2.

8 Electronic Devices and Circuits

When a diode is reverse-biased by at least 0.1 V, the diode current is IR = – Io. As the current is in the reverse
direction and is a constant, it is called the diode reverse saturation current. Real diodes exhibit reverse-bias
current that are considerably larger than Io. This additional current is called a generation current which is due
to electrons and holes being generated within the space-charge region. A typical value o I0 may be 10 – 14 A
and a typical value o reverse-bias current may be 10 – 9 A.

2.2.5 PN Junction Diode a a Rectier

A PN junction diode is a two-terminal device that is polarity sensitive. When the diode is orward biased, the
diode conducts and allows current to fow through it without any resistance, i.e., the diode is ON. When the
diode is reverse biased, the diode does not conduct and no current fows through it, i.e., the diode is OFF, or
providing a blocking unction. Thus, an ideal diode acts as a switch, either open or closed, depending upon
the polarity o the voltage placed across it. The ideal diode has zero resistance under orward bias and innite
resistance under reverse bias.

2.2.6 Diode Ratin or Liitin Value of PN Junction Diode

The PN junction diode will perorm satisactorily only i it is operated within certain limiting values. They
are the ollowing:
 Maimum Forward Current It is the highest instantaneous current under orward-bias condition that
can fow through the junction.
 Peak Inverse Votage (PIV) It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the PN junction.
I the voltage across the junction exceeds PIV under reverse-bias condition, the junction gets damaged.
 Maimum Power Rating It is the maximum power that can be dissipated at the junction without
damaging the junction. Power dissipation is the product o voltage across the junction and current through
the junction.
 Maimum Average Forward Current It is given at a special temperature, usually 25°C, (77°F) and
reers to the maximum amount o average current that can be permitted to fow in the orward direction. I
this rating exceeds its limit then the structure breakdown can occur.
 Repetitive Peak Forward Current It is the maximum peak current that can be permitted to fow in
the orward direction in the orm o recurring pulses. The limiting value o this current is 450 mA.
 Maimum Surge Current It is the maximum current permitted to fow in the orward direction in the
orm o non-recurring pulses. The current should not equal this value or more than a ew milliseconds.
The above diode ratings are subject to change with temperature variations. I the operating temperature is
more than that stated or the rating then the ratings must be decreased.

2.3 CURRNT COmpONNTs IN PN JUNCTION DIOD

Let us now derive the expression or the total current as a unction o applied voltage assuming that the width o
the depletion region is zero. When a orward bias is applied to a diode, holes are injected rom the P-side into
the N-side. Due to this, the concentration o holes in the N-side (pn) is increased rom its thermal equilibrium
value (pn0) and injected hole concentration [Pn(x)] decreases exponentially with respect to the distance (x).
 Junction Diode Characteristics and Special Semiconductor Devices 2.11

2.4 DIOD qUATION

The diode-current equation relating the voltage V and current I is given by
I = I o [e(V /hVT ) - 1]
where I = diode current
Io = diode reverse saturation current at room temperature
V = external voltage applied to the diode
h = a constant, 1 or germanium and 2 or silicon
Now, VT = kT/q = T/11600, volt-equivalent o temperature, i.e., thermal voltage,
where k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38 × 10–23 J/K)
q = charge o the electron (1.602 × 10–19 C)
T = temperature o the diode junction (K) = (°C + 273)
At room temperature (T = 300 K), VT = 26 mV. Substituting this value in the current equation, we get
I = Io[e(40 V/h) – 1]
Thereore, or a germanium diode, I = Io [e40V – 1], since h = 1 or germanium. For a silicon diode, I = Io[e20V – 1],
since h = 2 or silicon.
I the value o applied voltage is greater than unity then the equation o diode current or germanium,
I = Io (e40V)
and or silicon, I = Io (e20V)
When the diode is reverse biased, its current equation may be obtained by changing the sign o the applied
voltage V. Thus, the diode current with reverse bias is
I = I o [e( -V /h VT ) - 1]

I V >> VT then the term e( -V /h VT ) << 1 ; thereore, I ª – Io, termed as reverse saturation current, which is valid
as long as the external voltage is below the breakdown value.

