Learning Disability

The term “specific learning disability” means a disorder in 1 or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may
manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do
mathematical calculations (IDEA, 2019). Therefore, it denotes learning disability that affects a
person's academic ability and it may interfere in their school progress. To diagnose these a
different administered tests range are used to help in determining a learning disability. These will
focus on task such as:

● Cognitive abilities
● Academic achievement (arithmetic, reading, writing, etc.)
● Language
● Learning
● Motor skills
● Visuospatial skills
● Executive functioning
● Memory

With these, types of tests will be administered to determine learning disability such as:

● Intelligence Test
● Achievement Test
● Visual-Motor Integration Test
● Language Test

1. Intelligence Test

Name of test: Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WISC-V)

Administration: Done individually with the child and clinician and can be done in standard
paper-and-pencil administration or on a tablet, digital format

Scoring:
There are a total of five Primary Index Scores that make up the Full-Scale IQ score:

● The Visual Spatial Index reflects the ability to understand visual details and
relationships in order to solve puzzles and construct geometric designs. The core subtests
are Block Design (orienting blocks to match a picture) and Visual Puzzles (visual spatial
integration).
 ● The Fluid Reasoning Index reflects the ability to detect relationships among visual
objects. The core subtests are Matrix Reasoning (reasoning with continuous and discrete
visual patterns) and Figure Weights (quantitative reasoning).
● The Working Memory Index reflects the ability to register, maintain, and manipulate
visual and auditory information. The core subtests are Digit Span (repeating number
sequences) and Picture Span (auditory and visual attention and working memory,
respectively).
● The Processing Speed Index reflects the speed at which a child can accurately make
decisions. The core subtests are Coding (matching symbols to associated numbers) and
Symbol Search (visual scanning and graphomotor speed of matching symbols).
● Verbal Comprehension Index measures a child’s ability to verbally reason, which can
be heavily influenced by their semantic knowledge. This index score is derived from the
Similarities, Vocabulary, Information, and Comprehension subtests.

Scores on the five Primary Index Scales are then combined and converted into a Full-Scale
Intelligence Quotient (FSIQ), which is designed to measure overall intelligence.

Scores for this test are determined based on statistical values such as the mean (the average) and
standard deviation (a calculation that determines a significant distance of a score from the
average). Once a child’s performance on a subtest is compared to the normative sample, subtest
scores are converted into scaled scores that serve as one of the universal metrics for this test.

A scaled score of 10 is the mean and scaled scores that deviate 3 units reflect a standard
deviation. Similar subtests are then combined into Primary Index Scales that have a mean of 100
and standard deviation of 15. These numbers help determine the classification for performance.

Classification of performance for scaled index scores are as follows:

● Below Average – scaled score 1 to 5
● Low Average – scaled score 6 to 7
● Average – scaled score 8 to 11
● High Average – scaled score 12 to 13
● Superior – 14 to 15
● Very Superior – 16 to 20

Descriptors of performance for standard WISC score ranges are as follows:

● Below Average – standard score below 79
● Low Average – standard score 80 to 89
● Average – 90 to 109
● High Average – 110 to 119
● Superior – 120 to 129
● Very Superior – above 130
Name of Test: PTI-2: Pictorial Test of Intelligence - Second Edition

Ages: 3-0 through 8-11 years

Testing Time: 15 to 30 minutes

Administration: Individual

The PTI-2 is a revision of the Pictorial Test of Intelligence (French, 1964) and is an objectively
scored, individually administered test of general intelligence for both normal and disabled
children ages 3-0 through 8-11 years. Administration time ranges from 15 to 30 minutes.
Administer three subtests and combine the scores to get the Pictorial Intelligence Quotient, a
global index of performance to provide a multidimensional measure of g. The subtests areas
follows:

