Database Design Using

the E-R Model

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.1 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Design Phases

▪ Initial phase -- characterize fully the data needs of the prospective

database users.
▪ Second phase -- choosing a data model
• Applying the concepts of the chosen data model
• Translating these requirements into a conceptual schema of the
database.
• A fully developed conceptual schema indicates the functional
requirements of the enterprise.
▪ Describe the kinds of operations (or transactions) that will be
performed on the data.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Design Phases (Cont.)

▪ Final Phase -- Moving from an abstract data model to the implementation

of the database
• Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema.
▪ Database design requires that we find a “good” collection of
relation schemas.
▪ Business decision – What attributes should we record in the
database?
▪ Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should we
have and how should the attributes be distributed among the
various relation schemas?
• Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Design Alternatives

▪ In designing a database schema, we must ensure that we

avoid two major pitfalls:
• Redundancy: a bad design may result in repeat
information.
▪ Redundant representation of information may lead to
data inconsistency among the various copies of
information
• Incompleteness: a bad design may make certain aspects of
the enterprise difficult or impossible to model.
▪ Avoiding bad designs is not enough. There may be a large
number of good designs from which we must choose.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Design Approaches

▪ Entity Relationship Model

• Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and
relationships
▪ Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is
distinguishable from other objects
• Described by a set of attributes
▪ Relationship: an association among several entities
• Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship
diagram:
▪ Normalization Theory
• Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outline of the ER Model

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 ER model -- Database Modeling

▪ The ER data mode was developed to facilitate database

design by allowing specification of an enterprise schema that
represents the overall logical structure of a database.
▪ The ER data model employs three basic concepts:
• entity sets,
• relationship sets,
• attributes.
▪ The ER model also has an associated diagrammatic
representation, the ER diagram, which can express the overall
logical structure of a database graphically.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Entity Sets

▪ An entity is an object that exists and is distinguishable from

other objects.
• Example: specific person, company, event, plant
▪ An entity set is a set of entities of the same type that share
the same properties.
• Example: set of all persons, companies, trees, holidays
▪ An entity is represented by a set of attributes; i.e., descriptive
properties possessed by all members of an entity set.
• Example:
instructor = (ID, name, salary )
course= (course_id, title, credits)
▪ A subset of the attributes form a primary key of the entity
set; i.e., uniquely identifying each member of the set.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representing Entity sets in ER Diagram

▪ Entity sets can be represented graphically as follows:

• Rectangles represent entity sets.
• Attributes listed inside entity rectangle
• Underline indicates primary key attributes

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relationship Sets

▪ A relationship is an association among several entities

Example:
44553 (Peltier) advisor 22222 (Einstein)
student entity relationship set instructor entity
▪ A relationship set is a mathematical relation among n  2
entities, each taken from entity sets
{(e1, e2, … en) | e1  E1, e2  E2, …, en  En}

where (e1, e2, …, en) is a relationship

• Example:
(44553,22222)  advisor

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relationship Sets (Cont.)

▪ Example: we define the relationship set advisor to denote

the associations between students and the instructors who
act as their advisors.
▪ Pictorially, we draw a line between related entities.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representing Relationship Sets via ER Diagrams

▪ Diamonds represent relationship sets.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relationship Sets (Cont.)

▪ An attribute can also be associated with a relationship set.

▪ For instance, the advisor relationship set between entity sets
instructor and student may have the attribute date which tracks
when the student started being associated with the advisor

76766 Crick 98988 Tanaka

45565 Katz 3 May 2008 12345 Shankar
10 June 2007
10101 Srinivasan 00128 Zhang
12 June 2006

98345 Kim 6 June 2009 76543 Brown

76543 Singh 30 June 2007
76653 Aoi
31 May 2007
22222 Einstein 23121 Chavez
4 May 2006

instructor 44553 Peltier

student

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relationship Sets with Attributes

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Roles

▪ Entity sets of a relationship need not be distinct

• Each occurrence of an entity set plays a “role” in the
relationship
▪ The labels “course_id” and “prereq_id” are called roles.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Non-binary Relationship Sets

▪ Most relationship sets are binary

▪ There are occasions when it is more convenient to represent
relationships as non-binary.
▪ E-R Diagram with a Ternary Relationship

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Complex Attributes

▪ Attribute types:
• Simple and composite attributes.
• Single-valued and multivalued attributes
▪ Example: multivalued attribute: phone_numbers
• Derived attributes
▪ Can be computed from other attributes
▪ Example: age, given date_of_birth
▪ Domain – the set of permitted values for each attribute

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Composite Attributes

▪ Composite attributes allow us to divide attributes into subparts

(other attributes).

composite name address

attributes

first_name middle_initial last_name street city state postal_code

component
attributes
street_number street_name apartment_number

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representing Complex Attributes in ER Diagram