ExAMPlE 2.1
When a reverse bias is applied to a germanium PN junction diode, the reverse saturation current at room
temperature is 0.3 mA. Determine the current fowing in the diode when 0.15 V orward bias is applied at
room temperature.
Soution Given Io = 0.3 × 10–6 A and VF = 0.15 V
The current fowing through the PN diode under orward bias is
I = I o (e40 VF - 1)
= 0.3 × 10–6 (e40 × 0.15 – 1)
= 120.73 mA
2.12 Electronic Devices and Circuits

ExAMPlE 2.2
The reverse saturation current o a silicon PN junction diode is 10 mA. Calculate the diode current or the
orward-bias voltage o 0.6 V at 25 °C.
Soution Given VF = 0.6 V, T = 273 + 25 = 298 K
Io = 10 mA = 1 × 10–5 A and h = 2 or silicon
The volt-equivalent o the temperature (T ) is
T 298
VT = = = 25.7 ¥ 10 -3 V
11,600 11,600
Thereore, the diode current,
Ê VF -1 ˆ
I = I o Ë e hVT ¯

Ê 0.6 ˆ
Á
= 10 Ë e -5
2 ¥ 25.7 ¥ 10 -3
- 1˜¯ = 1.174 A

ExAMPlE 2.3
The diode current is 0.6 mA when the applied voltage is 400 mV, and 20 mA when the applied voltage is
kT
500 mV. Determine h. Assume = 25 mV.
q
Soution
Ê qV ˆ
The diode current, I = I o ÁË e hkT - 1˜¯

Ê qV ˆ qV
Thereore, –3 Á
0.6 × 10 = I o Ë e h kT ˜
- 1¯ = I o e kT
h

400 16
25h
= Io ◊ e = Io ◊ e h
(1)
500 20
Also, 20 × 10–3 = I o ◊ e 25h = I o ◊ e h (2)

Dividing Eq. (2) by Eq. (1), we get

20
20 ¥ 10 -3 Io ◊ e h
=
0.6 ¥ 10 -3 16
Io ◊ e h

4
100
Thereore, = eh
3
2.30 Electronic Devices and Circuits

Zener Breakdown
When the P- and N-regions are heavily doped, direct rupture o covalent bonds takes place because o the
strong electric elds, at the junction o the PN diode. The new electron-hole pairs so created increase the
reverse current in a reverse-biased PN diode. The increase in current takes place at a constant value o
reverse bias typically below 6 V or heavily doped diodes. As a result o heavy doping o P- and N-regions,
the depletion-region width becomes very small and or an applied voltage o 6 V or less, the eld across the
depletion region becomes very high, o the order o 107 V/m, making conditions suitable or Zener breakdown.
For lightly doped diodes, Zener breakdown voltage becomes high and breakdown is then predominantly
by avalanche multiplication. Though Zener breakdown occurs or lower breakdown voltage and avalanche
breakdown occurs or higher breakdown voltage, such diodes are normally called Zener diodes.

2.11 ZNR DIOD AppLICATIONs

From the Zener characteristics shown in Fig. 2.15, under the reverse-bias condition, the voltage across the
diode remains almost constant although the current through the diode increases as shown in region AB. Thus,
the voltage across the Zener diode serves as a reerence
R IL
voltage. Hence, the diode can be used as a voltage +
regulator. IZ

In Fig. 2.16, it is required to provide constant voltage Vin VZ RL Vo

across load resistance RL, whereas the input voltage (a)
may be varying over a range. As shown, Zener diode is –
reverse biased and as long as the input voltage does not (b)
all below VZ (Zener breakdown voltage), the voltage
across the diode will be constant and hence the load Fig. 2.16 zener diode: (a) Circuit symbol
voltage will also be constant. (b) As a voltage regulator

2.12 TUNNL DIOD

The tunnel diode, or Esaki diode, is a thin-junction diode which exhibits negative resistance under low
orward-bias conditions.
An ordinary PN junction diode has an impurity concentration o about 1 part in 108. With this amount o
doping, the width o the depletion layer is o the order o 5 microns. This potential barrier restrains the fow
o carriers rom the majority carrier side to the minority carrier side. I the concentration o impurity atoms
is greatly increased to the level o 1 part in 103, the device characteristics are completely changed. The width
o the junction barrier varies inversely as the square root o the impurity concentration and, thereore, is
reduced rom 5 microns to less than 100 Å (10–8 m). This thickness is only about 1/50th o the wavelength o
visible light. For such thin potential-energy barriers, the electrons will penetrate through the junction rather
than surmounting them. This quantum mechanical behavior is reerred to as tunneling and hence, these high-
impurity-density PN junction devices are called tunnel diodes.
The V–I characteristic or a typical germanium tunnel diode is shown in Fig. 2.17. It is seen that at rst
orward current rises sharply as applied voltage is increased, where it would have risen slowly or an ordinary
PN junction diode (which is shown as dashed line or comparison). Also, reverse current is much larger or
comparable back bias than in other diodes due to the thinness o the junction. The interesting portion o the
characteristic starts at the point A on the curve, i.e., the peak voltage. As the orward bias is increased beyond
 chapter
3
Rectifers and Filters

3.1 II
All electronic circuits need dc power supply either rom battery or power-pack units. Transormers, rectiers
and lters orm the basic building blocks o a linear power supply. A transormer supplies ac voltage at the
required level. This bidirectional ac voltage is converted into a unidirectional pulsating dc using a rectier.
The unwanted ripple contents o this pulsating dc are removed by a lter to get pure dc voltage. The output o
the lter is ed to a regulator which gives a steady dc output independent o load variations and input supply
fuctuations. This chapter mainly discusses the operation and characteristics o dierent types o rectiers
and lters.

3.2 II
Rectier is dened as an electronic circuit used or converting ac voltage into unidirectional voltage. A
rectier utilizes unidirectional conduction device like a vacuum diode or PN junction diode. Rectiers are
classied depending upon the period o conduction as hal-wave rectier and ull-wave rectier.

3.2.1 H-we ectifer

It converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using only one hal o the applied ac voltage. The rectiying
diode conducts only during one hal o the ac cycle. Figure 3.1 shows the basic circuit and waveorms o a
hal-wave rectier (HWR).
Let vi be the voltage applied to the primary o the transormer and given by the equation
vi = Vm sin w t; Vm >> Vg
where Vg is the cut-in voltage o the diode. During the positive hal cycle o the input signal, the anode o the
diode becomes more positive with respect to the cathode and hence, the diode D conducts. For an ideal diode,
the orward voltage drop is zero. So, the whole input voltage will appear across the load resistance, RL.
During negative hal cycle o the input signal, the anode o the diode becomes negative with respect to the
cathode and hence, diode D does not conduct. For an ideal diode, the impedance oered by the diode is
innity. So the whole input voltage appears across diode D. Hence, the voltage drop across RL is zero.
 3.2 Electronic Devices and Circuits

Fig. 3.1 (a) Basic structure o a hal-wave rectifer (b) Input output waveorms o hal-wave rectifer

Ripple Factor ( G ) The ratio o rms value o ac component to the dc component in the output is known
as ripple actor ( G ).
rms value o ac component Vr , rms
G= =
dc value o component Vdc
2
where Vr, rms = Vrms - Vdc2 .
2
Ê Vrms ˆ
Thereore, G= ÁË V ˜¯ - 1
dc

The rms value o a continuous-time periodic waveorm is the square root o the ratio o the square o that
waveorm unction to the time period T, as given by

Square o the area under the curve or one cycle

Vrms =
Time period

1 T
Ú0 [ x(t )]
= 2
dt
T
The average or the dc content o the voltage across the load is given by
1 Èp 2p ˘
Vav = Vdc = Í Ú Vm sin w td (w t ) + Ú 0.d (w t )˙
2p ÍÎ 0 p ˙˚
Vm V
= [ - cos w t ] p0 = m
2p p
Vdc V I
Thereore, Idc = = m = m
RL p RL p
 Rectifiers and Filters 3.3

I the values o diode orward resistance (r ) and the transormer secondary winding resistance (rs) are also
taken into account, then
V
Vdc = m - I dc (rs + r )
p
Vdc Vm
Idc = =
(rs + r ) + RL p (rs + r + RL )
The rms voltage at the load resistance can be calculated as
1
È 1 p 2 ˘2
Ú
Vrms = Í 2
Vm sin w td (w t ) ˙
ÍÎ 2p 0 ˙˚
1
È 1 p ˘2 V
= Vm Í Ú (1 - cos 2 w t ) dw t ˙ = m
ÎÍ 4p 0 ˚˙ 2

2 2
È Vm /2 ˘ Êpˆ
Thereore, G= Í V /p ˙ - 1 = ÁË 2 ˜¯ - 1 = 1.21
Î m ˚
From this expression, it is clear that the amount o ac present in the output is 121% o the dc voltage. So the
hal-wave rectier is not practically useul in converting ac into dc.