● Verbal Abstractions––the examinee to identify pictures that (a) represent the meaning
of a spoken word, (b) represent the meaning of a spoken definition of a word, and (c) that
are different in form or function from a set of pictures.
● Form Discrimination––requires the examinee to match forms, differentiate between
similar shapes, identify unfinished pictures, find embedded shapes, and reason about
abstract shapes and patterns.
● Quantitative Concepts––samples an examinee's recognition of size, comprehension of
number symbols, ability to count, and ability to solve simple arithmetic problems.
Standardized on 972 persons from 17 states, the data are representative of the current
population of the U.S as reported in the Statistical Abstract of the United States (U.S.
Bureau of the Census, 1997) for the entire school-age population. The PTI-2 provides
three types of scores: percentiles, standard scores, and age equivalents. Reliability was
demonstrated using coefficient alpha, test-retest, and interscorer procedures. Coefficient
alphas for Verbal Abstractions, Form Discrimination, Quantitative Concepts, and
Pictorial Intelligence Quotient are .89, .88, .88, and .94, respectively. Evidence of validity
of the PTI-2 test scores is proven for content-description validity, criterion-prediction
validity, and construct-identification validity. Finally, the PTI-2 items were developed to
obtain fairness with diverse groups. The items were examined to ensure that little or no
bias relative to gender, race, or ethnicity existed. Differential item functioning techniques
were used to examine items for potential bias. The PTI-2 will be especially helpful when
used with children who have difficulty with fine motor skills or a speech-language
problem. The test has been normed so that it can be used with children with cortical
disorders or other conditions affecting speech or motor coordination. Respondents do not
need to use expressive language, but they do need near normal vision and hearing. None
of the items are timed.
 2. Achievement test

Name of test: Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement (WJ)

Assess both academic achievement (what children have learned in school) and cognitive
development.Subtests in the Extended Battery are often given if the district wants to evaluate a
child’s reading, math, writing, language or other skills. The test also contains new domain-
specific scholastic aptitude CLUSTERS that allow for efficient and valid predictions of academic
achievement, providing even more feedback for specific help that can be given for your child.
The tests of achievement help compare your child’s levels of achievement to academic
knowledge.

The Woodcock Johnson Tests of Achievement portion of the test consists of the following tests:
Standard Battery
● Letter-Word Identification
● Applied Problems
● Spelling
● Passage Comprehension
● Calculation
● Writing Samples
● Word Attack
● Oral Reading
● Sentence Reading Fluency
● Math Facts Fluency
● Writing Fluency

Extended Battery
● Reading Recall
● Number Matrices
● Editing
● Word Reading Fluency
● Spelling of Sounds
● Reading Vocabulary
● Science
● Social Studies
● Humanities

From these tests the following intelligence clusters are scored.

● Brief Achievement
● Broad Achievement
 ● Reading
● Broad Mathematics
● Written Language
● Math Calculation Skills
● Reading Fluency
● Broad Written Language
● Reading Rate
● Basic Writing Skills
● Mathematics
● Written Expression
● Math Problem Solving
● Academic Skills
● Reading Comprehension-Extended
● Academic Applications
● Reading Comprehension
● Academic Fluency
● Broad Reading
● Academic Knowledge
● Basic Reading Skills
● Phoneme-Grapheme Knowledge

Administration: Done individually with the child and clinician and can be done in standard
paper-and-pencil administration
Scoring:
The three types of WJ IV scoring ranges that are provided upon completing the exam are the
level of development, comparison with peers and degree of proficiency scores.
Level of development scores are designed to explain the scores in terms of age equivalents and
grade equivalents. Thus, these scores explain a child’s score against people of their same age or
grade to determine if their scores index at, above, or below their current age and grade.
Comparison with peers scores test takers against a standard score like other IQ tests (where the
average score is 100 and the standard deviation is 15). This also offers a percentile rank which
quantifies where the score falls within the total testing population and a range classification
which assigns a label to a range of scores. The table below shows how all three relate.