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Mapping Cardinality Constraints

▪ Express the number of entities to which another entity can be

associated via a relationship set.
▪ Most useful in describing binary relationship sets.
▪ For a binary relationship set the mapping cardinality must be
one of the following types:
• One to one
• One to many
• Many to one
• Many to many

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Mapping Cardinalities

One to one One to many

Note: Some elements in A and B may not be mapped to any

elements in the other set

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Mapping Cardinalities

Many to one Many to many

Note: Some elements in A and B may not be mapped to any

elements in the other set

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representing Cardinality Constraints in ER Diagram
▪ We express cardinality constraints by drawing either a directed
line (→), signifying “one,” or an undirected line (—), signifying
“many,” between the relationship set and the entity set.

▪ One-to-one relationship between an instructor and a student :

• A student is associated with at most one instructor via the
relationship advisor
• A student is associated with at most one department via
stud_dept

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 One-to-Many Relationship

▪ one-to-many relationship between an instructor and a student

• an instructor is associated with several (including 0)
students via advisor
• a student is associated with at most one instructor via
advisor

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Many-to-One Relationships

▪ In a many-to-one relationship between an instructor and a

student,
• an instructor is associated with at most one student via
advisor,
• and a student is associated with several (including 0)
instructors via advisor

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Many-to-Many Relationship

▪ An instructor is associated with several (possibly 0) students via

advisor
▪ A student is associated with several (possibly 0) instructors via
advisor

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Total and Partial Participation

▪ Total participation (indicated by double line): every entity in

the entity set participates in at least one relationship in the
relationship set

participation of student in advisor relation is total

▪ every student must have an associated instructor
▪ Partial participation: some entities may not participate in any
relationship in the relationship set
• Example: participation of instructor in advisor is partial

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 ▪ A line may have an associated minimum and maximum
cardinality, shown in the form l..h, where l is the minimum and
h the maximum cardinality
• A minimum value of 1 indicates total participation.
• A maximum value of 1 indicates that the entity participates
in at most one relationship
• A maximum value of * indicates no limit.
▪ Example

• Instructor can advise 0 or more students. A student must

have 1 advisor; cannot have multiple advisors
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Instructor can advise 0 or more students. A student must have 1
advisor; cannot have multiple advisors

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Instructor can advise 0 or more students. A student must have 1
advisor; cannot have multiple advisors

The relationship advisor is one-to-many from instructor to student,

and further the participation of student in advisor is total, implying
that a student must have an advisor.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 ▪ We allow at most one arrow out of a ternary (or greater degree)
relationship to indicate a cardinality constraint.

▪ For example, an arrow from proj_guide to instructor indicates each

student has at most one guide for a project.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 ▪ If there is more than one arrow, there are two ways of defining the
meaning.
• For example, a ternary relationship R between A, B and C with
arrows to B and C could mean
1. Each A entity is associated with a unique entity from B and C
or
2. Each pair of entities from (A, B) is associated with a unique C
entity, and each pair (A, C) is associated with a unique B
• To avoid confusion we outlaw more than one arrow

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Primary Key

▪ Primary keys provide a way to specify how entities

and relations are distinguished. We will consider:
• Entity sets
• Relationship sets.
• Weak entity sets

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Primary key for Entity Sets

▪ By definition, individual entities are distinct.

▪ From database perspective, the differences among them must be
expressed in terms of their attributes.
▪ The values of the attribute values of an entity must be such that
they can uniquely identify the entity.
• No two entities in an entity set are allowed to have exactly
the same value for all attributes.
▪ A key for an entity is a set of attributes that suffice to distinguish
entities from each other

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Primary Key for Relationship Sets

▪ To distinguish among the various relationships of a relationship set

we use the individual primary keys of the entities in the relationship
set.

▪ Example: relationship set “advisor”.

• The primary key consists of instructor.ID and student.ID

▪ The choice of the primary key for a relationship set depends on

the mapping cardinality of the relationship set.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Choice of Primary key for Binary Relationship
▪ Many-to-Many relationships.
The preceding union of the primary keys is used as the primary key.
Example: for relationship set “advisor”, the primary key consists of
instructor.ID and student.ID

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Choice of Primary key for Binary Relationship
▪ Many-to-Many relationships.
The preceding union of the primary keys is used as the primary key.

▪ One-to-Many relationships .
The primary key of the “Many” side is used as the primary key.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Choice of Primary key for Binary Relationship
▪ Many-to-Many relationships.
The preceding union of the primary keys is used as the primary key.

▪ One-to-Many relationships .
The primary key of the “Many” side is used as the primary key.