Efciency (h) The ratio o dc output power to ac input power is known as rectier eciency (h).
dc output power Pdc
h= =
ac input power Pac
2
(Vdc )2 Ê Vm ˆ
RL ÁË ˜¯ 4
p
= = = = 0.406 = 40.6%
(Vrms )2 Ê Vm ˆ
2
p2
RL ÁË ˜¯
2
The maximum eciency o a hal-wave rectier is 40.6%.

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) It is dened as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand
without destroying the junction. The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak o the negative hal
cycle. For hal-wave rectier, PIV is Vm.

Transormer Utilization Factor (TUF) In the design o any power supply, the rating o the transormer
should be determined. This can be done with a knowledge o the dc power delivered to the load and the type
o rectiying circuit used.
dc power delivered to the load
TUF =
ac rating o the transormer secondary
Pdc
=
Pac rated
 3.4 Electronic Devices and Circuits

In the hal-wave rectiying circuit, the rated voltage o the transormer secondary is Vm / 2 , but the actual
I
rms current fowing through the winding is only m , not I m / 2 .
2

I m2 Vm2 1
RL
2 p 2 RL 2 2
TUF = p = = 2 = 0.287
Vm I m Vm Vm p
¥
2 2 2 2 RL
The TUF or a hal-wave rectier is 0.287.
 For Fctor
rms value V /2 p
Form actor = = m = = 1.57
average value Vm /p 2

 Pek Fctor
peak value V
Peak actor = = m =2
rms value Vm /2

ExamPE 3.1
A hal-wave rectier, having a resistive load o 1000 W, recties an alternating voltage o 325 V peak value
and the diode has a orward resistance o 100 W. Calculate (a) peak, average and rms values o current (b) dc
power output (c) ac input power and (d) eciency o the rectier.
Solution
Vm 325
(a) alue o current, Im = = = 295.45 mA
r + RL 100 + 1000
I m 295.45
Average current, Idc = = mA = 94.046 mA
p p
I m 295.45
RMS value o current, Irms = = = 147.725 mA
2 2
(b) The dc power output, Pdc = I2dc × RL
= (94.046 × 10 – 3)2 × 1000 = 8.845 W
(c) The ac input power, Pac = (Irms)2 × (r + RL)
= (147.725 × 10 – 3)2 (1100) = 24 W
P 8.845
(d) Eciency o rectication, h = dc = = 36.85% .
Pac 24

ExamPE 3.2
A hal-wave rectier is used to supply 24 V dc to a resistive load o 500 W and the diode has a orward
resistance o 50 W. Calculate the maximum value o the ac voltage required at the input.
 Rectifiers and Filters 3.5

Solution Average value o load current,

V 24
Idc = dc = = 48 mA
RL 500
Maximum value o load current, Im = p × Idc = p × 48 mA = 150.8 mA
Thereore, maximum ac voltage required at the input,
Vm = Im × (r + RL) = 150.8 × 10 – 3 × 550 = 82.94 V

ExamPE 3.3
An ac supply o 230 V is applied to a hal-wave rectier circuit through transormer o turns ratio 5:1. Assume
the diode is an ideal one. The load resistance is 300 W. Find (a) dc output voltage, (b) PIV, (c) maximum, and
(d) average values o power delivered to the load.
Solution
230
(a) The transormer secondary voltage = = 46 V
5
Maximum value o secondary voltage, Vm = 2 ¥ 46 = 65 V
Vm 65
Thereore, dc output voltage, Vdc = = = 20.7 V
p p
(b) PIV o a diode Vm = 65 V
Vm 65
(c) Maximum value o load current, Im = = = 0.217 A
RL 300
Thereore, maximum value o power delivered to the load,
Pm = I2m × RL = (0.217)2 × 300 = 14.1 W

