Lecture Notes on

BST004: Structural Dynamics

M. Tech
Structural Engineering

Department of Civil Engineering

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Dundigal, Hyderabad
 Disclaimer

This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a
substitute for the prescribed textbooks. The course instructor would
like to acknowledge various sources of the materials from internet
from which the lecture notes was adapted and compiled. This
document is also not intended for any commercial purpose. The
institution and the course instructor are not accountable for any issues,
legal or otherwise, arising out of use of this document. The course
instructor makes no representations or warranties with respect to the
accuracy or completeness of the contents of this document.
 BST004: Structural Dynamics

1. Introduction

1.1 Outline of Structural Dynamics

Modern structures are increasingly slender and have reduced redundant strength due
to improved analysis and design methods. Such structures are increasingly responsive
to the manner in which loading is applied with respect to time and hence the dynamic
behaviour of such structures must be allowed for in design; as well as the usual static
considerations. In this context then, the word dynamic simply means “changes with
time”; be it force, deflection or any other form of load effect.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.1

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The most basic dynamic system is the mass-spring system. An example is shown in
Figure 1.1(a) along with the structural idealisation of it in Figure 1.1(b). This is
known as a Single Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) system as there is only one possible
displacement: that of the mass in the vertical direction. SDOF systems are of great
importance as they are relatively easily analysed mathematically, are easy to
understand intuitively, and structures usually dealt with by Structural Engineers can
be modelled approximately using an SDOF model (see Figure 1.2 for example).

Figure 1.2

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1.2 An Initial Numerical Example

If we consider a spring-mass system as shown in Figure 1.3 with the properties m =
10 kg and k = 100 N/m and if give the mass a deflection of 20 mm and then release it
(i.e. set it in motion) we would observe the system oscillating as shown in Figure 1.3.
From this figure we can identify that the time between the masses recurrence at a
particular location is called the period of motion or oscillation or just the period, and
we denote it T; it is the time taken for a single oscillation. The number of oscillations
per second is called the frequency, denoted f, and is measured in Hertz (cycles per
second). Thus we can say:

1
f = (1.1)
T

We will show (Section 2.b, equation (2.19)) for a spring-mass system that:

1 k
f = (1.2)
2π m

In our system:

1 100
f = = 0.503 Hz
2π 10

And from equation (1.1):

1 1
T= = = 1.987 secs
f 0.503

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We can see from Figure 1.3 that this is indeed the period observed.

25

20
k = 100
15

10
Displacement (mm)

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
-5 m = 10
-10

-15

-20
Period T
-25
Tim e (s)

Figure 1.3

To reach the deflection of 20 mm just applied, we had to apply a force of 2 N, given

that the spring stiffness is 100 N/m. As noted previously, the rate at which this load is
applied will have an effect of the dynamics of the system. Would you expect the
system to behave the same in the following cases?
• If a 2 N weight was dropped onto the mass from a very small height?
• If 2 N of sand was slowly added to a weightless bucket attached to the mass?

Assuming a linear increase of load, to the full 2 N load, over periods of 1, 3, 5 and 10
seconds, the deflections of the system are shown in Figure 1.4.

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Dynamic Effect of Load Application Duration

40

35

30
Deflection (mm)

25

20

15
1-sec

10 3-sec
5-sec
5
10-sec

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Tim e (s)

Figure 1.4

Remembering that the period of vibration of the system is about 2 seconds, we can
see that when the load is applied faster than the period of the system, large dynamic
effects occur. Stated another way, when the frequency of loading (1, 0.3, 0.2 and 0.1
Hz for our sample loading rates) is close to, or above the natural frequency of the
system (0.5 Hz in our case), we can see that the dynamic effects are large.
Conversely, when the frequency of loading is less than the natural frequency of the
system little dynamic effects are noticed – most clearly seen via the 10 second ramp-
up of the load, that is, a 0.1 Hz load.

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1.4 Structural Damping

Look again at the frog in Figure 1.1, according to the results obtained so far which
are graphed in Figures 1.3 and 1.4, the frog should oscillate indefinitely. If you have
ever cantilevered a ruler off the edge of a desk and flicked it you would have seen it
vibrate for a time but certainly not indefinitely; buildings do not vibrate indefinitely
after an earthquake; Figure 1.7 shows the vibrations dying down quite soon after the
pedestrian has left the main span of Aberfeldy bridge - clearly there is another action
opposing or “damping” the vibration of structures. Figure 1.8 shows the undamped
response of our model along with the damped response; it can be seen that the
oscillations die out quite rapidly – this depends on the level of damping.

Damped and Undamped Response

25

20
k = 100
15

10
Displacement (mm)

-5
0 5 10 15 20
m = 10
-10

-15
Undamped
-20
Damped
-25
Time (s)

Figure 1.8

Damping occurs in structures due to energy loss mechanisms that exist in the system.
Examples are friction losses at any connection to or in the system and internal energy
losses of the materials due to thermo-elasticity, hysteresis and inter-granular bonds.

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The exact nature of damping is difficult to define; fortunately theoretical damping has
been shown to match real structures quite well.

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2. Single Degree-of-Freedom Systems

2.1 Fundamental Equation of Motion

u(t)
mu&&
k
F (t ) cu&
F (t )
m
c ku

(a) (b)
Figure 2.1: (a) SDOF system. (b) Free-body diagram of forces

Considering Figure 2.1, the forces resisting the applied loading are considered as:
• a force proportional to displacement (the usual static stiffness);
• a force proportional to velocity (the damping force);
• a force proportional to acceleration (D’Alambert’s inertial force).
We can write the following symbolic equation:

Fapplied = Fstiffness + Fdamping + Finertia (2.1)

Noting that:
Fstiffness = ku ⎫
⎪
Fdamping = cu& ⎬ (2.2)
Finertia = mu&& ⎪⎭

that is, stiffness × displacement, damping coefficient × velocity and mass ×

acceleration respectively. Note also that u represents displacement from the
equilibrium position and that the dots over u represent the first and second derivatives

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with respect to time. Thus, noting that the displacement, velocity and acceleration are
all functions of time, we have the Fundamental Equation of Motion:

mu&&( t ) + cu& ( t ) + ku ( t ) = F ( t ) (2.3)

In the case of free vibration, there is no forcing function and so F ( t ) = 0 which gives

equation (2.3) as:

mu&&( t ) + cu& ( t ) + ku ( t ) = 0 (2.4)

We note also that the system will have a state of initial conditions:

u0 = u ( 0 ) (2.5)

u&0 = u& ( 0 ) (2.6)

In equation (2.4), dividing across by m gives:

c k
u&&(t ) + u& (t ) + u (t ) = 0 (2.7)
m m

We introduce the following notation:

c
ξ= (2.8)
ccr

k
ω2 = (2.9)
m

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Or equally,

k
ω= (2.10)
m

In which
• ω is called the undamped circular natural frequency and its units are radians per
second (rad/s);
• ξ is the damping ratio which is the ratio of the damping coefficient, c, to the
critical value of the damping coefficient ccr .

We will see what these terms physically mean. Also, we will later see (equation
(2.18)) that:

ccr = 2mω = 2 km (2.11)

Equations (2.8) and (2.11) show us that:

c
2ξω = (2.12)
m

When equations (2.9) and (2.12) are introduced into equation (2.7), we get the
prototype SDOF equation of motion:

u&&( t ) + 2ξωu& ( t ) + ω 2u ( t ) = 0 (2.13)

In considering free vibration only, the general solution to (2.13) is of a form

u = Ce λt (2.14)

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When we substitute (2.14) and its derivates into (2.13) we get:

(λ 2
+ 2ξωλ + ω 2 ) Ceλt = 0 (2.15)

For this to be valid for all values of t, Ce λ t cannot be zero. Thus we get the
characteristic equation:

λ 2 + 2ξωλ + ω 2 = 0 (2.16)

the solutions to this equation are the two roots:

−2ωξ ± 4ω 2ξ 2 − 4ω 2
λ1,2 =
2 (2.17)
= −ωξ ± ω ξ 2 − 1

Therefore the solution depends on the magnitude of ξ relative to 1. We have:

• ξ < 1 : Sub-critical damping or under-damped;
Oscillatory response only occurs when this is the case – as it is for almost all
structures.
• ξ = 1: Critical damping;
No oscillatory response occurs.
• ξ > 1: Super-critical damping or over-damped;
No oscillatory response occurs.

Therefore, when ξ = 1, the coefficient of u& (t ) in equation (2.13) is, by definition, the
critical damping coefficient. Thus, from equation (2.12):

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ccr
2ω = (2.18)
m

From which we get equation (2.11).

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2.2 Free Vibration of Undamped Structures

We will examine the case when there is no damping on the SDOF system of Figure
2.1 so ξ = 0 in equations (2.13), (2.16) and (2.17) which then become:

u&&( t ) + ω 2u ( t ) = 0 (2.19)

respectively, where i = −1 . From the Appendix we see that the general solution to
this equation is:

u ( t ) = A cos ωt + B sin ωt (2.20)

where A and B are constants to be obtained from the initial conditions of the system,
equations (2.5) and (2.6). Thus, at t = 0 , from equation (2.20):

u ( 0 ) = A cos ω ( 0 ) + B sin ω ( 0 ) = u0
A = u0 (2.21)

From equation (2.20):

u& ( t ) = − Aω sin ωt + Bω cos ωt (2.22)

And so:

u& ( 0 ) = − Aω sin ω ( 0 ) + Bω cos ω ( 0 ) = u&0

Bω = u&0
u&0
B= (2.23)
ω

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Thus equation (2.20), after the introduction of equations (2.21) and (2.23), becomes:

⎛ u& ⎞
u ( t ) = u0 cos ωt + ⎜ 0 ⎟ sin ωt (2.24)
⎝ω ⎠

where u0 and u&0 are the initial displacement and velocity of the system respectively.
Noting that cosine and sine are functions that repeat with period 2π , we see that
ω ( t1 + T ) = ωt1 + 2π (Figure 2.3) and so the undamped natural period of the SDOF
system is:

2π
T= (2.25)
ω

The natural frequency of the system is got from (1.1), (2.25) and (2.9):

1 ω 1 k
f = = = (2.26)
T 2π 2π m

and so we have proved (1.2). The importance of this equation is that it shows the

natural frequency of structures to be proportional to k

m . This knowledge can aid a
designer in addressing problems with resonance in structures: by changing the
stiffness or mass of the structure, problems with dynamic behaviour can be
addressed.

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30

20

k = 100
Displacement (mm)

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 m = 10
-10

-20

(a)
-30
(b)
Time (s) (c)

Figure 2.2: SDOF free vibration response for (a) u0 = 20mm , u&0 = 0 , (b) u 0 = 0 ,
u&0 = 50mm/s , and (c) u0 = 20mm , u&0 = 50mm/s .

Figure 2.2 shows the free-vibration response of a spring-mass system for various
initial states of the system. It can be seen from (b) and (c) that when u&0 ≠ 0 the
amplitude of displacement is not that of the initial displacement; this is obviously an
important characteristic to calculate. The cosine addition rule may also be used to
show that equation (2.20) can be written in the form:

u(t ) = C cos (ωt − θ ) (2.27)

where C = A2 + B 2 and tan θ = − B . Using A and B as calculated earlier for the

A
initial conditions, we then have:

u(t ) = ρ cos (ωt − θ ) (2.28)

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where ρ is the amplitude of displacement and θ is the phase angle, both given by:

2
⎛ u& ⎞
ρ = u +⎜ 0 ⎟
2
(2.29)
⎝ω ⎠
0

u&0
tan θ = (2.30)
u0ω

The phase angle determines the amount by which u (t ) lags behind the function
cos ωt . Figure 2.3 shows the general case.