▪ Many-to-one relationships.
The primary key of the “Many” side is used as the primary key.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Choice of Primary key for Binary Relationship
▪ Many-to-Many relationships.
The preceding union of the primary keys is used as the primary key.

▪ One-to-Many relationships .
The primary key of the “Many” side is used as the primary key.

▪ Many-to-one relationships.
The primary key of the “Many” side is used as the primary key.

▪ One-to-one relationships.
The primary key of either one of the participating entity sets can be
chosen as the primary key.
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Expressing Weak Entity Sets

▪ In E-R diagrams, a weak entity set is depicted via a double rectangle.

▪ We underline the discriminator of a weak entity set with a dashed line.
▪ The relationship set connecting the weak entity set to the identifying
strong entity set is depicted by a double diamond.
▪ Primary key for section – (course_id, sec_id, semester, year)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Weak Entity Sets

▪ Consider a section entity, which is uniquely identified by a course_id,

semester, year, and sec_id.
▪ Clearly, section entities are related to course entities. Suppose we
create a relationship set sec_course between entity sets section and
course.
▪ Note that the information in sec_course is redundant, since section
already has an attribute course_id, which identifies the course with
which the section is related.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Weak Entity Sets (Cont.)

▪ Do not store the attribute course_id in the section entity and to only
store the remaining attributes section_id, year, and semester.
• However, the entity set section then does not have enough
attributes to identify a particular section entity uniquely

▪ To deal with this problem, we treat the relationship sec_course as a

special relationship that provides extra information, in this case, the
course_id, required to identify section entities uniquely.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Weak Entity Sets (Cont.)

▪ A weak entity set is one whose existence is dependent on another

entity, called its identifying entity

▪ Instead of associating a primary key with a weak entity, we use the

identifying entity, along with extra attributes called discriminator to
uniquely identify a weak entity.

▪ Primary key for section – (course_id, sec_id, semester, year)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.43 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Weak Entity Sets (Cont.)
▪ An entity set that is not a weak entity set is termed a strong entity set.
▪ Every weak entity must be associated with an identifying entity; that is,
the weak entity set is said to be existence dependent on the identifying
entity set.
▪ The identifying entity set is said to own the weak entity set that it
identifies.
▪ The relationship associating the weak entity set with the identifying entity
set is called the identifying relationship.

Strong entity set Identifying relationship Weak entity

Discriminator
existence dependent on
Identifying entity
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition own 6.44 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Redundant Attributes
▪ Suppose we have entity sets:
• student, with attributes: ID, name, tot_cred, dept_name
• department, with attributes: dept_name, building, budget
▪ We model the fact that each student has an associated department using a
relationship set stud_dept
▪ The attribute dept_name in student below replicates information present in
the relationship and is therefore redundant
• and needs to be removed.
▪ BUT: when converting back to tables, in some cases the attribute gets
reintroduced, as we will see later.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.45 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 E-R Diagram for a University Enterprise

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.46 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Reduction to Relation Schemas

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.47 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Reduction to Relation Schemas

▪ Entity sets and relationship sets can be expressed uniformly as

relation schemas that represent the contents of the database.
▪ A database which conforms to an E-R diagram can be represented
by a collection of schemas.
▪ For each entity set and relationship set there is a unique schema
that is assigned the name of the corresponding entity set or
relationship set.
▪ Each schema has a number of columns (generally corresponding
to attributes), which have unique names.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.48 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representing Entity Sets

▪ A strong entity set reduces to a schema with the same attributes

student (ID, name, tot_cred)

▪ A weak entity set becomes a table that includes a column for the
primary key of the identifying strong entity set

section (course_id, sec_id, sem, year)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.49 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representation of Entity Sets with Attributes
▪ Composite attributes are flattened out by creating a
separate attribute for each component attribute
• Example: given entity set instructor with composite
attribute name with component attributes first_name
and last_name the schema corresponding to the
entity set has two attributes name_first_name and
name_last_name
▪ Prefix omitted if there is no ambiguity
(name_first_name could be first_name)

▪ Ignoring multivalued attributes, extended instructor

schema is
• instructor(ID,
first_name, middle_initial, last_name,
street_number, street_name,
apt_number, city, state, zip_code,
date_of_birth)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.50 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representation of Entity Sets with Multivalued Attributes
▪ A multivalued attribute M of an entity E is represented by a separate
schema EM
▪ Schema EM has attributes corresponding to the primary key of E and
an attribute corresponding to multivalued attribute M
▪ Example: Multivalued attribute phone_number of instructor is
represented by a schema:
inst_phone= ( ID, phone_number)
▪ Each value of the multivalued attribute maps to a separate tuple of the
relation on schema EM
• For example, an instructor entity with primary key 22222 and phone
numbers 456-7890 and 123-4567 maps to two tuples:
(22222, 456-7890)
(22222, 123-4567)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.51 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representing Relationship Sets