Score Range Percentile Rank Range Classification

131 and above 98 to 99.9 Very Superior

121 to 130 92 to 97 Superior

111 to 120 76 to 91 High Average

 90 to 110 25 to 75 Average

80 to 89 9 to 24 Low Average

70 to 79 3 to 8 Low

69 and below 0.1 to 2 Very Low

Degree of proficiency scores are metrics which show how a child performs on a functional level
versus tasks that typical children in their same age group or grade would perform at a 90% level
of efficiency. Scores can range from 100/90 to 0/90. The table below shows a detailed view of
RPI scores, perceived functionality, and the score’s implication for the child’s academic
achievement.

RPI Score Functionality Expected Difficulty in Academic

Area

100/90 Very Advanced Extremely Easy

98/90 to Advanced Very Easy

100/90

95/90 Within Normal Limits to Advanced Easy

82/90 to 95/90 Within Normal Limits Manageable

67/90 to 82/90 Mildly Impaired to Within Normal Difficult

Limits

24/90 to 67/90 Mildly Impaired Very Difficult

3/90 to 24/90 Moderately Impaired Extremely Difficult

0/90 to 3/90 Severely Impaired Impossible

Name of test: Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Third Edition (KTEA-3)

The Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement – Third Edition (KTEA-3; Kaufman &
Kaufman, 2014) is an individually- administered, norm-referenced instrument that measures
academic achievement for individuals from ages 4 years, 6 months through 25. The
comprehensive form assesses achievement in the areas of reading (silent reading fluency, writing
fluency, reading vocabulary, phonological awareness, nonsense word decoding, word
recognition fluency, decoding fluency, associational fluency, naming facility [RAN]); Reading
Composite (Letter and Word Recognition, Reading Comprehension); Math Composite (Math
Fluency, Math Concepts and Applications, Math Computation); Written Language Composite
(Written Expression Spelling); Oral Language Composite (Oral Expression Language
Comprehension); and Comprehensive Achievement Composite. The KTEA-3 can be scored by
hand or using the Q-global system.

Administration: Individually administered, norm-referenced measure of academic achievement

across multiple areas. 15-85 minutes test, can be administered to 4 years 6 months to 25 years 0
months old.

Yields age- or grade-based standard scores percentiles, age or grade equivalents, NCEs, stanines,
and Growth Scale Value (GSV). Q-global report includes score summary, subtest comparisons,
achievement/ability comparisons, error analysis, and instructional intervention.

Scoring: The KTEA-3 can be scored by hand or using the Q-global system.

Name of Test: Diagnostic Achievement Battery - Fourth Edition (DAB-4)

The DAB-4 is a revision of one of the most popular individual achievement tests available. Its 8
subtests identify students’ strengths and weaknesses across important areas of school
achievement. A supplemental manual shows how to probe student responses to obtain
information about students’ thinking processes and problem-solving strategies.

New Features of the DAB-4

● All-new normative data were collected from 2011 to 2013.

● The demographically representative normative sample (n = 1,310) was stratified by
age relative to region, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic factors, and other critical
variables.
● Test items were subjected to differential item analyses to find and eliminate
potentially biased items.
● Subtests were reduced from 14 to 8 in order to streamline administration time and
provide more useful, accurate results.

Subtests of the DAB-4

● Listening Comprehension
● Synonyms
● Alphabet/Phonics/Word Identification
● Reading Comprehension
● Punctuation/Capitalization*
 ● Spelling*
● Mathematics Reasoning
● Mathematics Calculation*

*can be administered individually or in small groups

Scores from these subtests can be combined to form five composites:

● Spoken Language
● Reading
● Writing
● Mathematics
● Total Basic Academic Skills

Standard scores (M=10, SD=3 for the subtests and M=100, SD=15 for the composites),
percentile ranks, and age/grade equivalents are provided.

Reliability and Validity

Internal consistency (content sampling) reliability coefficients for all of the composites range
from .89 to .97. The test-retest (time sampling) coefficient for the Total Basic Academic Skill
composite is .94. Correlations of the DAB-4 composite scores with those of other well-known
academic achievement measures range from .56 to .76. Diagnostic accuracy studies indicate that
the DAB-4 is able to accurately identify students with poor academic achievement and students
with a prior learning disability diagnosis (i.e., median sensitivity = .85, median specificity = .95,
median ROC/AUC = .98). Considerable other validity evidence is provided in the manual.

Uses for the DAB-4

The DAB-4 has four primary uses. It can be used to (1) identify students who are significantly
below their peers in basic academic skills, (2) determine the particular kinds of component
strengths and weaknesses that individual students possess, (3) document students’ progress in
specific areas as a consequence of special intervention programs, and (4) conduct research
studies of academic achievement.

Name of test: Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Fourth Edition (WIAT-IV)

WIAT-4 is an achievement test that can be used in a multitude of settings by a wide range of
professionals. It assesses individual's academic achievement (or ability to apply cognitive skills
and learned knowledge to grade-level expectations) in reading, math, and written and oral
language. It can also be used to support diagnoses of specific learning disabilities, academic
program placement, and Dyslexia screening and evaluation.

Administration: Paper Administration, Digital Administration

Scoring:

3. Visual-Motor Integration Tests

Name of test: Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration - Sixth

Edition
A norm-referenced test used to assess the ability to integrate visual and motor abilities for
persons 2 years and older. It also permits screening for visual-motor deficits that can underlie
learning, behavior, and neuropsychological problems.

Administration: Norm-referenced, clinician-administered; can be administered individually or in

groups in 10-15 minutes
Two Formats: Short Format and Full Format
Includes two supplemental tests: Visual Perception (VP) and Motor Coordination (MC)

Scoring: Standard scores, percentiles, age equivalents

Name of Test: Visual Motor Assessment (ViMo) The ViMo assesses visual-motor impairment
with educational and clinical applications in just 5 to 10 minutes. It consists of six Gestalt
designs that the respondent is asked to reproduce. Based on the degree of rotation and the
number of separations and distortions, results indicate the type of visual-motor impairment and
the likelihood of a learning or behavioral problems, emotional or personality disturbance, brain
damage, or Schizophrenia. With these results, you can determine the type of further testing
required.

ViMo helps to ensure the most accurate results possible - age and IQ controlled

Four-step diagnostic process provided to guide you when using the rotation, separation,
and distortion scores to determine which diagnostic group is most likely related to
various types of impairment
non-verbal format is ideal for use with respondents from different environmental and educational
backgrounds

Name of Test: Bender®-Gestalt II Bender® Visual-Motor Gestalt Test, Second Edition

Lauretta Bender, M.D. The American Orthopsychiatric Association, Inc.

Age Range: 3 and older

Administration Time: 5–10 minutes (14 stimulus cards) 5 minutes (visual, motor tests)

Administration Type: Clinician-administered; patient reproduces Gestalt figures presented on

stimulus cards

Qualification Level C

Description

The Bender-Gestalt II is an update of a classic assessment, the Bender-Gestalt. It continues its

tradition as a brief test of visual-motor integration that may provide interpretive information
about an individual’s development and psychological functioning. The Bender-Gestalt II
assessment is clinician-administered. The patient reproduces Gestalt figures presented on
stimulus cards. This assessment is suitable for individuals three and older.

This test uses new recall procedures to assess visual-motor memory and provide a more
comprehensive assessment of visual-motor skills. The Bender-Gestalt II includes supplemental
tests of simple motor and perceptual ability helps identify specific visual-motor deficits. This test
can also be used to assess neurological damage and emotional disorders.

How to Use the Assessment

The test consists of 14 figures, each on its own 3″x5″ card. The patient is shown each figure and
asked to copy it onto a piece of blank paper. The test typically takes 5–10 minutes, after which
the results are scored based on accuracy and other observations such as physical demeanour,
drawing technique, test-taking behaviour, and attitude.

Scales & Forms

• Visual-Motor Skills

• Visual-Motor Memory
 4. Language test

Name of test: Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals – Fifth Edition (CELF-5)

Designed to assess a student’s language and communication skills in a variety of
contexts, determine the presence of a language disorder, describe the nature of the language
disorder and plan for intervention or treatment. The CELF-5 is a comprehensive and flexible
assessment procedure. The test identifies a student’s language strengths and weaknesses and can
be used to determine eligibility for services, plan “curriculum relevant treatment,” recommend
classroom language adaptations or accommodations and provide performance-based assessment
that corresponds to educational objectives.

Administration: The CELF-5 consists of a number of tests. Each test can be administered as an
independent test and is designed to assess specific language skills.

Scoring: Core Language Score, Receptive Language, Expressive Language, Language Structure
and Language Content standard scores, percentile ranks, growth scale values, and age
equivalents.

Name of Test: (OWLS™-II) Oral and Written Language Scales™, Second Edition

Purpose: Identifies oral and written language problems in individuals ages 3-21 years (Listening
Comprehension and Oral Expression scales) and 5-21 years (Reading Comprehension and Written
Expression scales)
Format: Paper and pencil, Software
Age range: 3 years to 21 years
Time: 10-30 minutes per scale, 45-110 minutes total
Qualification level: Building on the strong theory and research underpinning the original OWLS, the
second edition offers an integrated, global approach to language assessment.

Features and benefits

● The new Reading Comprehension scale measures the receptive aspects of written
language.
 ● Item additions and revisions enhance the Written Expression scale’s validity and scope,
as well as its ability to elicit a variety of responses and assess higher functioning
individuals. Scoring guidelines are now more explicit.
● Features colorful, updated artwork that’s balanced in terms of race, gender, and
physical differences.
● A helpful handbook, Foundations of Language Assessment, explains the theory on
which the OWLS-II is based, making it easier to understand the test and interpret
results.
● All OWLS-II scales were normed on the same sample (N = 2123), which is
representative of U.S. Census statistics.

Test structure

● The Listening Comprehension and Oral Expression scales assess receptive and
expressive language in individuals ages 3-21 years. Basals and ceilings are used to
ensure that examinees are given only items that closely approximate their ability levels.
● Reading Comprehension and Written Expression measure written language abilities
and are designed for individuals ages 5 to 21 years.
● Each scale assesses four linguistic structures: lexical/semantics, syntax, pragmatics, and
supralinguistics.
● Although the four scales can be used separately, using them together produces a
comprehensive score profile that pinpoints language delays, identifies strengths and
weaknesses in all areas, and guides intervention.

Technical information

● All four scales provide age- and grade-based standard scores, test-age equivalents,
percentile ranks, and descriptive labels.
● Scale scores can be combined to produce five Composites: Oral Language, Written
Language, Receptive Processing, Expressive Processing, and Overall Language
Processing.
● The Profile Form gives you a clear, graphic representation of the examinee’s
performance in each area. The form notes the linguistic structure measured by each
item.
● A time-saving scoring program provides raw score to scale score conversions, all
composite scores, graphic score profiles, high-level item analysis, scale score
comparisons, and helpful narrative interpretations.

Reference:
https://iqtestprep.com/wechsler-intelligence-scale-for-children/

https://iqtestprep.com/woodcock-johnson-test/

https://www.txautism.net/evaluations/kaufman-test-of-educational-achievement-third-edition

https://pearsonclinical.in/solutions/beery-buktenica-developmental-test-of-visual-motor-
integration-sixth-edition-the-beery-vmi/

https://www.cognitivecentre.com/assessment/bender-gestalt-ii-bender-visual-motor-gestalt-test-
second-edition/

https://www.parinc.com/Products/Pkey/286

https://edinstruments.com/instruments/wechsler-individual-achievement-test-fourth-edition-wiat-
4-ela