Figure 2.3 Undamped free-vibration response.

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2.3 Problems

Example 2.1

A harmonic oscillation test gave the natural frequency of a water tower to be 0.41 Hz.
Given that the mass of the tank is 150 tonnes, what deflection will result if a 50 kN
horizontal load is applied? You may neglect the mass of the tower.
Ans: 50.2 mm

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2.5 Free Vibration of Damped Structures

Figure 2.4: Response with critical or super-critical damping

When taking account of damping, we noted previously that there are 3, cases but only
when ξ < 1 does an oscillatory response ensue. We will not examine the critical or
super-critical cases. Examples are shown in Figure 2.4.

To begin, when ξ < 1 (2.17) becomes:

λ1,2 = −ωξ ± iωd (2.31)

where ωd is the damped circular natural frequency given by:

ωd = ω 1 − ξ 2 (2.32)

which has a corresponding damped period and frequency of:

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2π
Td = (2.33)
ωd
ωd
fd = (2.34)
2π

The general solution to equation (2.14), using Euler’s formula again, becomes:

u(t ) = e−ξωt ( A cos ωd t + B sin ωd t ) (2.35)

and again using the initial conditions we get:

⎡ ⎛ u& + ξωd u0 ⎞ ⎤
u (t ) = e−ξωt ⎢u0 cos ωd t + ⎜ 0 ⎟ sin ωd t ⎥ (2.36)
⎣ ⎝ ωd ⎠ ⎦

Using the cosine addition rule again we also have:

u (t ) = ρ e−ξωt cos (ωd t − θ ) (2.37)

In which

2
⎛ u& + ξωu0 ⎞
ρ = u +⎜ 0
2
⎟ (2.38)
⎝
0
ωd ⎠
u&0 + u0ξω
tan θ = (2.39)
u0ωd

Equations (2.35) to (2.39) correspond to those of the undamped case looked at

previously when ξ = 0 .

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25

20

15

10
Displacement (mm)

-5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 m = 10
-10

-15
(a) k = 100
(b) ξ varies
-20 (c)
-25 (d)

Time (s)

Figure 2.5: SDOF free vibration response for:

(a) ξ = 0 ; (b) ξ = 0.05 ; (c) ξ = 0.1 ; and (d) ξ = 0.5 .

Figure 2.5 shows the dynamic response of the SDOF model shown. It may be clearly
seen that damping has a large effect on the dynamic response of the system – even for
small values of ξ . We will discuss damping in structures later but damping ratios for
structures are usually in the range 0.5 to 5%. Thus, the damped and undamped
properties of the systems are very similar for these structures.

Figure 2.6 shows the general case of an under-critically damped system.

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Figure 2.6: General case of an under-critically damped system.

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2.7 Estimating Damping in Structures

Examining Figure 2.6, we see that two successive peaks, un and un + m , m cycles apart,

occur at times nT and ( n + m ) T respectively. Using equation (2.37) we can get the
ratio of these two peaks as:

un ⎛ 2mπξω ⎞
= exp ⎜ ⎟ (2.40)
un + m ⎝ ωd ⎠

where exp ( x ) ≡ e x . Taking the natural log of both sides we get the logarithmic

decrement of damping, δ , defined as:

un ω
δ = ln = 2mπξ (2.41)
un + m ωd

for low values of damping, normal in structural engineering, we can approximate

this:

δ ≅ 2mπξ (2.42)

thus,

un
= eδ ≅ exp ( 2mπξ ) ≅ 1 + 2mπξ (2.43)
un + m

and so,

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un − un + m
ξ≅ (2.44)
2mπ un + m

This equation can be used to estimate damping in structures with light damping
( ξ < 0.2 ) when the amplitudes of peaks m cycles apart is known. A quick way of
doing this, known as the Half-Amplitude Method, is to count the number of peaks it
takes to halve the amplitude, that is u n + m = 0.5u n . Then, using (2.44) we get:

0.11
ξ≅ when u n + m = 0.5u n (2.45)
m

Further, if we know the amplitudes of two successive cycles (and so m = 1 ), we can

find the amplitude after p cycles from two instances of equation (2.43):

p
⎛u ⎞
un + p = ⎜ n+1 ⎟ un (2.46)
⎝ un ⎠

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2.8 Examples

Example 2.4

For the frame of Example 2.2, a jack applied a load of 100 kN and then
instantaneously released. On the first return swing a deflection of 19.44 mm was
noted. The period of motion was measured at 0.223 sec. Assuming that the stiffness
of the columns cannot change, find (a) the effective weight of the beam; (b) the
damping ratio; (c) the coefficient of damping; (d) the undamped frequency and
period; and (e) the amplitude after 5 cycles.
Ans: 5,039 kg; 0.04; 11,367 kg·s/m; 4.488 Hz; 0.2228 sec; 7.11 mm.

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Example 2.5

From the response time-history of an SDOF system given, (a) estimate the damped
natural frequency; (b) use the half amplitude method to calculate the damping ratio;
and (c) calculate the undamped natural frequency and period.
Ans: 4.021 Hz; 0.05; 4.026 Hz; 0.248 sec.

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Example 2.6

Workers’ movements on a platform (8 × 6 m high, m = 200 kN) are causing large

dynamic motions. An engineer investigated and found the natural period in sway to
be 0.9 sec. Diagonal remedial ties (E = 200 kN/mm2) are to be installed to reduce the
natural period to 0.3 sec. What tie diameter is required?
Ans: 28.1 mm.

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2.9 Response of an SDOF System Subject to Harmonic Force

u(t)
k
F (t ) = F0 sin Ωt
m
c

Figure 2.7: SDOF undamped system subjected to harmonic excitation

So far we have only considered free vibration; the structure has been set vibrating by
an initial displacement for example. We will now consider the case when a time
varying load is applied to the system. We will confine ourselves to the case of
harmonic or sinusoidal loading though there are obviously infinitely many forms that
a time-varying load may take – refer to the references (Appendix) for more.

To begin, we note that the forcing function F ( t ) has excitation amplitude of F0 and

an excitation circular frequency of Ω and so from the fundamental equation of

motion (2.3) we have:

mu&&(t ) + cu& (t ) + ku (t ) = F0 sin Ωt (2.47)

The solution to equation (2.47) has two parts:

• The complementary solution, similar to (2.35), which represents the transient
response of the system which damps out by exp ( −ξωt ) . The transient response

may be thought of as the vibrations caused by the initial application of the load.
• The particular solution, u p ( t ) , representing the steady-state harmonic response of

the system to the applied load. This is the response we will be interested in as it
will account for any resonance between the forcing function and the system.

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The complementary solution to equation (2.47) is simply that of the damped free
vibration case studied previously. The particular solution to equation (2.47) is
developed in the Appendix and shown to be:

u p ( t ) = ρ sin ( Ωt − θ ) (2.48)

In which

−1 2

(1 − β 2 ) + ( 2ξβ ) ⎤
F0 ⎡
ρ=
2 2
(2.49)
k ⎣ ⎦
2ξβ
tan θ = (2.50)
1− β 2

where the phase angle is limited to 0 < θ < π and the ratio of the applied load
frequency to the natural undamped frequency is:

Ω
β= (2.51)
ω

the maximum response of the system will come at sin ( Ωt − θ ) = 1 and dividing (2.48)

by the static deflection F0 k we can get the dynamic amplification factor (DAF) of
the system as:

−1 2
DAF ≡ D = ⎡(1 − β 2 ) + ( 2ξβ ) ⎤
2 2
(2.52)
⎣ ⎦

At resonance, when Ω = ω , we then have:

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1
Dβ =1 = (2.53)
2ξ

Figure 2.8 shows the effect of the frequency ratio β on the DAF. Resonance is the
phenomenon that occurs when the forcing frequency coincides with that of the
natural frequency, β = 1 . It can also be seen that for low values of damping, normal
in structures, very high DAFs occur; for example if ξ = 0.02 then the dynamic
amplification factor will be 25. For the case of no damping, the DAF goes to infinity
- theoretically at least; equation (2.53).

Figure 2.8: Variation of DAF with damping and frequency ratios.

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The phase angle also helps us understand what is occurring. Plotting equation (2.50)
against β for a range of damping ratios shows:

180

135
Phase Angle (degrees)

90

Damping: 0%
45 Damping: 10%
Damping: 20%
Damping: 50%
Damping: 100%
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Frequency Ratio

Figure 2.9: Variation of phase angle with damping and frequency ratios.

Looking at this then we can see three regions:

• β << 1 : the force is slowly varying and θ is close to zero. This means that the
response (i.e. displacement) is in phase with the force: for example, when the
force acts to the right, the system displaces to the right.
• β >> 1 : the force is rapidly varying and θ is close to 180°. This means that the
force is out of phase with the system: for example, when the force acts to the
right, the system is displacing to the left.
• β = 1 : the forcing frequency is equal to the natural frequency, we have
resonance and θ = 90 . Thus the displacement attains its peak as the force is zero.

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We can see these phenomena by plotting the response and forcing function together
(though with normalized displacements for ease of interpretation), for different values
of β . In this example we have used ξ = 0.2 . Also, the three phase angles are
θ 2π = 0.04, 0.25, 0.46 respectively.

Dynamic Response
β = 0.5; DAF = 1.29 Static Response
2
Disp. Ratio

-2

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

2
β = 0.5; DAF = 2.5
Disp. Ratio

-2

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

2
β = 2.0; DAF = 0.32
Disp. Ratio

-2

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Time Ratio (t/T)

Figure 2.10: Steady-state responses to illustrate phase angle.

Note how the force and response are firstly “in sync” ( θ ~ 0 ), then “halfway out of
sync” ( θ = 90o ) at resonance; and finally, “fully out of sync” ( θ ~ 180o ) at high
frequency ratio.

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Measurement of Natural Frequencies

It may be seen from equation (2.50) that when β = 1 , θ = π 2 ; this phase relationship
allows the accurate measurements of the natural frequencies of structures. That is, we
change the input frequency Ω in small increments until we can identify a peak
response: the value of Ω at the peak response is then the natural frequency of the
system. Example 2.1 gave the natural frequency based on this type of test.

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2.11 Examples

Example 2.7

The frame of examples 2.2 and 2.4 has a reciprocating machine put on it. The mass of
this machine is 4 tonnes and is in addition to the mass of the beam. The machine
exerts a periodic force of 8.5 kN at a frequency of 1.75 Hz. (a) What is the steady-
state amplitude of vibration if the damping ratio is 4%? (b) What would the steady-
state amplitude be if the forcing frequency was in resonance with the structure?
Ans: 2.92 mm; 26.56 mm.

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Example 2.8

An air conditioning unit of mass 1,600 kg is place in the middle (point C) of an 8 m

long simply supported beam (EI = 8×103 kNm2) of negligible mass. The motor runs
at 300 rpm and produces an unbalanced load of 120 kg. Assuming a damping ratio of
5%, determine the steady-state amplitude and deflection at C. What rpm will result in
resonance and what is the associated deflection?
Ans: 1.41 mm; 22.34 mm; 206.7 rpm; 36.66 mm.