▪ A many-to-many relationship set is represented as a schema

with attributes for the primary keys of the two participating entity
sets, and any descriptive attributes of the relationship set.
▪ Example: schema for relationship set advisor

Relationship sets: advisor = (s_id, i_id)

Instructor 01 - Student 01 and 02
Student 01 – Instructor 01 and 03

Schema: advisor = (s_id, i_id)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.52 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Redundancy of Schemas
Many-to-one and one-to-many relationship sets that are total on
the many-side can be represented by adding an extra attribute to the
“many” side, containing the primary key of the “one” side

Example: Instead of creating a schema for relationship set inst_dept, add

an attribute dept_name to the schema arising from entity set instructor
Entity sets: instructor (ID, name, salary)
inst_dept (ID, dept_name)
Schema: instructor (ID, name, salary, dept_name)

Instructor 01-Department 01
Department 01 – Instructor 01 and 02

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.53 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Redundancy of Schemas (Cont.)

▪ For one-to-one relationship sets, either side can be chosen to

act as the “many” side
• That is, an extra attribute can be added to either of the tables
corresponding to the two entity sets

▪ If participation is partial on the “many” side, replacing a schema by

an extra attribute in the schema corresponding to the “many” side
could result in null values

Instructor Department
ins_dept

▪ Since some instructor might not be assigned to a department, thus

for the instructor schema, some values under the department
attribute might be null.
Schema: instructor (ID, name, salary, department)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.54 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Redundancy of Schemas (Cont.)

▪ The schema corresponding to a relationship set linking a

weak entity set to its identifying strong entity set is redundant.
▪ Example: The section schema already contains the attributes
that would appear in the sec_course schema

Schema section (course_id, sec_id, semester, year)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.55 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Extended E-R Features

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.56 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Specialization

▪ Top-down design process; we designate sub-groupings within an entity

set that are distinctive from other entities in the set.

▪ Depicted by a triangle component labeled ISA (e.g., instructor “is a”

person).

▪ Attribute inheritance – a lower-level entity set inherits all the attributes

and relationship participation of the higher-level entity set to which it is
linked.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.57 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Specialization Example
▪ Overlapping – employee and student
▪ Disjoint – instructor and secretary

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.58 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Representing Specialization via Schemas
▪ Method 1:
• Form a schema for the higher-level entity
• Form a schema for each lower-level entity set, include primary key of
higher-level entity set and local attributes

• Drawback: getting information about, an employee requires

accessing two relations, the one corresponding to the low-level
schema and the one corresponding to the high-level schema

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.59 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 ▪ Method 2:
• Form a schema for each entity set with all local and
inherited attributes

• Drawback: name, street and city may be stored redundantly

for people who are both students and employees

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.60 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Generalization

▪ A bottom-up design process – combine a number of

entity sets that share the same features into a higher-level
entity set.
▪ Specialization and generalization are simple inversions of
each other; they are represented in an E-R diagram in the
same way.
▪ The terms specialization and generalization are used
interchangeably.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.61 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Completeness constraint

▪ Completeness constraint -- specifies whether or not an entity

in the higher-level entity set must belong to at least one of the
lower-level entity sets within a generalization.

• total: an entity must belong to one of the lower-level entity

sets

• partial: an entity need not belong to one of the lower-level

entity sets

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.62 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Common Mistakes in E-R Diagrams

▪ Example of erroneous E-R diagrams

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.63 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Common Mistakes in E-R Diagrams

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.64 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
▪ In general, any non-binary relationship can be represented using binary
relationships by creating an artificial entity set.
• Replace R between entity sets A, B and C by an entity set E, and three
relationship sets:
1. RA, relating E and A 2. RB, relating E and B
3. RC, relating E and C
• Create an identifying attribute for E and add any attributes of R to E
• For each relationship (ai , bi , ci) in R, create
1. a new entity ei in the entity set E 2. add (ei , ai ) to RA
3. add (ei , bi ) to RB 4. add (ei , ci ) to RC

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.65 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Summary of Symbols Used in
E-R Notation

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.66 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.67 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Alternative ER Notations

▪ Chen, IDEF1X, …

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.68 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Alternative ER Notations

Chen IDEF1X (Crows feet notation)

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.69 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 E-R Diagram for a University Enterprise

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.70 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Schema Diagram for the University
Database
Each relation appears as a box, with the relation name at the top in blue, and the
attributes listed inside the box. Primary key attributes are shown underlined. Foreign
key dependencies appear as arrows from the foreign key attributes of the referencing
relation to the primary key of the referenced relation.

Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.71 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan