TRAINING REPORT ON ESCORT INDIA PVT. LTD.

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the required for the award of the diploma of

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Session:-2008-2011

Submitted by:Name- Sunil Kumar Roll no - 0804117121

Submitted to:Er. Ram Niwas

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING PDM INSTITUTE OF ENGG. & TECH. KARSINDHU, SAFIDON (JIND)

Contents
1. Introduction..1 2. Spur Gear 2 3. Bevel Gear...3 4. Rack & Pinion Gears...4 5. Helical Gear.5 6. Worm Gear..7 7. Gear Tooth Production....8 8. Gear Milling9 9. Gear Planning & Rack Generation.10 10. Gear Shaping..11 11. Gear Hobbing.12 12. Gear cutting Gear Lapping , Gear Finishing...13 13. Gear cutting Gear grinding, tooth grinding, finishing.13 14. Gear Cutting- Internal Gear Cutting ,Rolling, Broaching.14 15. Materials used For Gear15

GEAR

Gears are machine elements used to transmit rotary motion between two shafts, normally with a constant ratio.

Introduction:Gears are machine elements used to transmit rotary motion between two shafts, normally with a constant ratio. The pinion is the smallest gear and the larger gear is called the gear wheel. A rack is a rectangular prism with gear teeth machined along one side- it is in effect a gear wheel with an infinite pitch circle diameter. In practice the action of gears in transmitting motion is a cam action each pair of mating teeth acting as cams. Gear design has evolved to such a level that throughout the motion of each contacting pair of teeth the velocity ratio of the gears is maintained fixed and the velocity ratio is still fixed as each subsequent pair of teeth come into contact. When the teeth action is such that the driving tooth moving at constant angular velocity produces a proportional constant velocity of the driven tooth the action is termed a conjugate action. The teeth shape universally selected for the gear teeth is the involutes profile. Consider one end of a piece of string is fastened to the OD of one cylinder and the other end of the string is fastened to the OD of another cylinder parallel to the first and both cylinders are rotated in the opposite directions to tension the string(see figure below). The point on the string midway between the cylinders P is marked. As the left hand cylinder rotates CCW the point moves towards this cylinder as it wraps on. The point moves away from the right hand cylinder as the string unwraps. The point traces the involutes form of the gear teeth.

Spur Gear

Spur gears are the most common type of gear they have straight teeth and are mounted on parallel shafts. The main reason for the popularity of spur gears is their simplicity in design, easy manufacturer and maintenance. However due to their design spur gears create large stress on the gear teeth. Spur gears are known as slow speed gears. Spur gears are seen as noisy due to their design so if noise is not a problem spur gears can be used at almost any speed. Spur gears are noisy because every time a gear tooth engages a tooth on the other gear, the teeth collide, and this impact makes a noise. Spur gears can be found in applications like washing machines and electric screwdrivers but due to the noise you will never find them in your car. The spur gear is simplest type of gear manufactured and is generally used for transmission of rotary motion between parallel shafts. The spur gear is the first choice option for gears except when high speeds, loads, and ratios direct towards other options. Other gear types may also be preferred to provide more silent low-vibration operation. A single spur gear is generally selected to have a ratio range of between 1:1 and 1:6 with a pitch line velocity up to 25 m/s. The spur gear has an operating efficiency of 98-99%. The pinion is

made from a harder material than the wheel. A gear pair should be selected to have the highest number of teeth consistent with a suitable safety margin in strength and wear. The minimum number of teeth on a gear with a normal pressure angle of 20 degrees is 18.

Bevel Gears

Bevel gears are useful when the direction of a shaft's rotation needs to be changed. They are usually mounted on shafts that are 90 degrees apart, but can be designed to work at other angles as well. A good working example of a bevel gear is the mechanism used in a hand drill. As you turn the handle of the drill in a vertical direction, the bevel gears change the rotation of the chuck to a horizontal rotation. The bevel gear also works to increase the speed of the chuck so that its possible for the drill to work on a range of surfaces. There are four types of bevel gears: Straight Bevel Gears: These gears have a conical pitch surface and straight teeth tapering towards an apex. Zero Bevel Gears: Are very similar to straight bevel gears except the teeth are curved.

Spiral Bevel Gears: The teeth are curved at an angle which then allows the contact to be gradual and smooth. Hypoid Bevel Gears: These gears are similar to spiral bevel except that the pitch surfaces are hyperboloids.

Rack & Pinion Gears

Rack and pinion gears are used to convert rotation into linear motion or linear motion into rotation. The rack is the flat toothed part and the pinion is the gear. The diameter of the gear determines the speed that the rack moves as the pinion turns. A perfect example of a rack and pinion gear system is the steering system on many cars. The driver turns the steering wheel which rotates the gear which then engages the rack so as the gear turns it slides the rack to the right or the left depending on which way the steering wheel is turned.

Helical Gears

Helical gears are so called because the angles of the teeth are inclined to the axis of the shafts in the form of a helix. Helical gears are generally seen and described as high speed gears as they can take higher loads than equally sized spur gears. Also with a helical gear the two teeth start to engage and gradually increase as the gears rotate this gradual movement makes helical gears operate much more smoothly and quietly that spur gears. Its because of this design that helical gears are used in the majority of car transmissions.

Double Helical Gear

Double helical gears, invented by Andr Citron and also known as herringbone gears, overcome the problem of axial thrust presented by 'single' helical gears by having teeth that set in a 'V' shape. Each gear in a double helical gear can be thought of as two standards, but mirror image, helical gears stacked. This cancels out the thrust since each half of the gear thrusts in the opposite direction. They can be directly interchanged with spur gears without any need for different bearings.

Where the oppositely angled teeth meet in the middle of a herringbone gear, the alignment may be such that tooth tip meets tooth tip, or the alignment may be staggered, so that tooth tip meets tooth trough. The latter type of alignment results in what is known as a Wuest type herringbone gear. With the older method of fabrication, herringbone gears had a central channel separating the two oppositely-angled courses of teeth. This was necessary to permit the shaving tool to run out of the groove. The development of the Sykes gear shaper now makes it possible to have continuous teeth, with no central gap. A crown gear or contrate gear is a particular form of bevel gear whose teeth project at right angles to the plane of the wheel; in their orientation the teeth resemble the points on a crown. A crown gear can only mesh accurately with another bevel gear, although crown gears are sometimes seen meshing with spur gears. A crown gear is also sometimes meshed with an escapement such as found in mechanical clocks.

Worm Gears

A worm gear is used when there is a requirement to reduce speed. Its very common to see worm gears with reductions like 20:1 and as high as 300:1 or even greater depending on the situation. A worm gear consists of a cylinder with a spiral groove mounted on a shaft; this is generally referred to as the worm shaft and a gear which is normally referred to as the worm wheel. The gear then meshes with the spiral groove on the cylinder and so when the cylinder rotates it causes the gear to rotate as well. So for each complete turn of the worm shaft the gear shaft advances only one tooth of the gear. So a gear with 20 teeth will see the speed reduced by a factor of 20:1. The worm always drives the worm wheel around it is not reversible so the worm wheel cant drive the worm to increase the speed. If its attempted the system will normally jam or lock.

Gear Tooth Production

Modern gear teeth have an involute profile. These gear teeth are made by the following processes:

Forming the gear teeth by using milling Generating the gear teeth by gear planing or rack Generating the gear teeth by gear shaping Generating the gear teeth by gear hobbing

Gear milling
Milling is a form-cutting process limited to making single gears for prototype or very small batches of gears as it is a very slow and uneconomical method of production. A involute form-milling cutter, which has the the profile of the space between the gears, is used to remove the material between the teeth from the gear blank on a horizontal milling machine. The depth of cut into the gear blank depends on the cutter strength, set-up rigidity and machineability of the gear blank material.

Gear Planing or Rack Generation

This is used for mid volume production. A rack, which may be considered to be a gear of infinite radius, is used as the cutter. It is constructed of hardened steel with cutting edges round the teeth boundaries. The rack which is given a reciprocal lateral motion equal to the pitch line velocity of the gears slowly fed to the slowly rotating gear blank. In this way, the material between the teeth is removed and the involute teeth are generated.

Gear Shaping
The cutter is a circular pinion-shaped cutter with the necessary rake angles to cut as shown. Both the gear blank and cutter are set in a vertical plane and rotated such as that the two are like gears in mesh. Gear shaping is faster than gear planing because the cutting process is continuous and the cutter does not have to be stepped back.

Gear Hobbing
This is the most productive of all the gear production processes. However, it can only be used for producing spur gears and worn gears. It cannot be used to cut internal gears and it cannot work up a shoulder.

The hob is used to generate the involute teeth here. The hob is basically a straight cylindrical tool around which a thread with the same cross section as the rack tooth has been helically wound. This hob is then rotated with the gear blank fed onto the hob according to the depth of cut. The helix pattern of hob as it rotates is the same as that of the rack moving laterally.

Gear Cutting - Gear Lapping, Gear Finishing

Gear lapping is the process of imparting a very fine finish and high degree of accuracy to gear teeth. Lapping typically improves the wear properties of gear teeth. To ensure smooth and quiet running, the Gears and Pinions are lapped after hardening. Lapping is accomplished by running mating pairs together in a gear lapping machine and feeding a liquid abrasive compound under pressure into the gear pair. The compound removes small amounts of metal as the gears rotate, thus refining the tooth surface and achieve desired contact pattern. One of the most common applications for gear lapping many are familiar with is the process of diff lapping. Diff lapping is the lapping of the gear teeth in a vehicles differential to improve gear life and increase strength by removing minor surface imperfections from the tooth profile.

Gear Cutting - Gear Grinding, Gear Tooth Grinding, Gear Finishing

Gear grinding is the process of finish grinding gear teeth, often hardened to give a fine finish and high accuracy. The gear is typically machined with a grinding allowance before being heat treated (usually case hardened). After heat treatment the gear teeth are precision ground to the final dimensions, imparting a fine surface finish and precision sizing. Precision gear grinding is carried out using specialised gear grinding equipment. The process is usually carried out using a CNC gear grinder. Ground gears can be almost any size from small micro-gears right up to large, heavy power transmission gears for the mining or power generation industries.

Gear Cutting - Internal Gear Cutting, Internal Gear

Rolling, Internal Gear Broaching
Internal gears can spur gears or helical gears cut on the inside diameter of a transmission part, or can be a simple spline. Internal gear cutting is the process of machining internal gears and splines. Internal spline cutting is carried out using broaches, indexed slotters, indexed shaping machines, sinker EDM machines, EDM wire cutting, waterjet cutters, CNC spline rolling tools for lathes, CNC lathes with a rotary broach attachment, or using internal CNC hobbing techniques.

Gear Cutting - Worm Gear Machining, Worm Wheel Machining

Worm gears and worm wheels are the system of choice for producing the highest amount of motor speed reduction in a single step. It is common for worm gears to have reductions of 20:1, and even up to 300:1 or greater. A single-lead worm and a 100 tooth wheel, in one easy step, will take a 100 rpm low-torque motor's output and give you 1 rpm with 100 times the torque (roughly). By simply putting two of these gear sets in series, you get a 10,000:1 speed reduction, and the ability to drive, say, an enormous telescope with a ridiculously tiny motor. Many worm gears have an interesting property that no other gear set has: the worm can easily turn the gear, but the gear cannot turn the worm. This is because the angle on the worm is so shallow that when the gear tries to spin it, the friction between the gear and the worm holds the worm in place. Worm gears or worm shafts are much like a large, square thread and can be manufactured easily using a CNC lathe or even a conventional lathe with screw cutting ability. The worm wheel can also be efficiently machined in one setup using a CNC lathe if it has a milling head (CNC lathe/mill combo). Or alternatively a

worm wheel can be machined in a lathe as a blank first and the work wheel gear teech can be milled in a second operation using an indexed milling cutter. Because of the high frictional forces involved with worm gears and worm wheels, it is not uncommon to see the worm gear (or worm shaft) made from steel and the worm wheel made from a low friction material like brass.

Materials used for gears

Mild steel is a poor material for gears as as it has poor resistance to surface loading. The carbon content for unhardened gears is generally 0.4%(min) with 0.55%(min) carbon for the pinions. Dissimilar materials should be used for the meshing gears - this particularly applies to alloy steels. Alloy steels have superior fatigue properties compared to carbon steels for comparable strengths. For extremely high gear loading case hardened steels are used the surface hardening method employed should be such to provide sufficient case depth for the final grinding process used.

Material Ferrous metals

Notes

applications

Low Cost easy to Large moderate power, Cast Iron machine with commercial gears high damping Low cost, Power gears with Cast Steels reasonable medium rating to strength commercial quality Power gears with Good machining, medium rating to Plain-Carbon Steels can be heat commercial/medium treated quality Heat Treatable to Highest power provide highest requirement. For Alloy Steels strength and precision and high durability precision Good corrosion Corrosion resistance Stainless Steels resistance. Non- with low power ratings. (Aust) magnetic Up to precision quality Harden able, Low to medium power Reasonable Stainless Steels ratings Up to high corrosion (Mart) precision levels of resistance, quality magnetic Non-Ferrous metals Light weight, Light duty instrument non-corrosive Aluminum alloys gears up to high and good precision quality machinability Low cost, nonlow cost commercial corrosive, Brass alloys quality gears. Quality excellent up to medium precision machinability Bronze alloys Excellent For use with steel

machinability, low friction and power gears. Quality good up to high precision compatibility with steel Light weight Light weight low load with poor Magnesium alloys gears. Quality up to corrosion medium precision resistance Low coefficient Special gears for of thermal Nickel alloys thermal applications to expansion. Poor commercial quality machinability High strength, Special light weight for low weight, Titanium alloys high strength gears to good corrosion medium precision resistance Low cost with High production, low Di-cast alloys low precision quality gears to and strength commercial quality Low cost, low High production, low Sintered powder quality, moderate quality to moderate alloys strength commercial quality Non metals Wear resistant, Long life , low load Acetal (Delrin low water bearings to commercial absorption quality Low cost, low High production, low Phenolic laminates quality, moderate quality to moderate strength commercial quality No lubrication, Long life at low loads Nylons no lubricant, to commercial quality absorbs water Special low friction Low friction and PTFE gears to commercial no lubrication quality

Gear Nomenclature

Inside cylinder

Diameters, Internal Gear

The inside cylinder is the surface that coincides with the tops of the teeth of an internal cylindrical gear. Inside diameter

Internal gear diameters Inside diameter is the diameter of the addendum circle of an internal gear. Involute gear Involute polar angle

Involute polar angle Expressed as , the involute polar angle is the angle between a radius vector to a point, P, on an involute curve and a radial line to the intersection, A, of the curve with the base circle.

Involute roll angle

Involute roll angle Expressed as , the involute roll angle is the angle whose arc on the base circle of radius unity equals the tangent of the pressure angle at a selected point on the involute. Involute teeth

Involute teeth Involute teeth of spur gears, helical gears, and worms are those in which the profile in a transverse plane (exclusive of the fillet curve) is the involute of a circle. Lands

Top and bottom lands

Bottom land

The bottom land is the surface at the bottom of a gear tooth space adjoining the fillet.
Top land

Top land is the (sometimes flat) surface of the top of a gear tooth. Lead
Main article:

Line of centers The line of centers connects the centers of the pitch circles of two engaging gears; it is also the common perpendicular of the axes in crossed helical gears and wormgears. When one of the gears is a rack, the line of centers is perpendicular to its pitch line.[1]

Mounting distance

Mounting distance Mounting distance, for assembling bevel gears or hypoid gears, is the distance from the crossing point of the axes to a locating surface of a gear, which may be at either back or front

Normal module
Normal module is the value of the module in a normal plane of a helical gear or worm. mn = mtcos

Normal plane

Planes at a pitch point on a helical tooth A normal plane is normal to a tooth surface at a pitch point, and perpendicular to the pitch plane. In a helical rack, a normal plane is normal to all the teeth it intersects. In a helical gear, however, a plane can be normal to only one tooth at a point lying in the plane surface. At such a point, the normal plane contains the line normal to the tooth surface. Important positions of a normal plane in tooth measurement and tool design of helical teeth and worm threads are: 1. the plane normal to the pitch helix at side of tooth; 2. the plane normal to the pitch helix at center of tooth; 3. the plane normal to the pitch helix at center of space between two teeth In a spiral bevel gear, one of the positions of a normal plane is at a mean point and the plane is normal to the tooth trace.

Offset

Offset

Offset is the perpendicular distance between the axes of hypoid gears or offset face gears In the diagram to the right, (a) and (b) are referred to as having an offset below center, while those in (c) and (d) have an offset above center. In determining the direction of offset, it is customary to look at the gear with the pinion at the right. For below center offset the pinion has a left hand spiral, and for above center offset the pinion has a right hand spiral.

Outside cylinder

Cylindrical surfaces The outside (tip or addendum) cylinder is the surface that coincides with the tops of the teeth of an external cylindrical gear. Outside diameter

Wormgear diameters The outside diameter of a gear is the diameter of the addendum (tip) circle. In a bevel gear it is the diameter of the crown circle. In a throated wormgear it is the maximum diameter of the blank. The term applies to external gears

Conical surfaces

Pinion
Main article: Pinion

Pitch angle

Angle relationships

Angles

Pitch angle in bevel gears, is the angle between an element of a pitch cone and its axis. In external and internal bevel gears, the pitch angles are respectively less than and greater than 90 degrees.

Pitch circle
A pitch circle (operating) is the curve of intersection of a pitch surface of revolution and a plane of rotation. It is the imaginary circle that rolls without slipping with a pitch circle of a mating gear

Pitch cone

Pitch cones A pitch cone is the imaginary cone in a bevel gear that rolls without slipping on a pitch surface of another gear.

Pitch cylinder

Pitch cylinder A pitch cylinder is the imaginary cylinder in a spur or helical gear that rolls without slipping on a pitch plane or pitch cylinder of another gear.

Pitch helix

Tooth helix The pitch helix is the intersection of the tooth surface and the pitch cylinder of a helical gear or cylindrical worm.

Base helix
The base helix of a helical, involute gear or involute worm lies on its base cylinder.

Base helix angle

Base helix angle is the helix angle on the base cylinder of involute helical teeth or threads.

Base lead angle

Base lead angle is the lead angle on the base cylinder. It is the complement of the base helix angle.

Outside helix
The outside (tip or addendum) helix is the intersection of the tooth surface and the outside cylinder of a helical gear or cylindrical worm.

Outside helix angle

Normal helix Outside helix angle is the helix angle on the outside cylinder.

Outside lead angle

Outside lead angle is the lead angle on the outside cylinder. It is the complement of the outside helix angle.

Normal helix
A normal helix is a helix on the pitch cylinder, normal to the pitch helix.

Pitch line
The pitch line corresponds, in the cross section of a rack, to the pitch circle (operating) in the cross section of a gear.[1]

Pitch point
The pitch point is the point of tangency of two pitch circles (or of a pitch circle and pitch line) and is on the line of centers.[

Pitch surfaces

Pitch surfaces Pitch surfaces are the imaginary planes, cylinders, or cones that roll together without slipping. For a constant velocity ratio, the pitch cylinders and pitch cones are circular

Pitch cones

Planes Axial plane

This section has no content. You can help Wikipedia by introducing information to it. (January 2009)

Pitch plane

Pitch planes The pitch plane of a pair of gears is the plane perpendicular to the axial plane and tangent to the pitch surfaces. A pitch plane in an individual gear may be any plane tangent to its pitch surface. The pitch plane of a rack or in a crown gear is the imaginary planar surface that rolls without slipping with a pitch cylinder or pitch cone of another gear. The pitch plane of a rack or crown gear is also the pitch surface.[1]

Transverse plane
The transverse plane is perpendicular to the axial plane and to the pitch plane. In gears with parallel axes, the transverse and the plane of rotation coincide.[1]

Principal directions

Principal directions Principal directions are directions in the pitch plane, and correspond to the principal cross sections of a tooth. The axial direction is a direction parallel to an axis.

The transverse direction is a direction within a transverse plane. The normal direction is a direction within a normal plane

Profile angle
Main article: Profile angle

Profile radius of curvature

Fillet radius Profile radius of curvature is the radius of curvature of a tooth profile, usually at the pitch point or a point of contact. It varies continuously along the involute profile.[1]

Rack and pinion

Main article: Rack and pinion

Radial composite deviation

Total composite variation trace Tooth-to-tooth radial composite deviation (double flank) is the greatest change in center distance while the gear being tested is rotated through any angle of 360 degree/z during double flank composite action test. Tooth-to-tooth radial composite tolerance (double flank) is the permissible amount of tooth-to-tooth radial composite deviation.

Total radial composite deviation (double flank) is the total change in center distance while the gear being tested is rotated one complete revolution during a double flank composite action test. Total radial composite tolerance (double flank) is the permissible amount of total radial composite deviation.[

Root angle
Root angle in a bevel or hypoid gear, is the angle between an element of the root cone and its axis.

Root circle

Internal gear diameters The root circle coincides with the bottoms of the tooth spaces.

Root cone

Principal dimensions

The root cone is the imaginary surface that coincides with the bottoms of the tooth spaces in a bevel or hypoid gear.

Root cylinder
The root cylinder is the imaginary surface that coincides with the bottoms of the tooth spaces in a cylindrical gear.

Shaft angle

Shaft angle A shaft angle is the angle between the axes of two non-parallel gear shafts. In a pair of crossed helical gears, the shaft angle lies between the oppositely rotating portions of two shafts. This applies also in the case of worm gearing. In bevel gears, the shaft angle is the sum of the two pitch angles. In hypoid gears, the shaft angle is given when starting a design, and it does not have a fixed relation to the pitch angles and spiral angles.