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2.12 Numerical Integration – Newmark’s Method

Introduction

The loading that can be applied to a structure is infinitely variable and closed-form
mathematical solutions can only be achieved for a small number of cases. For
arbitrary excitation we must resort to computational methods, which aim to solve the
basic structural dynamics equation, at the next time-step:

mu&&i +1 + cu&i +1 + kui +1 = Fi +1 (2.54)

There are three basic time-stepping approaches to the solution of the structural
dynamics equations:
1. Interpolation of the excitation function;
2. Use of finite differences of velocity and acceleration;
3. An assumed variation of acceleration.

We will examine one method from the third category only. However, it is an
important method and is extensible to non-linear systems, as well as multi degree-of-
freedom systems (MDOF).

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Development of Newmark’s Method

In 1959 Newmark proposed a general assumed variation of acceleration method:

u&i +1 = u&i + ⎡⎣(1 − γ ) ∆t ⎤⎦ u&&i + ( γ ∆t ) u&&i +1 (2.55)

ui +1 = ui + ( ∆t ) u&i + ⎡( 0.5 − β )( ∆t ) ⎤ u&&i + ⎡ β ( ∆t ) ⎤ u&&i +1

2 2
(2.56)
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

The parameters β and γ define how the acceleration is assumed over the time step,
1 1 1
∆t . Usual values are γ = and ≤ β ≤ . For example:
2 6 4
1 1
• Constant (average) acceleration is given by: γ = and β = ;
2 4
1 1
• Linear variation of acceleration is given by: γ = and β = .
2 6

The three equations presented thus far (equations (2.54), (2.55) and (2.56)) are
sufficient to solve for the three unknown responses at each time step. However to
avoid iteration, we introduce the incremental form of the equations:

∆ui ≡ ui +1 − ui (2.57)
∆u&i ≡ u&i +1 − u&i (2.58)
∆u&&i ≡ u&&i +1 − u&&i (2.59)
∆Fi ≡ Fi +1 − Fi (2.60)

Thus, Newmark’s equations can now be written as:

∆u&i = ( ∆t ) u&&i + ( γ ∆t ) ∆u&&i (2.61)

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( ∆t )
2

∆ui = ( ∆t ) u&i + u&&i + β ( ∆t ) ∆u&&i

2
(2.62)
2

Solving equation (2.62) for the unknown change in acceleration gives:

1 1 1
∆u&&i = 2 ∆ui − u&i − u&&i (2.63)
β ( ∆t ) β ( ∆t ) 2β

Substituting this into equation (2.61) and solving for the unknown increment in
velocity gives:

γ γ ⎛ γ ⎞
∆u&i = ∆ ui − u&i + ∆t ⎜1 − ⎟ u&&i (2.64)
β ( ∆t ) β ⎝ 2β ⎠

Next we use the incremental equation of motion, derived from equation (2.54):

m ∆u&&i + c ∆u&i + k ∆ui = ∆Fi (2.65)

And introduce equations (2.63) and (2.64) to get:

⎡ 1 1 1 ⎤
m⎢ ∆u − &
u − u&&i ⎥
⎢⎣ ( )
β ∆t
2 i
β ( ∆t ) i
2 β ⎦⎥
(2.66)
⎡ γ γ ⎛ γ ⎞ ⎤
+c ⎢ ∆ui − u&i + ∆t ⎜1 − ⎟ u&&i ⎥ + k ∆ui = ∆Fi
⎣ β ( ∆t ) β ⎝ 2β ⎠ ⎦

Collecting terms gives:

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⎡ 1 γ ⎤
⎢ m + c + k ⎥ ∆ui
⎢⎣ β ( )
∆ t
2
β ( ∆t ) ⎥⎦
(2.67)
⎡ 1 γ ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎛ γ ⎞ ⎤
= ∆Fi + ⎢ m + c ⎥ u&i + ⎢ m + ∆t ⎜ − 1⎟ c ⎥ u&&i
⎣ β ( ∆t ) β ⎦ ⎣ 2β ⎝ 2β ⎠ ⎦

Let’s introduce the following for ease of representation:

1 γ
k̂ = m 2 + c +k (2.68)
β ( ∆t ) β ( ∆t )

⎡ 1 γ ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎛ γ ⎞ ⎤
∆Fˆi = ∆Fi + ⎢ m + c ⎥ u&i + ⎢ m + ∆t ⎜ − 1⎟ c ⎥ u&&i (2.69)
⎣ β ( ∆t ) β ⎦ ⎣ 2β ⎝ 2β ⎠ ⎦

Which are an effective stiffness and effective force at time i. Thus equation (2.67)
becomes:

kˆ∆ui = ∆Fˆi (2.70)

Since kˆ and ∆Fˆi are known from the system properties (m, c, k); the algorithm
properties ( γ , β , ∆t ); and the previous time-step ( u&i , u&&i ), we can solve equation
(2.70) for the displacement increment:

∆Fˆi
∆ui = (2.71)
kˆ

Once the displacement increment is known, we can solve for the velocity and
acceleration increments from equations (2.64) and (2.63) respectively. And once all

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the increments are known we can compute the properties at the current time-step by
just adding to the values at the previous time-step, equations (2.57) to (2.59).

Newmark’s method is stable if the time-steps is about ∆t = 0.1T of the system.

The coefficients in equation (2.69) are constant (once ∆t is), so we can calculate
these at the start as:

1 γ
A= m+ c (2.72)
β ( ∆t ) β

1 ⎛ γ ⎞
B= m + ∆t ⎜ − 1⎟ c (2.73)
2β ⎝ 2β ⎠

Making equation (2.69) become:

∆Fˆi = ∆Fi + Au&i + Bu&&i (2.74)

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Newmark’s Algorithm

1. Select algorithm parameters, γ , β and ∆t ;

2. Initial calculations:
a. Find the initial acceleration:

1
u&&0 = ( F0 − cu&0 − ku0 ) (2.75)
m

b. Calculate the effective stiffness, kˆ from equation (2.68);

c. Calculate the coefficients for equation (2.69) from equations (2.72) and
(2.73).
3. For each time step, i, calculate:

∆Fˆi = ∆Fi + Au&i + Bu&&i (2.76)

∆Fˆi
∆ui = (2.77)
kˆ

γ γ ⎛ γ ⎞
∆u&i = ∆ ui − u&i + ∆t ⎜ 1 − ⎟ u&&i (2.78)
β ( ∆t ) β ⎝ 2β ⎠
1 1 1
∆u&&i = 2 ∆ui − u&i − u&&i (2.79)
β ( ∆t ) β ( ∆t ) 2β

ui = ui −1 + ∆ui (2.80)
u&i = u&i −1 + ∆u&i (2.81)
u&&i = u&&i −1 + ∆u&&i (2.82)

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2.14 Problems

Problem 1

Determine the response of our example system, with initial velocity of 0.05 m/s,
when acted upon by an impulse of 0.1 s duration and magnitude 10 N at time 1.0 s.
Do this up for a duration of 4 s.
Ans. below

0.025

0.02

0.015
Displacement (m)

0.01

0.005

-0.005

-0.01

-0.015
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (s)

Problem 2

Determine the maximum responses of a water tower which is subjected to a

sinusoidal force of amplitude 445 kN and frequency 30 rad/s over 0.3 secs. The
tower has properties, mass 17.5 t, stiffness 17.5 MN/m and no damping.
Ans. 120 mm, 3.8 m/s, 120.7 m/s2

Problem 3

Determine the maximum response of a system (m = 1.75 t, k = 1.75 MN/m, ξ = 10%)

when subjected to an increasing triangular load which reaches 22.2 kN after 0.1 s.
Ans. 14.6 mm, 0.39 m/s, 15.0 m/s2

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3. Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems

3.1 General Case (based on 2DOF)

u1 (t ) u2 (t )

k1 F1 (t ) F2 (t )
k2
m1 m2
c1 c2

(a)

m1u&&1 F1 m2u&&2
c1u&1 m1 c2 ⋅ ∆u& c2 ⋅ ∆u& m2 F2

k1u1 k ⋅ ∆u k2 ⋅ ∆u

(b) (c)
Figure 3.1: (a) 2DOF system. (b) and (c) Free-body diagrams of forces

Considering Figure 3.1, we can see that the forces that act on the masses are similar
to those of the SDOF system but for the fact that the springs, dashpots, masses, forces
and deflections may all differ in properties. Also, from the same figure, we can see
the interaction forces between the masses will result from the relative deflection
between the masses; the change in distance between them.

For each mass, ∑F x

= 0 , hence:

m1u&&1 + c1u&1 + k1u1 + c2 ( u&1 − u&2 ) + k2 ( u1 − u2 ) = F1 (3.1)

m2u&&2 + c2 ( u&2 − u&1 ) + k2 ( u2 − u1 ) = F2 (3.2)

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In which we have dropped the time function indicators and allowed ∆u and ∆u& to
absorb the directions of the interaction forces. Re-arranging we get:

u&&1m1 +u&1 ( c1 + c2 ) +u&2 ( −c2 ) +u1 ( k1 + k2 ) +u2 ( − k2 ) = F1

(3.3)
u&&2 m2 +u&1 ( −c2 ) +u&2 ( c2 ) +u1 ( − k2 ) +u2 ( k 2 ) = F2

This can be written in matrix form:

⎡ m1 0 ⎤ ⎧ u&&1 ⎫ ⎡c1 + c2 −c2 ⎤ ⎧ u&1 ⎫ ⎡ k1 + k2 −k2 ⎤ ⎧ u1 ⎫ ⎧ F1 ⎫

⎢ 0 m ⎥ ⎨u&& ⎬ + ⎢ −c ⎨ ⎬+
c2 ⎦⎥ ⎩u&2 ⎭ ⎣⎢ −k2
⎨ ⎬=⎨ ⎬
k2 ⎦⎥ ⎩u2 ⎭ ⎩ F2 ⎭
(3.4)
⎣ 2⎦⎩ 2⎭ ⎣ 2

Or another way:

Mu
&& + Cu& + Ku = F (3.5)

where:
M is the mass matrix (diagonal matrix);
u
&& is the vector of the accelerations for each DOF;
C is the damping matrix (symmetrical matrix);
u& is the vector of velocity for each DOF;
K is the stiffness matrix (symmetrical matrix);
u is the vector of displacements for each DOF;
F is the load vector.

Equation (3.5) is quite general and reduces to many forms of analysis:

Free vibration:

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Mu
&& + Cu& + Ku = 0 (3.6)

Undamped free vibration:

Mu
&& + Ku = 0 (3.7)

Undamped forced vibration:

Mu
&& + Ku = F (3.8)

Static analysis:
Ku = F (3.9)

We will restrict our attention to the case of undamped free-vibration – equation (3.7)
- as the inclusion of damping requires an increase in mathematical complexity which
would distract from our purpose.

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3.2 Free-Undamped Vibration of 2DOF Systems

The solution to (3.7) follows the same methodology as for the SDOF case; so
following that method (equation (2.42)), we propose a solution of the form:

u = a sin (ωt + φ ) (3.10)

where a is the vector of amplitudes corresponding to each degree of freedom. From

this we get:

&& = −ω 2a sin (ωt + φ ) = −ω 2u

u (3.11)

Then, substitution of (3.10) and (3.11) into (3.7) yields:

−ω 2Ma sin (ωt + φ ) + Ka sin (ωt + φ ) = 0 (3.12)

Since the sine term is constant for each term:

⎡⎣K − ω 2M ⎤⎦ a = 0 (3.13)

We note that in a dynamics problem the amplitudes of each DOF will be non-zero,
hence, a ≠ 0 in general. In addition we see that the problem is a standard eigenvalues
problem. Hence, by Cramer’s rule, in order for (3.13) to hold the determinant of
K − ω 2M must then be zero:

K − ω 2M = 0 (3.14)

For the 2DOF system, we have:

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K − ω 2M = ⎡⎣( k2 + k1 ) − ω 2 m1 ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ k2 − ω 2 m2 ⎤⎦ − k22 = 0 (3.15)

Expansion of (3.15) leads to an equation in ω 2 called the characteristic polynomial of

the system. The solutions of ω 2 to this equation are the eigenvalues of ⎡⎣K − ω 2M ⎤⎦ .

There will be two solutions or roots of the characteristic polynomial in this case and
an n-DOF system has n solutions to its characteristic polynomial. In our case, this
means there are two values of ω 2 ( ω12 and ω22 ) that will satisfy the relationship; thus
there are two frequencies for this system (the lowest will be called the fundamental
frequency). For each ωn2 substituted back into (3.13), we will get a certain amplitude
vector a n . This means that each frequency will have its own characteristic displaced
shape of the degrees of freedoms called the mode shape. However, we will not know
the absolute values of the amplitudes as it is a free-vibration problem; hence we
express the mode shapes as a vector of relative amplitudes, φ n , relative to, normally,
the first value in a n .

As we will see in the following example, the implication of the above is that MDOF
systems vibrate, not just in the fundamental mode, but also in higher harmonics.
From our analysis of SDOF systems it’s apparent that should any loading coincide
with any of these harmonics, large DAF’s will result (Section 2.d). Thus, some modes
may be critical design cases depending on the type of harmonic loading as will be
seen later.

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3.3 Example of a 2DOF System

The two-storey building shown (Figure
3.2) has very stiff floor slabs relative to
the supporting columns. Calculate the
natural frequencies and mode shapes.

EI c = 4.5 × 103 kNm 2

Figure 3.2: Shear frame problem.

u1 (t ) u2 (t )

k1 m1 k m2

Figure 3.3: 2DOF model of the shear frame.

We will consider the free lateral vibrations of the two-storey shear frame idealised as
in Figure 3.3. The lateral, or shear stiffness of the columns is:

⎡12 EI ⎤
k1 = k2 = k = 2 ⎢ 3 c ⎥
⎣ h ⎦
2 × 12 × 4.5 × 106
∴k =
33
= 4 × 106 N/m

The characteristic polynomial is as given in (3.15) so we have:

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⎡⎣8 × 106 − ω 2 5000⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ 4 × 106 − ω 2 3000⎤⎦ − 16 × 1012 = 0

∴15 × 106 ω 4 − 4.4 × 1010 ω 2 + 16 × 1012 = 0

This is a quadratic equation in ω 2 and so can be solved using a = 15 × 106 ,

b = −4.4 × 1010 and c = 16 × 1012 in the usual expression

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
ω2 =
2a

Hence we get ω12 = 425.3 and ω22 = 2508 . This may be written:

⎧ 425.3⎫ ⎧ 20.6 ⎫ ω n ⎧ 3.28 ⎫

ω 2n = ⎨ ⎬ hence ω = ⎨ ⎬ rad/s and f = =⎨ ⎬ Hz
2π ⎩7.97 ⎭
n
⎩ 2508 ⎭ ⎩ 50.1⎭

To solve for the mode shapes, we will use the appropriate form of the equation of
motion, equation (3.13): ⎡⎣K − ω 2M ⎤⎦ a = 0 . First solve for the E = ⎡⎣K − ω 2M ⎤⎦ matrix

and then solve Ea = 0 for the amplitudes a n . Then, form φ n .

In general, for a 2DOF system, we have:

⎡k + k − k2 ⎤ m 0 ⎤ ⎡ k1 + k2 − ωn2 m1
2 ⎡ 1
− k2 ⎤
En = ⎢ 1 2 ⎥ − ωn ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
⎣ − k2 k2 ⎦ ⎣ 0 m2 ⎦ ⎣ − k2 k2 − ωn2 m2 ⎦

For ω12 = 425.3 :

⎡5.8735 −4 ⎤
E1 = ⎢ ⎥ × 106
⎣ −4 2.7241⎦

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Hence

⎡5.8735 −4 ⎤ ⎧ a1 ⎫ ⎧0⎫
E1a1 = 106 ⎢ ⎨ ⎬=⎨ ⎬
⎣ −4 2.7241⎥⎦ ⎩a2 ⎭ ⎩0⎭

Taking either equation, we calculate:

5.8735a1 − 4a2 = 0 ⇒ a1 = 0.681a2 ⎫ ⎧ 1 ⎫

⎬ ∴ φ = ⎨ −1 ⎬
−4a1 + 2.7241a2 = 0 ⇒ a1 = 0.681a2 ⎭ 1
⎩0.681 ⎭

Similarly for ω22 = 2508 :

⎡ −4.54 −4 ⎤
E2 = ⎢ ⎥ × 106
⎣ −4 −3.524 ⎦

Hence, again taking either equation, we calculate:

−4.54a1 − 4a2 = 0 ⇒ a1 = −0.881a2 ⎫ ⎧ 1 ⎫

⎬∴φ2 = ⎨ −1 ⎬
−4a1 − 3.524a2 = 0 ⇒ a1 = −0.881a2 ⎭ ⎩−0.881 ⎭

The complete solution may be given by the following two matrices which are used in
further analysis for more complicated systems.

⎧ 425.3⎫ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
ω 2n = ⎨ ⎬ and Φ = ⎢ ⎥
⎩ 2508 ⎭ ⎣1.468 −1.135⎦

For our frame, we can sketch these two frequencies and associated mode shapes:
Figure 3.4.

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Figure 3.4: Mode shapes and frequencies of the example frame.

Larger and more complex structures will have many degrees of freedom and hence
many natural frequencies and mode shapes. There are different mode shapes for
different forms of deformation; torsional, lateral and vertical for example. Periodic
loads acting in these directions need to be checked against the fundamental frequency
for the type of deformation; higher harmonics may also be important.

As an example; consider a 2DOF idealisation of a cantilever which assumes stiffness

proportional to the static deflection at 0.5L and L as well as half the cantilever mass
‘lumped’ at the midpoint and one quarter of it lumped at the tip. The mode shapes are
shown in Figure 3.5. In Section 4(a) we will see the exact mode shape for this – it is
clear that the approximation is rough; but, with more DOFs it will approach a better
solution.

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Mode 1
Mode 2

Figure 3.5: Lumped mass, 2DOF idealisation of a cantilever.

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4. Continuous Structures

4.1 Exact Analysis for Beams

General Equation of Motion

Figure 4.1: Basic beam subjected to dynamic loading: (a) beam properties and
coordinates; (b) resultant forces acting on the differential element.

In examining Figure 4.1, as with any continuous structure, it may be seen that any
differential element will have an associated stiffness and deflection – which changes
with time – and hence a different acceleration. Thus, any continuous structure has an
infinite number of degrees of freedom. Discretization into an MDOF structure is
certainly an option and is the basis for finite-element dynamic analyses; the more
DOF’s used the more accurate the model (Section 3.b). For some basic structures
though, the exact behaviour can be explicitly calculated. We will limit ourselves to

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free-undamped vibration of beams that are thin in comparison to their length. A

general expression can be derived and from this, several usual cases may be
established.

Figure 4.2: Instantaneous dynamic deflected position.

Consider the element A of Figure 4.1(b); ∑F y = 0 , hence:

∂V ( x, t )
p ( x, t ) dx − dx − f I ( x, t ) dx = 0 (4.1)
∂x

after having cancelled the common V ( x, t ) shear term. The resultant transverse

inertial force is (mass × acceleration; assuming constant mass):

∂ 2 v ( x, t )
f I ( x, t ) dx = mdx (4.2)
∂t 2

Thus we have, after dividing by the common dx term:

∂V ( x, t ) ∂ 2 v ( x, t )
= p ( x, t ) − m (4.3)
∂x ∂t 2

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which, with no acceleration, is the usual static relationship between shear force and
applied load. By taking moments about the point A on the element, and dropping
second order and common terms, we get the usual expression:

∂M ( x, t )
V ( x, t ) = (4.4)
∂x

Differentiating this with respect to x and substituting into (4.3), in addition to the

relationship M = EI ∂ v
2
(which assumes that the beam is of constant stiffness):
∂x 2

∂ 4 v ( x, t ) ∂ 2 v ( x, t )
EI +m = p ( x, t ) (4.5)
∂x 4 ∂t 2

With free vibration this is:

∂ 4 v ( x, t ) ∂ 2 v ( x, t )
EI +m =0 (4.6)
∂x 4 ∂t 2

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General Solution for Free-Undamped Vibration

Examination of equation (4.6) yields several aspects:

• It is separated into spatial ( x ) and temporal ( t ) terms and we may assume that the
solution is also;
• It is a fourth-order differential in x ; hence we will need four spatial boundary
conditions to solve – these will come from the support conditions at each end;
• It is a second order differential in t and so we will need two temporal initial
conditions to solve – initial deflection and velocity at a point for example.

To begin, assume the solution is of a form of separated variables:

v ( x, t ) = φ ( x ) Y ( t ) (4.7)

where φ ( x ) will define the deformed shape of the beam and Y ( t ) the amplitude of

vibration. Inserting the assumed solution into (4.6) and collecting terms we have:

EI 1 ∂ φ ( x ) 1 ∂ Y (t )
4 2

=− = constant = ω 2 (4.8)
m φ ( x ) ∂x 4
Y ( t ) ∂t 2

This follows as the terms each side of the equals are functions of x and t separately
and so must be constant. Hence, each function type (spatial or temporal) is equal to
ω 2 and so we have:

∂ 4φ ( x )
EI = ω 2 mφ ( x ) (4.9)
∂x 4

Y&& ( t ) + ω 2Y ( t ) = 0 (4.10)

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Equation (4.10) is the same as for an SDOF system (equation (2.4)) and so the
solution must be of the same form (equation (2.17)):

⎛ Y& ⎞
Y ( t ) = Y0 cos ω t + ⎜ 0 ⎟ sin ω t (4.11)
⎝ω ⎠

In order to evaluate ω we will use equation (4.9) and we introduce:

ω 2m
α =
4
(4.12)
EI

And assuming a solution of the form φ ( x ) = G exp( sx) , substitution into (4.9) gives:

(s 4
− α 4 ) G exp ( sx ) = 0 (4.13)

There are then four roots for s and when each is put into (4.13) and added we get:

φ ( x ) = G1 exp ( iα x ) + G2 exp ( −iα x ) + G3 exp (α x ) + G4 exp ( −α x ) (4.14)

In which the G ’s may be complex constant numbers, but, by using Euler’s

expressions for cos, sin, sinh and cosh we get:

φ ( x ) = A1 sin (α x ) + A2 cos (α x ) + A3 sinh (α x ) + A4 cosh ( −α x ) (4.15)

where the A ’s are now real constants; three of which may be evaluated through the
boundary conditions; the fourth however is arbitrary and will depend on ω .

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Simply-supported Beam

Figure 4.3: First three mode shapes and frequency parameters for an s-s beam.

