2. Cystic fibrosis
3. Haemophilia
4. Colour blindness

Sickle cell anaemia

What is sickle cell anaemia?

A mutation leads to change in the base sequence of the gene coding for haemoglobin leading
to a disorder in the sequence of amino acids in the haemoglobinmolecule .

The defective haemoglobin molecule causes the red blood cells to distort when subjected to a
low conc. of O2.

Harms of sickle cell anaemia

The distortion of RBC’s leads to :

 Their rapid destruction.

 Damage of the inner walls of blood vessels causing
pain and resist blood flow.

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 Decrease in ability to carry oxygen .

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 Decrease in their flexibility, as a result blood pressure

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increases to push them in fine capillaries .

People according to sickle cell

Homozygous normal Trait , heterozygous or Homozygous sickle
peopleHbAHbA carrierHbAHbS
HbSHbS

 Have normal haemoglabin  Some blood is normal and  All the blood carries
some is abnormal abnormal
 Also called milder from. haemoglobin.
 Not all red blood cells distort  Die due to inability to
in shortage of oxygen . carry enough oxygen
.
Malaria

Is a disease caused by a parasite called plasmodium which is transmitted by mosquitoes, this

parasite lives in RBC’s

Sickle cell anaemia and malaria.

In tropical regions sickle cell is widely spread because, mosquitoes which

transmit malaria live there,therefore :

(a) The normal people HbAHbA die by the effect of malaria.

(b) The homozygous sickle HbSHbS die by the effect of anaemia, and do not reach the age of
marriage.

(c) The trait HbAHbSare resistant to malaria and also can live as some blood cells contain

normalhaemoglobin, therefore they reproduce producing individuals who have sickle cell
haemoglobin .

Advantages of sickle cell anaemia :

Resistance to malaria because sickle cells have shorter life span so the parasite can not
complete the part of its life cycle that must take place in the red blood cells.

Sickle cell anaemia is a form of discontinuous variation because

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first it is a genetic condition ,not affected by environment ,second it is controlled by one gene

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with small number of alleles ( two HN HS), third it has only three distinct categories which are

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HNHN , HN HS and HSHS with no intermediate forms.

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Cystic fibrosis (CF)
Cause

 Mutation in the gene coding for a protein that transports chloride ions to pass out of the cell
through cell surface membranes.
 Allele for cystic fibrosis is recessive .
 Its inheritance is autosomal not sex linkage as the gene is found on chromosome 7 not X
chromosome.

Importance of protein that pumps chloride ions

Pumps out chloride ions, this increases concentration of chloride ions out of the cell causing water to
move out of the cell by osmosis making the mucus secreted by this cell less sticky.

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Effects of CF
Reduced chloride ion transport out of the cell membranes leads to production of thick, sticky mucus
that particularly affect the lungs, pancreas and reproductive organs, leading to the following:

a- wheezing and repeated infection in respiratory pathway as the mucus that traps bacteria
accumulate as cilia are unable to sweep it.
b- Blockage of the pancreatic duct preventing amylase and protease enzymes from reaching the
small intestine, causing accumulation of protease in pancreas damaging pancreatic tissues
including those producing insulin , this increases the chance of diabetes.
c- Blockage of sperm ducts causing male infertility (sterility).
d- Accumulation of sticky mucus in oviducts reducing female fertility as sperms cannot reach ovum
for fertilisation.

Treatments of cystic fibrosis

 Physiotherapy to remove mucus from lungs.
 Antibiotics to treat the lung infection.
 Enzyme supplement for digestion ( instead of the protease and amylase which are not released from
pancreas due to the blockage of pancreatic duct by mucus)

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Disease

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Microorganisms and diseases
Microorganism
Very small organisms that cannot be seen by the naked eye.
Examples:
 Viruses
 Bacteria
 fungi
 Protozoa (unicellular animals)

Pathogens or pathogenic organisms

Microorganisms that cause diseases.
Disease:
A condition with specific cause in which part or all of the body functions abnormally and less
efficiently.

Methods of infection

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1-Droplet infection(air-borne infection)

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 Main cause of respiratory tract diseases.

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 Water droplets produced from a cough or a sneeze of an infected person carry the
pathogen into the air until it is inhaled by another person.
Examples:
Common cold, Influenza, Tuberculosis and Pneumonia.

2-Drinking contaminated water(water-borne infection)

Microorganisms that infect gut are usually present in unclean or contaminated water as they
are egested with faeces of infected person to contaminate water supplies.
Examples
Cholera, typhoid fever and polio.

3-Eating contaminated food (food-borne infection)

 Mostly caused by Bacteria but sometimes caused by viruses.
 Microorganisms can reach food usually by insects or contaminated hands of food
handlers.
Examples
Typhoid fever, Polio

4-Direct Contact
 Common with skin infections.
 Direct contact with a surface containing the microorganism.
 Direct contact with an infected person can transmit the pathogen.
Examples
Athlete’s foot and scabies.

5-Sexually transmitted disease

They can be transmitted by one of three ways:
1. Direct body contact with sex organs can transmit fungal infection .
2. Transmission in fluids such as seminal secretions and vaginal secretions such as AIDS
virus (HIV).
3. Transmitted in saliva such as Syphilis.

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6-Blood to blood contact

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 Blood transfusion.
 Sharing needles with an infected person ( usually in case of drug users)
Examples
AIDS and Hepatitis

7-Animal Vectors
 When an animal acts as a pathway through which the pathogen can easily reach a host,
for example, diseases that are transmitted by insect bites.
 When an insect bites the human to suck blood it can inject the disease causing organism
such as in cases of Malaria which is transmitted by mosquito bites.
 Flies can also carry pathogens from faeces on to food so they can reach humans.
Examples
Malaria, sleeping sickness transmitted, typhoid fever.

Incubation Period
 It is the period of time between infection by the pathogen and starting showing signs
and symptoms of the disease.
 During this period the person may not feel sick but still can transmit the pathogen to
others around him

Signs and Symptoms

sign
is a phenomenon that can be detected by someone other than the patient , it can be heard, seen or
measured.
Example
High blood pressure indicating heart problems.

A symptom
phenomenon that is experienced by the individual affected by the disease .
Examples
pains , cough ,fatigue and chills caused by the disease.

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Distribution of diseases

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Endemic
A disease that is always present in a population.
Example TB.

Epidemic
A disease that suddenly spreads to infect many people in different areas.
Example: Influenza.
Pandemic
A disease that spreads over a large area of the world.
Example: AIDS.

How microorganisms cause disease

Bacteria
release poisons called toxins that affect cells in the region of the infection and
sometimes in other parts of the body as well.

Viruses
Enter a living cell and disrupt the metabolism of that cell.

Method of reproduction of the virus

The genetic material of the virus enters the cell and instructs it to produce more
viruses by formation of viral genetic material and protein for formation of the protein
coat of the virus.

Fungi
When fungi grow in or on the body, their fine threads (hyphae) secrete digestive
enzymes onto the tissues, breaking them down. Growth of hyphae also physically
damages the tissues.
Some fungi secrete toxins while others cause an allergic reaction.

Protozoa
There is no specific pattern of how protozoa cause disease

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Virus

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 A virus is surrounded by a protein coat called capsid, inside the coat is a strand of viral DNA

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or RNA
 Capsid is formed of smaller units each is known as capsomere.

Examples
 HIV (human immune deficiency virus)
 Ebola
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
Caused by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)

Effect of HIV
Infects T-helper lymphocytes which are necessary for other white blood cells to become active.

Method of infection and reproduction of HIV

 The genetic material of the virus instructs the lymphocyte to make HIV protein and
genetic material to be used in production of new viruses in the lymphocyte.
 Some of HIV protein reaches the surface of the lymphocyte to act as marker protein or
antigen so that this lymphocyte is recognized as foreign and therefore can be destroyed
by the immune system, this causes the assembled viruses to leave the destroyed
lymphocytes to attack other lymphocytes.
 When number of virus increases it can attack other parts in the body such as brain.

Diagnosis

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Test for HIV antibodies (as antibodies are produced to destroy the virus)

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Incubation period ( latency period)
Up to 20 years ( during this period no symptoms, but can infect others.)

Opportunistic infection
Because HIV weakens the immune system other pathogens can enter the body causing other
infections such as TB and pneumonia.
Methods of trnsimission
 Intercourse with infected person.
 Blood transfusion form an infected person.
 Organ transplant form an infected person.
 Sharing needles with infected people.

How to avoid it ?
 Avoid intercourse with many partners.
 Use a condom .
 Never inject drugs.
 Never share razors or tooth brushes.

EBOLA
Natural hosts of the ebola virus are African fruit bats

Transmission of ebola
 direct contact" with a range of bodily fluids from a sick person, including blood, saliva, breast milk,
stool, sweat, semen, tears, vomit, and urine.
 eating wild animals infected with Ebola or coming into contact with their bodily fluids.

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Symptoms of Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) include:
 Fever.
 Severe headache.
 Muscle pain.
 Weakness.
 Fatigue.
 Diarrhea.
 Vomiting.
 Abdominal (stomach) pain.

The incubation period

2 to 21 days
Humans are not infectious until they develop the symptoms.

Prevention and treatment

there is no drug treatment for Ebola.
There is no vaccine to prevent people becoming infected.(there are only two trial vaccines)

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Treatment consists of caring for patients and treating the symptoms, such as oral rehydration therapy

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patients can also be given fluids intravenously (the fluids are transferred directly into a vein).

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checking people in contact with the patient.
laboratory testing facilities,
safe burials of people who have died from the disease.

reducing the risk of transmission by sexual intercourse – survivors of the disease are
advised to practise ‘safe sex’

oral rehydration therapy.

This uses a pack containing a solution of salts and glucose, which is mixed with sterile
water. they are fed This helps to rehydrate their tissues

Bacteria
Structure of bacteria

The main characteristics

 Have no nucleus and no organelles except ribosomes.

 The ribosomes are smaller than the other cells.
 Have circular DNA free in cytoplasm not associated with protein.
 Many types may contain circular rings of DNA called plasmids.
 Many types are covered with a slime capsule for protection.
 The bacterial cell is surrounded by a cell wall made of proteins and carbohydrates forming a
substance called murein.
 Its cytoplasm contains stored food in the form of glycogen and lipids.
 May have flagella ( singular :flagellum) used in movement.
 May contain chlorophyll to carry out photosynthesis.

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Nutrition in bacteria

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 Autotrophic bacteria can make food by photosynthesis

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 Parasitic bacteria can obtain its food from other organism causing harm
 Symbiotic bacteria can exchange benefit with other organisms.
 Saprotrophic bacteria obtains its food by decomposition of dead bodies and
organic remains.

Effect of temperature :
A- In high temperature many types can secrete thick coat around themselves forming
spores to withstand the high temperature.

B - In very low temperatures activities of bacteria slow down ,but are not killed.

Reproduction in bacteria
(asexual reproduction known as binary fission)

Stages of binary fission

 Bacterial cell increases in size and nuclear material replicates .
 The nuclear material becomes constricted in the middle and divides into two.
 A cell wall is formed separating it into two cells.
 The new cells may remain together and divide repeatedly forming a clone.

Bacterial growth curve

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Examples of disease caused by pathogenic bacteria
1. cholera
2. Gonorrhea
3. typhoid

Cholera

Parasite
 Bacteria known as Vibrio cholerae.
 It is virulent (harmful).
 It is non spore forming bacteria ( cannot form a protective coat around itself).
 It can be destroyed by heat and chlorination.
 It can be destroyed by hydrochloric acid in stomach.

Site of action
Walls o small intestine ( as it provides aerobic conditions & suitable pH for bacteria).

Effect of the parasite

Secrete toxin known as choleragen which disturbs the functions of epithelial cells of the lining of
intestines causing mineral ions and water to be lost with diarrhoea.

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Methods of transmission

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Food borne and water borne (when water or food contaminated with the parasite are taken)

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Methods of contammination
 Handling food by carriers.
 By insects which can transmit the parasite from sewage or faeces of an infected person to food or
water.
Incubation period
From 2 hours to 5 days

Symptoms “Clinical features”

(3/4 of the infected people are symptomless carriers but can pass large number of bacteria with feaces).
-Vomiting.
-Diarrhoea (rice water stool).
-Dehydration.
-Weakness.
Diagnosis
Microscopical analysis of faeces for vibrio cholera.

Control
-Rehydration therapy by giving solution of salts and glucose intravenously (in veins) or oral.

(glucose is effective because it facilitates absorption of ions with it and ions are needed for absorption
of water by osmosis)

-Isolating the patient.

-Disinfect what is used by the patient.

-Examining who were in contact with the patient ( this is known as contact tracing).

Prevension
-Vaccination
(short term, 50% effective because cholera in intestine away from reach of antibodies.
oral vaccine is developed rather than injection.
-Chlorination of water.
-Healthy drainage of sewage.

-Good cooking.

-Education.

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Global distribution

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Asia, Africa & Latin America (e.g. India, Pakistan, Bangladesh & Indonesia)

What causes spread of cholera in certain countries

-Poor sanitation.
-Irrigation with water contaminated with raw sewage.
-Spread of insects.
-Poor drainage of sewage.
-Malnutrition which decreases resistance.
-Overpopulation.
-lack of health education.
-No effective vaccine.

Gonorrhea
 It is one of the sexually transmitted diseases (STD)
 Caused by Parasitic bacteria ( known as Neisseria gonorrhoeae)

Transmission
1. Sexual intercourse with an infected person.
2. pass during birth to infect eyes of the born child.

Symptoms
1. Appear after few days of infection.
2. Half of the infected people usually women show no symptoms.
3. Discharge pus from the penis.
4. Pain and burning sensation during urination.
5. Fever and headache
6. Some women have a discharge from vagina or bleeding between menstrual periods.

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7. If disease is not treated, it can reach uterus oviducts and ovaries leading to infertility.

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Treatment
Using antibiotics such as penicillin or combination of antibiotics because the person usually
infected with other STD.

Prevention
Avoid intercourse with unknown parteners
Using condoms during intercourse.

Typhoid or typhoid fever

Caused by Pathogen bacteria known as Salmonella typhi

Method of transmission
 Drinking water contaminated by human faeces of an infected person.
 Food contaminated by parasite transferred by insects from human faeces of an infected
person.
(its outbreak occurs when there is a disaster such as war earthquake or floods)

Why it is now rare in developed world

Modern sanitation and modern systems of drainage sewage.

Incubation period
About 2 weeks

Symptoms
 Starts with a flu-like symptoms such as a high fever, headache and cough.
 Stomach cramps, constipation or diarrhea, vomiting and delirium (mental confusion)

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 Diarrohea leads to dehydration that can lead to death.

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 Bacteria may attack the wall of the gut causing bleeding and even perforation of the gut.

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 Toxins produced by bacteria can cause inflammation of the heart and multiple organ failure.

Treatment
1. antibiotics such as penicillin.
2. Oral rehydration therapy.
Prevention
1. By vaccination
2. Good sanitation and hygine.

Fungus as parasitic organism

Athlete’s foot

The fungus usually grows on the warm moist skin between toes.

Transmission
Fungal spores from air or floor or clothes.

Symptoms
Sore, raw patches that may become infected by other organisms.

Treatment of athelet’s foot

Antifungal drugs applied to the skin or taken by mouth.

Malaria

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Parasite

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Plasmodium

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( it is a protozoan, unicellular eukaryotic or protoctist)
Site of action
Liver, RBC’s and may reach brain

Characteristics of the parasite

Transmitted by a vector which is female Anopheles mosquito not the male as the male is herbivorous.

-Has two hosts Anopheles and humans.

(Some species of plasmodium that infect monkeys can be transmitted to humans.)

Effect of the parasite

-Anaemia as it damages the RBC’s.

-Reduced resistance.

-Toxins released by the parasite lead to headache, nausea, pain in muscles and rise in temperature.

-Disturb liver functions.

-May lead to abortion as it can pass placenta

Method of transmissopn
-Mainly insect borne by female anopheles
-Blood transfusion from infected person.
- Needles contaminated with blood from infected person.
-Plasmodium can pass from infected mother to her fetus through placenta .

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Method of transmission by female Anopheles

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 If female Anopheles sucks blood of an infected person, it will take some of the pathogen’s gametes
with the blood.
 Gametes of plasmodium fuse and develop in the mosquito’s gut forming infective stage which is
then move to its salivary gland of female Anopheles, therefore when this mosquito bites other
person, it injects the infective stage.

 Mosquito injects anticlotting (anti coagulant) to prevent blood clotting so ensures continuous blood
flow from the host.

 The disease spreads during and after rainy seasons as mosquitoes lay eggs in water.

 If the disease is not treated, it may be eliminated by the immune system or becomes chronic and
appear every one year or over years.

 It does not pass directly from one person to another as vector is needed.

Incubation period
From a week to a year

Symptoms “Clinical features”

-Shivering follows by fever, sweat then normal temperature & the cycle repeated every 48 hours.
-Anaemia and headache .
-Muscular fatigue and pain.
-Nausea and vomiting.
-Enlargement of spleen.

Diagnosis
Microscopic examination of blood.

Control
-Isolation and treatment of infected people.

-Control the vector by:

1-Filling small marches and water collections where larvae of mosquitoes live.
2-Breeding fish, ducks, frogs to feed on larvae of mosquitoes.
3-Using insecticides to kill mosquitoes.
4-Cover water collections and small marches with oil to suffocate larvae of mosquitoes.
Killing snails.

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 No antibiotic or vaccine can be used as the parasite is eukaryotic organism.

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Passive and active immunity

Passive immunity
 When prepared antibodies pass to an individual without being made by himself.
 There are two types of passive immunity y which are natural and artificial.

Natural passive
 When antibodies cross placenta to the fetus.
 When antibodies in the mother’s milk (colostrum) Which is produced during the first 5 days after
birth.

Artificial passive:
 When antibodies or antitoxins obtained from serum of other individual e.g hourse after being
injected by the pathogen.

Active immunity
 When an organism makes his own antibodies after being exposed to an antigen.
 There are two types of active immunity which are natural and artificial.

Natural active
As a result of infection by a pathogen, antibodies and memory cells are made.

Artificial active
By vaccination (immunaisation)

( vaccination is the medical giving of material containing antigens , but with reduced or no ability to
be pathogenic, in order to give long-term immunity due to production of memory cells.)

Methods of vaccination

1-Using living attenuated microorganisms

Means injecting weakened pathogens

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2-Using dead microorganisms

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Examples vaccination against typhoid and cholera.

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3-Using toxoids
Toxoids are the toxins produced by pathogen,to avoid their harmful effect , they first detoxified and
then injected.

4-Using extracted antigen

Antigens are extracted from pathogen and then injected.

5-Using artificial antigens

Takes place by transferring the genes producing antigens from pathogenic organisms to harmless one
that can be grown in lab. to produce the antigens.

Problems facing vaccination

 Several weeks are needed for developing enough B and T cells to give effective defence.
 Poor response which means that many people do not respond at all or not very well to vaccination
 Antigenic variation which means that mutation may take place causing changes in the pathogen
therefore it cannot be identified easily by the immune system of the vaccinated individual.
 There are no vaccine against the diseases which are caused by protoctists because the pathogen is
eukaryote with many genes leading to production of hundreds or even thousands of antigens on its
cell surface.

Antibodies

 Only variable region( it is known as antigen binding site) differs from one type of antibody and
the other.
 Antigen binding site specific to bind only with one type of antigen ( not any antibody can attack
any antigen)
 Each B-lymphocyte produce only one type of antibodies.

What is antibody antigen reaction

Means how the antibody acts on an antigen

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Functions of antibodies

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1-Agglutination

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Means that antibodies make antigens clump together to reduce their spread in body and to be easily
engulfed.

2-Antitoxins
Types of antibodies that combine with toxic materials making them harmless (this also known as
neutralisation).

3-Immobilisation
When antibodies attach to flagella of bacteria making them less active and therefore can be engulfed
easily.

4-Lysis
Antibodies with other molecules punch a hole in bacterial walls causing bacteria to burst.

5-Labelling or marking
Making engulf easier as phagocytes have receptor protein for the heavy polypeptide chains of the
antibody.

Production of antibodies and memory cells

 Each lymphocyte has a receptor protein which has a specific shape to bind with a specific
antigen.
 When the receptor binds with the antigen, lymphocyte becomes stimulated and divide rapidly
 Many of the produced cells become able to produce antibodies.
 Other cells remain as memory cells that remain in the body for years to attack this antigen when
it enters the body.

( therefore many diseases can infect a person only one during life due to the production of
memory cells.)

Primary and secondary immune response

Primary immune response which takes place when the antigen enters the body for the first time, it is
slow, less antibodies are produced.

Secondary immune response which takes place when the antigen enters the body for the second time, it
is faster, more antibodies are produced due to the presence of memory cells.

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Antibiotics
 Are drugs used to treat infectious disease, they affect pathogens but not the host cells.

Sources of antibiotics
 Are mostly obtained from microorganisms although other are synthetic
 Antibiotics that attack fungus ( antifungal ) are obtained from bacteria
 Antibiotics that attack bacteria ( antibacterial ) are obtained from fungi.


Effects of antibiotics
 Inhibit synthesis of cell walls of bacteria .
 Inhibit protein synthesis of pathogen .
 Disturb cell membrane function .
 Affect enzyme action of the parasite.

Antibiotics do not affect human cells

 Because human cells have no cell walls.
 Enzymes in human cell are different than those of bacteria.

Types of antibiotics according to their effect

1-Bactericidal
Kill bacteria such as penicillin and erythromycin.

2-Bacteriostatic
Inhibits bacterial growth such as tetracyclin and sulpha ,

3-Narrow spectrum
Affect certain type of bacteria.

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4-Broad spectrum

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Affect many types of bacteria.

Antibiotic sensitivity test or bacterial culture to determine the most

effective antibiotic
 Bacteria allowed to grow forming colonies on nutritive agar jelly.
 Different antibiotics are added, then the diameter of the colonies measured to determine the
effective antibiotic ( it is the one that causes the most decrease in diameter of the bacterial colony).

Why more than one antibiotic are used

To kill all the pathogens to avoid development of resistant forms also to increase the chance of
destroying bacteria as if some are resistant to one antibiotic they are not resistant to the other.

side effects of antibiotics

 May cause nausea, diarrhea or rash.
 May kill useful bacteria e.g. bacteria in large intestine which feed on remains producing vitamin B
and K.
 May cause allergy.
 Pathogens may develop resistance.

Complete the course of antibiotics

 Any bacteria that remains in the body may mutate and develop resistance so you and people
that may you infect cannot be treated by this antibiotic.
 Antibiotic is taken at regular intervals of time to maintain an effective concentration of this
antibiotic in the body ( antibiotics are broken in the body and excreted at regular intervals of
time according to type of antibiotic ).

Why antibiotics do not affect viruses ?

1. They affect growth of cell walls and viruses have no cell walls .
2. They affect cell membrane functions and virus has no cell membranes .
3. They affect enzyme actions and so disturb metabolic functions but the virus has no similar metabolic
functions or enzymes.

MRSA
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
example of a resistant bacterium
It has been called a ‘super bug’ because it is resistant to many antibiotics (including
methicillin, a type of penicillin that is no longer used).

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Most often, MRSA causes infections on the skin. These infections

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may look like any one of the following:
 Large, red, painful bumps under the skin (called boils or abscesses)
 A cut that is swollen, hot and filled with pus
 Blisters filled with pus (called impetigo)
 Sores that look and feel like spider bites (However, MRSA is not caused by a spider bite or any
other insect bite.)

It is also possible to have MRSA in other areas of the body, such as blood, lungs, joints, eyes,
and urine. These types of infections are less common.

MRSA Transmission

Anyone can get MRSA. You can get MRSA by touching someone or something that has the
bacteria on it and then touching your skin or your nose.

Some ways that you could get MRSA:

 Touching the infected skin of someone who has MRSA
 Using personal items of someone who has MRSA, such as towels, wash cloths, clothes or athletic
equipment
 Touching objects, such as public phones or door knobs, that have MRSA bacteria on the surface
and then touching your nose or an open sore, paper cut, etc.

You may increase your chances of getting MRSA if:

 You take antibiotics a lot
 You take antibiotics without a prescription
 You don’t follow your doctor’s directions when taking antibiotics (for example you stop taking
your antibiotics before finishing a prescription or you skip doses)
 You frequently get cuts or scrapes on your skin (Your skin serves as a barrier to infection. When
the skin gets damaged staph bacteria can enter and increase your risk for infection.)

There are two ways you can have MRSA.

1. You can have an active infection. An active infection means you have symptoms. This is usually a
boil, a sore, or an infected cut that is red, swollen, or pus-filled.
2. You can be a carrier. If you are a carrier you do not have symptoms that you can see, but you
still have MRSA bacteria living in your nose or on your skin. If you are a carrier, your doctor may
say that you are colonized. These words - “carrier” and “colonized” - mean the same thing.

MRSA Diagnosis

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You would not usually be tested for MRSA unless you have an active infection. If you have a skin

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infection, your doctor may take a sample of the area to find out what bacteria is causing your infection.

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This is called taking a culture. The lab will then test the bacteria to find out which antibiotic is best for

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you. If your MRSA infections keep coming back again and again, your doctor may test you and your
family members to see if you are carriers. In this case, the doctor would take a culture from the nose or
other areas where MRSA can be found.

Non-pathogenic microorganisms
Examples
 Certain types of bacteria are used as source of enzymes and protein.
 Certain types of bacteria and fungi are used as source of antibiotics.
 Certain bacteria and fungi are used in food production such as yeast in bread
making , bacteria in yoghurt making and mushroom which is used as food for
humans.
 Microorganisms used in decomposition of dead bodies and remains which
prevent accumulation and used in cycling nutrients in the environment.
 Microorganisms used in sewage treatment.

Importance of decomposers
1-Reduce accumulation of organic remains and deed bodies .

2-Help in cycling of nutrients.

( During decomposition dead bodies and remains are converted to inorganic materials to be
used by producers once more .)

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Sewage treatment

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What is sewage
Wet waste from houses, factories and farms.

Sewage is carried in pipes called sewers.

Household sewage consists of

 Waste water from kitchens and bathrooms.
 Human urine and faeces.
 Dissolved organic and inorganic chemicals such as soap and detergents.

Harms of discharging untreated sewage in water streams

 Spread of diseases due to the presence of pathogenic bacteria.
 Causes water to be unfit for drinking.
 Leads to eutrophication.

Pit latrines (as an example of simple composting toilet)

 Used in areas where there is no sewers or sewage treatment.
 The toilet consists of a hole in the ground over a sunken pit in which urine and faeces are
broken down by microorganisms.
 The trench is 1-2 metres deep.
 In a version known as ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP) the pit is covered and a vent
pipe is used to remove odours and to produce suction effect that draws clean air through
the latrine the pipe which is covered with a fly screen.
 Small pits have to be filled in with earth after time and a new pit has to be dug.
 In the large waste pit natural decomposition takes place quickly therefore emptying the pit
is not needed.

First step in sewage treatment

 Raw sewage is passed through screens to trap large objects such as grit.
 The screened sewage is transferred to settlement tanks where insoluble parts drift to the
bottom.

The liquid sewage is treated in one of two ways

First percolating trickling filters

 Trickling filters are made of small stones and clinker.

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 Many aerobic microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi live on the surface of the stone to

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feed on nutrients found in sewage, also on the stones unicellular organisms that feed on

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bacteria.
 The liquid sewage is trickled onto the surface of the stones through holes in a rotating pipe
to be drained out of the bottom of the bed clear with no smell or pathogens and allowed to
run into a river or sea.

Second activated sludge

 Sewage is screened to remove large objects, and stands in large settling tanks to allow other
solid materials to settle out.
 The liquid sewage is passed through aeration tank in which oxygen is forced to activate
aerobic microorganisms to feed on organic remains.
 The products of the above step are passed to a sedimentation tank where the activated
sludge settles out and some is returned to the aeration tank and the purified effluent is
discharged.

Role of microorganisms in sewage treatment

Aerobic bacteria and fungi are used to digest organic materials in sewage.

(They convert proteins into ammonia and then to nitrates.)

Protozoa and large invertebrate animals such as worms feed on bacteria, fungi and other
organic materials.

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Anaerobic digestion in the fermentation tank to produce biogas which is a mixture of methane

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and carbon dioxide.

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( methane is produced by anaerobic acteria known as methanogens.)

Importance of sewage treatment

1- Avoid the effect of harmful microorganisms when sewage is drained in water streams.

2- Avoid the eutrophication if sewage is discharged in water streams.

3- If sewage is treated, water from sewage can be used, and remains can be used as fertilizers
also gases can be produced to be used as a fuel.

Disadvantages of treating sewage

1- Not nice to know that the water you drink was a sewage.

2- Many dissolved materials such as phosphates obtained from detergents cannot be removed
and may lead to eutrophication.

3-Expensive.

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