The boundary conditions consist of zero deflection and bending moment at each end:

∂ 2v
v ( 0, t ) = 0 and EI 2 ( 0, t ) = 0 (4.16)
∂x
∂ 2v
v ( L, t ) = 0 and EI ( L, t ) = 0 (4.17)
∂x 2

Substituting (4.16) into equation (4.14) we find A2 = A4 = 0 . Similarly, (4.17) gives:

φ ( L ) = A1 sin(α L) + A3 sinh(α L) = 0
(4.18)
φ '' ( L ) = −α 2 A1 sin(λ L) + α 2 A3 sinh(α L) = 0

from which, we get two possibilities:

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0 = 2 A3 sinh(α L)
(4.19)
0 = A1 sin(α L)

however, since sinh(λ x) is never zero, A3 must be, and so the non-trivial solution
A1 ≠ 0 must give us:

sin(α L) = 0 (4.20)

which is the frequency equation and is only satisfied when λ L = nπ . Hence, from
(4.12) we get:

⎛ nπ ⎞
2
EI
ωn = ⎜ ⎟ (4.21)
⎝ L ⎠ m

and the corresponding modes shapes are therefore:

⎛ nπ x ⎞
φn ( x ) = A1 sin ⎜ ⎟ (4.22)
⎝ L ⎠

where A1 is arbitrary and normally taken to be unity. We can see that there are an
infinite number of frequencies and mode shapes ( n → ∞ ) as we would expect from
an infinite number of DOFs. The first three mode shapes and frequencies are shown
in Figure 4.3.

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Cantilever Beam

This example is important as it describes the sway behaviour of tall buildings. The
boundary conditions consist of:

∂v
v ( 0, t ) = 0 and ( 0, t ) = 0 (4.23)
∂x
∂ 2v ∂ 3v
EI 2 ( L, t ) = 0 and EI 3 ( L, t ) = 0 (4.24)
∂x ∂x

Which represent zero displacement and slope at the support and zero bending
moment and shear at the tip. Substituting (4.23) into equation (4.14) we get A4 = − A2
and A3 = − A1 . Similarly, (4.24) gives:

φ '' ( L ) = −α 2 A1 sin(α L) − α 2 A2 cos(α L) + α 2 A3 sinh(α L) + α 2 A4 cosh(α L) = 0

(4.25)
φ ''' ( L ) = −α 3 A1 cos(α L) + α 3 A2 sin(α L) + α 3 A3 cosh(α L) + α 3 A4 sinh(α L) = 0

where a prime indicates a derivate of x , and so we find:

A1 ( sin(α L) + sinh(α L) ) + A2 ( cos(α L) + cosh(α L) ) = 0

(4.26)
A1 ( cos(α L) + cosh(α L) ) + A2 ( − sin(α L) + sinh(α L) ) = 0

Solving for A1 and A2 we find:

A1 ⎡⎣( cos(α L) + cosh(α L) ) − ( sin(α L) + sinh(α L) )( − sin(α L) + sinh(α L) ) ⎤⎦ = 0

2

(4.27)
A2 ⎡⎣( cos(α L) + cosh(α L) ) − ( sin(α L) + sinh(α L) )( − sin(α L) + sinh(α L) ) ⎤⎦ = 0
2

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In order that neither A1 and A2 are zero, the expression in the brackets must be zero
and we are left with the frequency equation:

cos(α L)cosh(α L) + 1 = 0 (4.28)

The mode shape is got by expressing A2 in terms of A1 :

sin(α L) + sinh(α L)
A2 = − A1 (4.29)
cos(α L) + cosh(α L)

and the modes shapes are therefore:

⎡ sin(α L ) + sinh(α L ) ⎤
φn ( x ) = A1 ⎢sin(α x) − sinh(α x) + ( cosh(α x) − cos(α x) ) ⎥ (4.30)
⎣ cos(α L ) + cosh(α L ) ⎦

where again A1 is arbitrary and normally taken to be unity. We can see from (4.28)
that it must be solved numerically for the corresponding values of α L The natural
frequencies are then got from (4.21) with the substitution of α L for nπ . The first
three mode shapes and frequencies are shown in Figure 4.4.

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Figure 4.4: First three mode shapes and frequency parameters for a cantilever.

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4.2 Approximate Analysis – Bolton’s Method

We will now look at a simplified method that requires an understanding of dynamic
behaviour but is very easy to implement. The idea is to represent, through various
manipulations of mass and stiffness, any complex structure as a single SDOF system
which is easily solved via an implementation of equation (1.2):

1 KE
f = (4.31)
2π ME

in which we have equivalent SDOF stiffness and mass terms.

Consider a mass-less cantilever which carries two different masses, Figure 4.5:

Figure 4.5: Equivalent dynamic mass distribution for a cantilever.

The end deflection of a cantilever loaded at its end by a force P is well known to be
PL3 and hence the stiffness is 3EI . Therefore, the frequencies of the two
3EI L3
cantilevers of Figure 4.5 are:

1 3EI
f1 = (4.32)
2π M 1 x3

1 3EI
fE = ; (4.33)
2π M E L3

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And so, if the two frequencies are to be equal, and considering M 1 as the mass of a
small element dx when the mass per metre is m , the corresponding part of M E is:

3
⎛x⎞
dM E = ⎜ ⎟ mdx (4.34)
⎝L⎠

and integrating:

3
L
⎛x⎞
M E = ∫ ⎜ ⎟ mdx
0⎝ L ⎠
(4.35)
= 0.25mL

Therefore the cantilever with self-mass uniformly distributed along its length vibrates
at the same frequency as would the mass-less cantilever loaded with a mass one
quarter its actual mass. This answer is not quite correct but is within 5%; it ignores
the fact that every element affects the deflection (and hence vibration) of every other
element. The answer is reasonable for design though.

Figure 4.6: Equivalent dynamic mass distribution for an s-s beam

Similarly for a simply supported beam, we have an expression for the deflection at a
point:

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Px 2 ( L − x )
2

δx = (4.36)
3EIL

and so its stiffness is:

3EIL
Kx = (4.37)
x (L − x)
2 2

Considering Figure 4.6, we see that, from (4.31):

3EIL 48 EI
= (4.38)
x2 ( L − x ) M1 L M E
2 3

and as the two frequencies are to be equal:

( L − x)
2
L

M E = ∫ 16 x 2
mdx (4.39)
0 L4
= 8 /15mL

which is about half of the self-mass as we might have guessed.

Proceeding in a similar way we can find equivalent spring stiffnesses and masses for
usual forms of beams as given in Table 1. Table 4.1 however, also includes a
refinement of the equivalent masses based on the known dynamic deflected shape
rather than the static deflected shape.

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Table 4.1: Bolton’s table for equivalent mass, stiffnesses and relative amplitudes.

Figure 4.7: Effective SDOFs: (a) neglecting relative amplitude; (b) including relative
amplitude.

In considering continuous beams, the continuity over the supports requires all the
spans to vibrate at the same frequency for each of its modes. Thus we may consider

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summing the equivalent masses and stiffnesses for each span and this is not a bad
approximation. It is equivalent to the SDOF model of Figure 4.7(a). But, if we
allowed for the relative amplitude between the different spans, we would have the
model of Figure 4.7(b) which would be more accurate – especially when there is a
significant difference in the member stiffnesses and masses: long heavy members will
have larger amplitudes than short stiff light members due to the amount of kinetic
energy stored. Thus, the stiffness and mass of each span must be weighted by its
relative amplitude before summing. Consider the following examples of the beam
shown in Figure 4.8; the exact multipliers are known to be 10.30, 13.32, 17.72, 21.67,
40.45, 46.10, 53.89 and 60.53 for the first eight modes.

Figure 4.8: Continuous beam of Examples 1 to 3.

Example 1: Ignoring relative amplitude and refined ME

From Table 4.1, and the previous discussion:

EI ⎛ 8 1⎞
∑K = ( 48 × 3 + 101.9 ) ; and ∑M = mL ⎜ 3 × + ⎟ ,
⎝ 15 2 ⎠
E E
L3

1 EI
and applying (4.31) we have: f = (10.82 )
2π mL4

The multiplier in the exact answer is 10.30: an error of 5%.

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Example 2: Including relative amplitude and refined ME

From Table 4.1 and the previous discussion, we have:

48EI 101.9 EI EI
∑K E
= 3×
L3
×1 +
L3
× 0.4108 = 185.9 3
L
∑M E
= 3 × 0.4928mL × 1 + 0.4299 mL × 0.4108 = 1.655mL

and applying (4.31) we have:

1 EI
f = (10.60 )
2π mL4

The multiplier in the exact answer is 10.30: a reduced error of 2.9%.

Example 3: Calculating the frequency of a higher mode

Figure 4.9: Assumed mode shape for which the frequency will be found.

The mode shape for calculation is shown in Figure 4.7. We can assume supports at
the midpoints of each span as they do not displace in this mode shape. Hence we have
seven simply supported half-spans and one cantilever half-span, so from Table 4.1 we
have:

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48EI 101.9 EI
∑K = 7× 3 ×1 + 3 × 0.4108
( 0.5L ) ( 0.5L )
E

EI
= 3022.9
L3
∑ M E = 7 × 0.4928m ( 0.5L ) × 1 + 0.4299m ( 0.5L ) × 0.4108
= 1.813mL

again, applying (4.31), we have:

1 EI
f = ( 40.8 )
2π mL4

The multiplier in the exact answer is 40.45: and error of 0.9%.

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Mode Shapes and Frequencies

Section 2.d described how the DAF is very large when a force is applied at the
natural frequency of the structure; so for any structure we can say that when it is
vibrating at its natural frequency it has very low stiffness – and in the case of no
damping: zero stiffness. Higher modes will have higher stiffnesses but stiffness may
also be recognised in one form as

M 1
= (4.40)
EI R

where R is the radius of curvature and M is bending moment. Therefore, smaller

stiffnesses have a larger R and larger stiffnesses have a smaller R . Similarly then,
lower modes have a larger R and higher modes have a smaller R . This enables us to
distinguish between modes by their frequencies. Noting that a member in single
curvature (i.e. no point of contraflexure) has a larger R than a member in double
curvature (1 point of contraflexure) which in turn has a larger R than a member in
triple curvature (2 points of contraflexure), we can distinguish modes by deflected
shapes. Figures 4.3 and 4.4 illustrate this clearly.

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Figure 4.10: Typical modes and reduced structures.

An important fact may be deduced from Figure 4.10 and the preceding arguments: a
continuous beam of any number of identical spans has the same fundamental
frequency as that of one simply supported span: symmetrical frequencies are
similarly linked. Also, for non-identical spans, symmetry may exist about a support
and so reduced structures may be used to estimate the frequencies of the total
structure; reductions are shown in Figure 4.10(b) and (d) for symmetrical and anti-
symmetrical modes.

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4.3 Problems

Problem 4.1

Calculate the first natural frequency of a simply supported bridge of mass 7 tonnes
with a 3 tonne lorry at its quarter point. It is known that a load of 10 kN causes a 3
mm deflection.
Ans.: 3.95Hz.

Problem 4.2

Calculate the first natural frequency of a 4 m long cantilever (EI = 4,320 kNm2)
which carries a mass of 500 kg at its centre and has self weight of 1200 kg.
Ans.: 3.76 Hz.

Problem 4.3

What is the fundamental frequency of a 3-span continuous beam of spans 4, 8 and 5

m with constant EI and m? What is the frequency when EI = 6×103 kNm2 and m =
150 kg/m?
Ans.: 6.74 Hz.

Problem 4.4

Calculate the first and second natural frequencies of a two-span continuous beam;
fixed at A and on rollers at B and C. Span AB is 8 m with flexural stiffness of 2EI and
a mass of 1.5m. Span BC is 6 m with flexural stiffness EI and mass m per metre.
What are the frequencies when EI = 4.5×103 kNm2 and m = 100 kg/m?
Ans.: 9.3 Hz; ? Hz.

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Problem 4.5

Calculate the first and second natural frequencies of a 4-span continuous beam of
spans 4, 5, 4 and 5 m with constant EI and m? What are the frequencies when EI =
4×103 kNm2 and m = 120 kg/m? What are the new frequencies when support A is
fixed? Does this make it more or less susceptible to human-induced vibration?
Ans.: ? Hz; ? Hz.

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5. Practical Design Considerations

5.1 Human Response to Dynamic Excitation

Figure 5.1: Equal sensation contours for vertical vibration

The response of humans to vibrations is a complex phenomenon involving the

variables of the vibrations being experienced as well as the perception of it. It has

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been found that the frequency range between 2 and 30 Hz is particularly

uncomfortable because of resonance with major body parts (Figure 5.2). Sensation
contours for vertical vibrations are shown in Figure 5.1. This graph shows that for a
given frequency, as the amplitude gets larger it becomes more uncomfortable; thus it
is acceleration that is governing the comfort. This is important in the design of tall
buildings which sway due to wind loading: it is the acceleration that causes
discomfort. This may also be realised from car-travel: at constant velocity nothing is
perceptible, but, upon rapid acceleration the motion if perceived ( F = ma ).

Figure 5.2: Human body response to vibration

Response graphs like Figure 5.1 have been obtained for each direction of vibration
but vertical motion is more uncomfortable for standing subjects; for the transverse
and longitudinal cases, the difference has the effect of moving the illustrated bands
up a level. Other factors are also important: the duration of exposure; waveform
(which is again linked to acceleration); type of activity; and, psychological factors.
An example is that low frequency exposure can result in motion sickness.

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5.2 Crowd/Pedestrian Dynamic Loading

Lightweight Floors

Figure 5.3: Recommended vibration limits for light floors.

Vibration limits for light floors from the 1984 Canadian Standard is shown in Figure
5.2; the peak acceleration is got from:

I
a0 = ( 0.9 ) 2π f (5.1)
M

where I is the impulse (the area under the force time graph) and is about 70 Ns and
M is the equivalent mass of the floor which is about 40% of the distributed mass.

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This form of approach is to be complemented by a simple analysis of an equivalent

SDOF system. Also, as seen in Section 1, by keeping the fundamental frequency
above 5 Hz, human loading should not be problematic.

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Crowd Loading

This form of loading occurs in grandstands and similar structures where a large
number of people are densely packed and will be responding to the same stimulus.
Coordinated jumping to the beat of music, for example, can cause a DAF of about
1.97 at about 2.5 Hz. Dancing, however, normally generates frequencies of 2 – 3 Hz.
Once again, by keeping the natural frequency of the structure above about 5 Hz no
undue dynamic effects should be noticed.

In the transverse or longitudinal directions, allowance should also be made due to the
crowd-sway that may accompany some events a value of about 0.3 kN per metre of
seating parallel and 0.15 kN perpendicular to the seating is an approximate method
for design.

Staircases can be subject to considerable dynamic forces as running up or down such

may cause peak loads of up to 4-5 times the persons bodyweight over a period of
about 0.3 seconds – the method for lightweight floors can be applied to this scenario.

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Footbridges

As may be gathered from the Case Studies of the Aberfeldy Bridge, the problem is
complex, however some rough guidelines are possible. Once again controlling the
fundamental frequency is important; the lessons of the London Millennium and the
Tacoma Narrows bridges need to be heeded though: dynamic effects may occur in
any direction or mode that can be excited by any form of loading.

An approximate method for checking foot bridges is the following:

umax = u st Kψ (5.2)

where u st is the static deflection under the weight of a pedestrian at the point of
maximum deflection; K is a configuration factor for the type of structure (given in
Table 5.1); and ψ is the dynamic response factor got again from Figure 5.4. The
maximum acceleration is then got as u&&max = ω 2umax (see equations (2.30) and (3.11) for

example, note: ω 2 = 2π f ). This is then compared to a rather simple rule that the

maximum acceleration of footbridge decks should not exceed ±0.5 f .

Alternatively, BD 37/01 states:

“For superstructures for which the fundamental natural frequency of vibration
exceeds 5Hz for the unloaded bridge in the vertical direction and 1.5 Hz for the
loaded bridge in the horizontal direction, the vibration serviceability requirement is
deemed to be satisfied.” – Appendix B.1 General.
Adhering to this clause (which is based on the discussion of Section 1’s Case Study)
is clearly the easiest option.

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Also, note from Figure 5.4 the conservative nature of the damping assumed, which,
from equation (2.35) can be seen to be so based on usual values of damping in
structures.

Table 5.1: Configuration factors for footbridges.

Table 5.2: Values of the logarithmic decrement for different bridge types.

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Figure 5.4: Dynamic response factor for footbridges

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Design Example

A simply-supported footbridge of 18 m span has a total mass of 12.6 tonnes and

flexural stiffness of 3×105 kNm2. Determine the maximum amplitude of vibration and
vertical acceleration caused by a 0.7 kN pedestrian walking in frequency with the
bridge: the pedestrian has a stride of 0.9 m and produces an effective pulsating force
of 180 N. Assume the damping to be related to δ = 0.05 . Is this a comfortable bridge
for the pedestrian (Figure 5.1)?

The natural frequency of the bridge is, from equations (2.19) and (4.21):

π 3 × 108
f = = 3.17 Hz
2 × 182 12600 /18

The static deflection is:

700 × 183
ust = = 0.2835 mm
48 × 3 × 108

Table 5.1 gives K = 1 and Figure 5.4 gives ψ = 6.8 and so, by (5.2) we have:

u max = 0.2835 × 1.0 × 6.8 = 1.93 mm

and so the maximum acceleration is:

u&&max = ω 2umax = ( 2π × 3.17 ) × 1.93 × 10−3 = 0.78 m/s2

2

We compare this to the requirement that:

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u&&max ≤ 0.5 f

≤ 0.5 f
0.78 ≤ 0.89 m/s 2

And so we deem the bridge acceptable. From Figure 5.1, with the amplitude 1.93 mm
and 3.17 Hz frequency, we can see that this pedestrian will feel decidedly
uncomfortable and will probably change pace to avoid this frequency of loading.

The above discussion, in conjunction with Section 2.d reveals why, historically,
soldiers were told to break step when crossing a slender bridge – unfortunately for
some, it is more probable that this knowledge did not come from any detailed
dynamic analysis; rather, bitter experience.

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5.3 Damping in Structures

The importance of damping should be obvious by this stage; a slight increase may
significantly reduce the DAF at resonance, equation (2.47). It was alluded to in
Section 1 that the exact nature of damping is not really understood but that it has been
shown that our assumption of linear viscous damping applies to the majority of
structures – a notable exception is soil-structure interaction in which alternative
damping models must be assumed. Table 5.3 gives some typical damping values in
practice. It is notable that the materials themselves have very low damping and thus
most of the damping observed comes from the joints and so can it depend on:
• The materials in contact and their surface preparation;
• The normal force across the interface;
• Any plastic deformation in the joint;
• Rubbing or fretting of the joint when it is not tightened.

Table 5.4: Recommended values of damping.

When the vibrations or DAF is unacceptable it is not generally acceptable to detail

joints that will have higher damping than otherwise normal – there are simply too
many variables to consider. Depending on the amount of extra damping needed, one

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could wait for the structure to be built and then measure the damping, retro-fitting
vibration isolation devices as required. Or, if the extra damping required is
significant, the design of a vibration isolation device may be integral to the structure.
The devices that may be installed vary; some are:
• Tuned mass dampers (TMDs): a relatively small mass is attached to the primary
system and is ‘tuned’ to vibrate at the same frequency but to oppose the primary
system;
• Sloshing dampers: A large water tank is used – the sloshing motion opposes the
primary system motion due to inertial effects;
• Liquid column dampers: Two columns of liquid, connected at their bases but at
opposite sides of the primary system slosh, in a more controlled manner to oppose
the primary system motion.

These are the approaches taken in many modern buildings, particularly in Japan and
other earthquake zones. The Citicorp building in New York (which is famous for
other reasons also) and the John Hancock building in Boston were among the first to
use TMDs. In the John Hancock building a concrete block of about 300 tonnes
located on the 54th storey sits on a thin film of oil. When the building sways the
inertial effects of the block mean that it moves in the opposite direction to that of the
sway and so opposes the motion (relying heavily on a lack of friction). This is quite a
rudimentary system compared to modern systems which have computer controlled
actuators that take input from accelerometers in the building and move the block an
appropriate amount.

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5.4 Design Rules of Thumb

General

The structure should not have any modal frequency close to the frequency of any
form of periodic loading, irrespective of magnitude. This is based upon the large
DAFs that may occur (Section 2.d).

For normal floors of span/depth ratio less than 25 vibration is not generally a
problem. Problematic floors are lightweight with spans of over about 7 m.

Human loading
Most forms of human loading occur at frequencies < 5 Hz (Sections 1 and 5.a) and so
any structure of natural frequency greater than this should not be subject to undue
dynamic excitation.

Machine Loading
By avoiding any of the frequencies that the machine operates at, vibrations may be
minimised. The addition of either more stiffness or mass will change the frequencies
the structure responds to. If the response is still not acceptable vibration isolation
devices may need to be considered (Section 5.c).

Approximate Frequencies
The Bolton Method of Section 4.b is probably the best for those structures outside the
standard cases of Section 4.a. Careful thought on reducing the size of the problem to
an SDOF system usually enables good approximate analysis.

Other methods are:

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1 g
Structures with concentrated mass: f =
2π δ

18
Simplified rule for most structures: f =
δ

where δ is the static deflection and g is the acceleration under gravity.

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Rayleigh Approximation

A method developed by Lord Rayleigh (which is always an upper bound), based on

energy methods, for estimating the lowest natural frequency of transverse beam
vibration is:

2
L
⎛ d2y ⎞
∫0 EI ⎜ dx 2 ⎟ dx
ω1 =
2 ⎝ ⎠ (5.3)
L

∫ y dm
2

This method can be used to estimate the fundamental frequency of MDOF systems.
Considering the frame of Figure 5.5, the fundamental frequency in each direction is
given by:

∑Q u i i ∑mu i i
ω =g
2 i
=g i
(5.4)
∑Q u ∑mu
1 2 2
i i i i
i i

where ui is the static deflection under the dead load of the structure Qi , acting in the
direction of motion, and g is the acceleration due to gravity. Thus, the first mode is
approximated in shape by the static deflection under dead load. For a building, this
can be applied to each of the X and Y directions to obtain the estimates of the
fundamental sway modes.

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Figure 5.5: Rayleigh approximation for the fundamental sway frequencies of a

building.

Figure 5.6: Rayleigh method for approximating bridge fundamental frequencies.

Likewise for a bridge, by applying the dead load in each of the vertical and horizontal
directions, the fundamental lift and drag modes can be obtained. The torsional mode
can also be approximated by applying the dead load at the appropriate radius of
gyration and determining the resulting rotation angle, Figure 5.6.

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This method is particularly useful when considering the results of a detailed analysis,
such as finite-element. It provides a reasonable approximate check on the output.

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6. Appendix

6.1 Sample Questions

Question 1

(a) The system shown in Figure Q.1(a) is known to have a static deflection of 32.7 mm for an unknown mass.
1) Find the natural frequency of the system.
(10%)
2) Given that the mass is 10 kg, find the peak displacement when this mass is given an initial
velocity of 500 mm/s and an initial displacement of 25 mm.
(10%)
3) What time does the first positive peak occur?
(10%)
4) What value of damping coefficient is required such that the amplitude after 5 oscillations is 10%
of the first peak?
(10%)
5) What is the peak force in the spring?
(20%)

(b) A cantilever riverside boardwalk has been opened to the public as shown in Figure Q1(b); however, it was
found that the structure experiences significant human- and traffic-induced vibrations. An harmonic
oscillation test found the natural frequency of the structure to be 2.25 Hz. It is proposed to retro-fit braced
struts at 5m spacings so that the natural period of vibration will be 9 Hz – given E = 200 kN/mm2 and
ignoring buckling effects, what area of strut is required?
(40%)

1m 4m

100 kg/m 2
k A B C
4m

PROPOSED
m
STRUT D

PIN

FIG. Q.1(a) FIG. Q.1(b)

Ans. (a) 2.756 Hz; 38.2 mm; 0.05 s; 99 kg.s/m;114.5 N; (b) 67.5 mm2.

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2. (a) The single-degree-of-freedom system shown in Fig. Q2(a) is known to have a static deflection of 32.7
mm for an unknown mass.
(i) Find the natural frequency of the system;
(2 marks)
(ii) Given that the mass is 10 kg, find the peak displacement when the mass is given an initial
velocity of 500 mm/s and an initial displacement of 25 mm;
(2 marks)
(iii) At what time does the first positive peak occur?
(2 marks)
(iv) What damping ratio is required such that the amplitude after 5 oscillations is 10% of the first
peak?
(2 marks)
(v) What is the peak force in the spring?
(6 marks)

FIG. Q2(a)

(b) The beam shown in Fig. Q2(b) is loaded with an air conditioning (AC) unit at its tip. The AC unit
produces an unbalanced force of 100 kg which varies sinusoidally. When the speed of the AC unit is
varied, it is found that the maximum steady-state deflection is 20.91 mm. Determine:
(i) The damping ratio;
(4 marks)
(ii) The maximum deflection when the unit’s speed is 250 rpm;
(7 marks)
Take the following values:
• EI = 1×106 kNm2;
• Mass of the unit is 500 kg.

A.C.
UNIT

A B
4m

FIG. Q2(b)

Ans. (a) 2.756 Hz; 38.2 mm; 0.05 s; 99 kg.s/m;114.5 N; (b) ??.

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3. (a) A simply-supported reinforced concrete beam, 300 mm wide × 600 mm deep spans 8 m. Its
fundamental natural frequency is measured to be 6.5 Hz. In your opinion, is the beam cracked or
uncracked?

Use a single degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system to represent the deflection at the centre of the beam.
Assume that 8/15 of the total mass of the beam contributes to the SDOF model. Take the density of
reinforced concrete to be 24 kN/m3 and E = 30 kN/mm2.
(10 marks)

(b) The beam shown in Fig. Q3(b) is loaded with an air conditioning (AC) unit at its tip. The AC unit
produces an unbalanced force of 200 kg which varies sinusoidally. When the speed of the AC unit is
varied, it is found that the maximum steady-state amplitude of vibration is 34.6 mm. Determine:

(i) The damping ratio;

(5 marks)
(ii) The maximum deflection when the unit’s speed is 100 rpm;
(10 marks)

Take the following values:

• EI = 40×103 kNm2;
• Mass of the unit is 2000 kg;
• Ignore the mass of the beam.

A.C.
UNIT

A B
6m

FIG. Q3(b)

Ans. (a) Cracked; (b) 5.1%; 41.1 mm.

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QUESTION 4

(a) For the frame shown in Fig. Q5, using a single-degree-of-freedom model, determine:
(i) The natural frequency and period in free vibration;
(ii) An expression for the displacement at time t if member BC is displaced 20 mm and suddenly released
at time t = 1 sec.
(8 marks)

(b) The frame is found to have 5% damping. Using appropriate approximations, what is the percentage change in
deflection, 4 cycles after the frame is released, of the damped behaviour compared to the undamped behaviour?
(10 marks)

(c) A machine is placed on member BC which has an unbalanced force of 500 kg which varies sinusoidally.
Neglecting the mass of the machine, determine:
(i) the maximum displacement when the unit’s speed is 150 rpm;
(ii) the speed of the machine at resonance;
(iii) the displacement at resonance.
(7 marks)

Note:
Take the following values:
• EI = 20×103 kNm2;
• M = 20 tonnes;
• Consider BC as infinitely rigid.

B M kg C
3m

EI

A
6m

3EI

FIG. Q5
Ans.(a) 3.93 Hz; 0.254 s; 20cos[24.72(t-1)], t>1; (b) Ratio: 28.4%, change: 71.6%;
(c) 0.67 mm; 236 rpm; 4.01 mm.

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QUESTION 5

The structure shown in Fig. Q5 supports a scoreboard at a sports centre. The claxton (of total mass M) which sounds the end
of playing periods includes a motor which has an unbalanced mass of 100 kg which varies sinusoidally when sounded. Using
a single-degree-of-freedom model for vibrations in the vertical direction, and neglecting the mass of the truss members,
determine:
(i) the natural frequency and period in free vibration;
(ii) the damping, given that a test showed 5 cycles after a 10 mm initial displacement was imposed, the amplitude
was 5.30 mm;
(iii) the maximum displacement when the unit’s speed is 1500 rpm;
(iv) the speed of the machine at resonance;
(v) the displacement at resonance.
(25 marks)

Note:
Take the following values:
• For all truss members: EA = 20 × 103 kN ;
• M = 5 tonnes;
• Ignore the stiffness and mass of member EF.

B C
3m

A D
E

F
CLAXTON

3m 3m

FIG. Q5

Ans. 4.9 Hz; 0.205 s; 2%; 0.008 mm; 293.2 rpm; 5.2 mm.

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6.2 References
The following books/articles were referred to in the writing of these notes;
particularly Clough & Penzien (1993), Smith (1988) and Bolton (1978) - these should
be referred to first for more information. There is also a lot of information and
software available online; the software can especially help intuitive understanding.
The class notes of Mr. R. Mahony (D.I.T.) and Dr. P. Fanning (U.C.D.) were also
used.
• Archbold, P., (2002), “Modal Analysis of a GRP Cable-Stayed Bridge”,
Proceedings of the First Symposium of Bridge Engineering Research In Ireland,
Eds. C. McNally & S. Brady, University College Dublin.
• Beards, C.F., (1983), Structural Vibration Analysis: modelling, analysis and
damping of vibrating structures, Ellis Horwood, Chichester, England.
• Bhatt, P., (1999), Structures, Longman, Harlow, England.
• Bolton, A., (1978), “Natural frequencies of structures for designers”, The
Structural Engineer, Vol. 56A, No. 9, pp. 245-253; Discussion: Vol. 57A, No. 6,
p.202, 1979.
• Bolton, A., (1969), “The natural frequencies of continuous beams”, The Structural
Engineer, Vol. 47, No. 6, pp.233-240.
• Case, J., Chilver, A.H. and Ross, C.T.F., (1999), Strength of Materials and
Structures, 4th edn., Arnold, London.
• Chopra, A.K., (2007), Dynamics of Structures – Theory and Applications to
Earthquake Engineering, 3rd edn., Pearson-Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
• Clough, R.W. and Penzien, J., (1993), Dynamics of Structures, 2nd edn., McGraw-
Hill, New York.
• Cobb, F. (2004), Structural Engineer’s Pocket Book, Elsevier, Oxford.
• Craig, R.R., (1981), Structural Dynamics – An introduction to computer methods,
Wiley, New York.

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 BST004: Structural Dynamics

• Ghali, A. and Neville, A.M., (1997), Structural Analysis – A unified classical and
matrix approach, 4th edn., E&FN Spon, London.
• Irvine, M., (1986), Structural Dynamics for the Practising Engineer, Allen &
Unwin, London.
• Kreyszig, E., (1993), Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 7th edn., Wiley.
• Paz, M. and Leigh, W., (2004), Structural Dynamics – Theory and Computation,
5th edn., Springer, New York.
• Smith, J.W., (1988), Vibration of Structures – Applications in civil engineering
design, Chapman and Hall, London.

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6.3 Solutions to Differential Equations

The Homogenous Equation

To find the solution of:

d2y
2
+ k2y = 0 (6.1)
dx

we try y = eλ x (note that this k has nothing to do with stiffness but is the conventional
mathematical notation for this problem). Thus we have:

dy d2y
= λ eλ x ; 2
= λ 2eλ x
dx dx

Substituting this into (6.1) gives:

λ 2eλ x + k 2eλ x = 0

And so we get the characteristic equation by dividing out e λ x :

λ2 + k2 = 0

From which:

λ = ± −k 2

Or,

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λ1 = + ik ; λ2 = −ik

Where i = −1 . Since these are both solutions, they are both valid and the expression
for y becomes:

y = A1eikx + A2e − ikx (6.2)

In which A1 and A2 are constants to be determined from the initial conditions of the
problem. Introducing Euler’s equations:

eikx = cos kx + i sin kx

(6.3)
e − ikx = cos kx − i sin kx

into (6.2) gives us:

y = A1 ( cos kx + i sin kx ) + A2 ( cos kx − i sin kx )

Collecting terms:

y = ( A1 + A2 ) cos kx + ( iA1 − iA2 ) sin kx

Since the coefficients of the trigonometric functions are constants we can just write:

y = A cos kx + B sin kx (6.4)

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The Non-homogenous Equation

Starting with equation (2.47) (repeated here for convenience):

mu&&(t ) + cu& (t ) + ku (t ) = F0 sin Ωt (6.5)

We divide by m and introduce equations (2.10) and (2.12) to get:

F0
u&&(t ) + 2ξωu& (t ) + ω 2u (t ) = sin Ωt (6.6)
m

At this point, recall that the solution to non-homogenous differential equations is

made up of two parts:
• The complimentary solution ( uC ( t ) ): this is the solution to the corresponding

homogenous equation, which we already have (equation (6.4));

• The particular solution ( uP ( t ) ): particular to the function on the right hand

side of equation (6.5), which we must now find.

The final solution is the sum of the complimentary and particular solutions:

u ( t ) = uC ( t ) + uP ( t ) (6.7)

For the particular solution we try the following:

uP ( t ) = C sin Ωt + D cos Ωt (6.8)

Then we have:

u&P ( t ) = ΩC cos Ωt − ΩD sin Ωt (6.9)

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And

u&&P ( t ) = −Ω2C sin Ωt − Ω2 D cos Ωt (6.10)

Substituting equations (6.8), (6.9) and (6.10) into equation (6.6) gives:

⎡⎣ −Ω 2C sin Ωt − Ω 2 D cos Ωt ⎤⎦
+2ξω [ ΩC cos Ωt − ΩD sin Ωt ] (6.11)
F0
+ω 2 [C sin Ωt + D cos Ωt ] = sin Ωt
m

Collecting sine and cosine terms:

⎡⎣(ω 2 − Ω 2 ) C − 2ξωΩD ⎤⎦ sin Ωt

(6.12)
+ ⎡⎣ 2ξωΩC + (ω 2 − Ω 2 ) D ⎤⎦ cos Ωt =
F0
sin Ωt
m

For this to be valid for all t, the sine and cosine terms on both sides of the equation
must be equal. Thus:

(ω − Ω2 ) C − 2ξωΩD =
2 F0
(6.13)
m
2ξωΩC + (ω 2 − Ω2 ) D = 0 (6.14)

Next, divide both sides by ω 2 :

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⎛ Ω2 ⎞ Ω F0
⎜ 1 − ω 2 ⎟ C − 2ξ ω D = ω 2 m (6.15)
⎝ ⎠
Ω ⎛ Ω2 ⎞
2ξ C + ⎜1 − 2 ⎟ D = 0 (6.16)
ω ⎝ ω ⎠

Introduce the frequency ratio, equation (2.51), β = Ω ω , and k = ω 2 m from equation

(2.9) to get:

(1 − β ) C − 2ξβ D =
2 F0
(6.17)
k
2ξβ C + (1 − β 2 ) D = 0 (6.18)

From equation (6.18), we have:

C=−
(1 − β ) D 2

(6.19)
2ξβ

And using this in equation (6.17) gives:

⎡ (1 − β 2 )2 ⎤ F
⎢− − 2ξβ ⎥ D = 0 (6.20)
⎢⎣ 2ξβ ⎥⎦ k

To get:

⎡ (1 − β 2 )2 + ( 2ξβ )2 ⎤ F
−⎢ ⎥D = 0 (6.21)
⎢⎣ 2ξβ ⎥⎦ k

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And rearrange to get, finally:

F0 −2ξβ
D= (6.22)
k (1 − β 2 ) + ( 2ξβ )2
2

Now using this with equation (6.19), we have:

C=−
(1− β ) ⎡ F
⎢
2
0
−2ξβ ⎤
⎥ (6.23)
2ξβ ⎢⎣ k (1 − β 2 ) + ( 2ξβ ) ⎥⎦
2 2

To get, finally:

F
C= 0
(1 − β ) 2

(6.24)
k (1 − β 2 ) + ( 2ξβ ) 2
2

Again we use the cosine addition rule:

ρ = C 2 + D2 (6.25)
D
tan θ = − (6.26)
C

To express the solution as:

uP (t ) = ρ sin ( Ωt − θ ) (6.27)

So we have, from equations (6.25), (6.24) and (6.22):

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(1− β 2 )
2 2

F0 ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ −2ξβ ⎤
ρ= ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢ ⎥ (6.28)
⎢⎣ (1 − β 2 ) + ( 2ξβ ) ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ (1 − β 2 ) + ( 2ξβ ) ⎥⎦
2 2 2 2
k

This simplifies to:

(1 − β ) + ( 2ξβ )
2 2 2
F
ρ= 0 (6.29)
⎡(1 − β ) + ( 2ξβ ) ⎤
2
k 2 2 2

⎣ ⎦

And finally we have the amplitude of displacement:

1
−

(1 − β ) + ( 2ξβ )
F0 ⎡ ⎤
ρ= 2 2 2 2
(6.30)
k ⎣ ⎦

To obtain the phase angle, we use equation (6.26) with equations (6.24) and (6.22)
again to get:

F0 −2ξβ
k (1 − β 2 ) + ( 2ξβ )2
2

tan θ = − (6.31)
F0 (1 − β ) 2

k (1 − β 2 ) + ( 2ξβ )2
2

Immediately we see that several terms (and the minus signs) cancel to give:

2ξβ
tan θ = (6.32)
1− β 2

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Thus we have the final particular solution of equation (6.27) in conjunction with
equations (6.30) and (6.32).

As referred to previously, the total solution is the sum of the particular and
complimentary solutions, which for us now becomes:

u ( t ) = uC ( t ) + uP ( t ) (6.33)

u ( t ) = e−ξωt ( A cos ωd t + B sin ωd t ) + ρ sin ( Ωt − θ ) (6.34)

Notice here that we used equation (2.35) since we have redefined the amplitude and
phase in terms of the forcing function. To determine the unknown constants from the
initial parameters, u0 and u&0 we differentiate equation (6.34) to get:

u& ( t ) = e−ξωt ⎡⎣(ωd B − Aξω ) cos ωd t − ( Aωd + Bξω ) sin ωd t ⎤⎦ + Ωρ cos ( Ωt − θ ) (6.35)

Now at t = 0 , we have from equations (6.34) and (6.35):

u ( 0 ) = u0 = A − ρ sin θ (6.36)

And:

u& ( 0 ) = u&0 = (ωd B − Aξω ) + Ωρ cosθ (6.37)

Solving for A first from equation (6.36) gives:

A = u0 + ρ sin θ (6.38)

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And introducing this into equation (6.37) gives:

u&0 = ωd B − ( u0 + ρ sin θ ) ξω + Ωρ cosθ (6.39)

Multiplying out and rearranging gives:

u&0 = ωd B − u0ξω + ρ ( Ω cosθ − ξω sinθ ) (6.40)

From which we get:

u&0 + u0ξω − ρ ( Ω cosθ − ξω sin θ )

B= (6.41)
ωd

And now we have completely defined the time history of the problem in terms of its
initial parameters.

Remember that:
• The complimentary solution ( uC ( t ) ): represents the transient state of the system
which dampens out after a period of time, as may be realized when it is seen that
it is only the complementary response that is affected by the initial state ( u0 and
u&0 ) of the system, in addition to the exponentially reducing term in equation
(6.34);
• The particular solution ( uP ( t ) ): represents the steady state of the system which
persists as long as the harmonic force is applied, as again may be seen from
equation (6.34).

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6.4 Important Formulae

Section 2: SDOF Systems

Fundamental equation of motion mu&&(t ) + cu& (t ) + ku(t ) = F (t )

Equation of motion for free vibration u&&(t ) + 2ξωu& (t ) + ω 2u (t ) = 0
Relationship between frequency, circular
1 ω 1 k
frequency, period, stiffness and mass: f = = =
T 2π 2π m
Fundamental frequency for an SDOF system.
c
Coefficient of damping 2ξω =
m
k
Circular frequency ω2 =
m
c
Damping ratio ξ=
ccr

Critical value of damping ccr = 2mω = 2 km

u (t ) = ρ cos (ωt − θ )
General solution for free-undamped vibration 2
⎛ u& ⎞ u&
ρ = u + ⎜ 0 ⎟ ; tan θ = 0
2

⎝ω ⎠ u0ω
0

ωd = ω 1 − ξ 2
Damped circular frequency, period and
2π ωd
frequency Td = ; fd =
ωd 2π

u(t ) = ρ e−ξωt cos (ωd t − θ )

2
⎛ u& + ξωu0 ⎞
ρ = u02 + ⎜ 0 ⎟ ;
General solution for free-damped vibrations ⎝ ω d ⎠
u&0 + ξωu0
tan θ =
u0ωd

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un ω
Logarithmic decrement of damping δ = ln = 2mπξ
un + m ωd
0.11
Half-amplitude method ξ≅ when u n + m = 0.5u n
m
p
⎛u ⎞
Amplitude after p-cycles un + p = ⎜ n+1 ⎟ un
⎝ un ⎠
Equation of motion for forced response
mu&&(t ) + cu& (t ) + ku (t ) = F0 sin Ωt
(sinusoidal)
u p ( t ) = ρ sin ( Ωt − θ )
−1 2
General solution for forced-damped vibration ρ = F0 ⎡(1 − β 2 )2 + ( 2ξβ )2 ⎤ ;
k ⎣ ⎦
response and frequency ratio
2ξβ Ω
tan θ = β=
1− β 2
ω
−1 2
DAF ≡ D = ⎡(1 − β 2 ) + ( 2ξβ ) ⎤
2 2
Dynamic amplification factor (DAF)
⎣ ⎦

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Section 3: MDOF Systems

Fundamental equation of
Mu
&& + Cu& + Ku = F
motion
Equation of motion for
Mu
&& + Ku = 0
undamped-free vibration

General solution and derivates u = a sin (ωt + φ )

for free-undamped vibration && = −ω 2a sin (ωt + φ ) = −ω 2u
u

Frequency equation ⎡⎣K − ω 2M ⎤⎦ a = 0

General solution for 2DOF ⎡ m1 0 ⎤ ⎧ u&&1 ⎫ ⎡ k1 + k2 −k2 ⎤ ⎧ u1 ⎫ ⎧0⎫

⎢ 0 m ⎥ ⎨u&& ⎬ + ⎢ −k ⎨ ⎬=⎨ ⎬
k2 ⎦⎥ ⎩u2 ⎭ ⎩0⎭
system ⎣ 2⎦⎩ 2⎭ ⎣ 2

Determinant of 2DOF system

K − ω 2M = ⎡⎣( k2 + k1 ) − ω 2 m1 ⎤⎦ ⎡⎣ k2 − ω 2 m2 ⎤⎦ − k22 = 0
from Cramer’s rule
Composite matrix E = ⎡⎣K − ω 2M ⎤⎦
Amplitude equation Ea = 0

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Section 4: Continuous Structures

∂ 4 v ( x, t ) ∂ 2 v ( x, t )
Equation of motion EI +m = p ( x, t )
∂x 4 ∂t 2
Assumed solution for free-
v ( x, t ) = φ ( x ) Y ( t )
undamped vibrations
φ ( x ) = A1 sin (α x ) + A2 cos (α x )
General solution
+ A3 sinh (α x ) + A4 cosh (α x )

∂ 2v
v ( 0, t ) = 0 and EI ( 0, t ) = 0
Boundary conditions for a simply ∂x 2
supported beam ∂ 2v
v ( L, t ) = 0 and EI 2 ( L, t ) = 0
∂x
Frequencies of a simply ⎛ nπ ⎞
2
EI
ωn = ⎜ ⎟
supported beam ⎝ L ⎠ m
Mode shape or mode n: (A1 is ⎛ nπ x ⎞
φn ( x ) = A1 sin ⎜ ⎟
normally unity) ⎝ L ⎠
∂v
v ( 0, t ) = 0 and ( 0, t ) = 0
Cantilever beam boundary ∂x
conditions ∂ 2v ∂ 3v
EI 2 ( L, t ) = 0 and EI 3 ( L, t ) = 0
∂x ∂x
Frequency equation for a
cos(α L)cosh(α L) + 1 = 0
cantilever
⎡sin(α x) − sinh(α x) + ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ sin(α L) + sinh(α L) ⎥
Cantilever mode shapes φn ( x ) = A1 ×
⎢ cos(α L) + cosh(α L) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ( cosh(α x) − cos(α x) )⎥⎦
1 KE
Bolton method general equation f =
2π ME

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Section 5: Practical Design

I
a0 = ( 0.9 ) 2π f
Peak acceleration under foot-loading M
I ≈ 70 Ns M ≈ 40% mass per unit area
Maximum dynamic deflection umax = u st Kψ

Maximum vertical acceleration u&&max = ω 2umax

BD37/01 requirement for vertical
±0.5 f
acceleration

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