Vdc 20.7
(d) The average value o load current, Idc = = = 0.069 A
RL 300

Thereore, average value o power delivered to the load,

Pdc = I2dc × RL = (0.069)2 × 300 = 1.43 W

ExamPE 3.4
An HWR has a load o 3.5 kW. I the diode resistance and secondary coil resistance together have a resistance
o 800 W and the input voltage has a signal voltage o peak value 240 V. Calculate
(a) peak, average and rms values o current fowing
(b) dc power output
(c) ac power input
(d) eciency o the rectier
Solution Load resistance in an HWR, RL = 3.5 kW
Diode resistance and secondary coil resistance, r + rs = 800 W
Peak value o input voltage = 240 V
 chapter
4
Transistor Characteristics
(BJT and FET)

4.1 II
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three terminal semiconductor device in which the operation depends
on the interaction o both majority and minority carriers and hence the name bipolar. The BJT is analogous
to a vacuum triode and is comparatively smaller in size. It is used in amplier and oscillator circuits, and as
a switch in digital circuits. It has wide applications in computers, satellites and other modern communication
systems.
The quiescent operating point o a transistor amplier should be established in the active region o its
characteristics. Since the transistor parameters such as b, ICO and VBE are unctions o temperature, the
operating point shits with changes in temperature. The stability o dierent methods o biasing transistor
circuits and compensation techniques or stabilizing the operating point are discussed in this chapter.

4.2 BI JI I

4.2.1 onstruction
The BJT consists o a silicon (or germanium) crystal in which a thin layer o N-type silicon is sandwiched
between two layers o P-type silicon. This transistor is reerred to as PNP. Alternatively, in an NPN transistor,
a layer o P-type material is sandwiched between two layers o N-type material. The two types o the BJT are
represented in Fig. 4.1.
The symbolic representation o the two
types o the BJT is shown in Fig. 4.2.
The three portions o the transistor are
emitter, base, and collector, shown as E,
B, and C, respectively. The arrow on the
emitter species the direction o current
Fig. 4.1 Transistor: (a) NPN (b) PNP
fow when the EB junction is orward
biased.
The emitter is heavily doped so that it can inject a large number o charge carriers into the base. The base is
lightly doped and very thin. It passes most o the injected charge carriers rom the emitter into the collector.
The collector is moderately doped.
 4.2 Electronic Devices and Circuits

E C
E C

B B

(a) (b)

Fig. 4.2 Circuit symbol: (a) NPN transistor (b) PNP transistor

4.2.2 ransistor Biasing

As shown in Fig. 4.3, usually the emitter-base junction is orward biased (F.B.) and the collector-base junction
is reverse biased (R.B.). Due to the orward bias on the emitter-base junction, an emitter current fows through
the base into the collector. Though the collector-base junction is reverse biased, almost the entire emitter
current fows through the collector circuit.

Fig. 4.3 Transistor biasing: (a) NPN transistor (b) PNP transistor

4.2.3 pration o an  ransistor

As shown in Fig. 4.4, the orward bias applied
to the emitter base junction o an NPN transistor
causes a lot o electrons rom the emitter region to
cross over to the base region. As the base is lightly
doped with P-type impurity, the number o holes
in the base region is very small and, hence, the
number o electrons that combine with holes in
the P-type base region is also very small. Hence,
a ew electrons recombine with holes to constitute
a base current IB. The remaining electrons (more
than 95%) cross over into the collector region to
constitute a collector current IC. Thus, the base
and collector current summed up gives the emitter Fig. 4.4 Current in an NPN transistor
current, i.e., IE = – (IC + IB).
 Transistor Characteristics (BJT and FET) 4.7

4.4 I FIGI (e, B   heII)

When a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, one terminal is used as an input terminal, the other terminal
is used as an output terminal, and the third terminal is common to the input and output. Depending upon
the input, output, and common terminals, a transistor can be connected in three congurations. They are
(i) Common Base (CB) conguration, (ii) Common Emitter (CE) conguration, and (iii) Common Collector
(CC) conguration.
 CB Confguration This is also called grounded-base conguration. In this conguration, the emitter
is the input terminal, the collector is the output terminal, and the base is the common terminal.
 CE Confguration This is also called grounded-emitter conguration. In this conguration, the base
is the input terminal, the collector is the output terminal, and the emitter is the common terminal.
 CC Confguration This is also called grounded-collector conguration. In this conguration, the
base is the input terminal, the emitter is the output terminal, and the collector is the common terminal.
The supply voltage connections or normal operation o an NPN transistor in the three congurations are
shown in Fig. 4.6.

IC IE

IE E C IC E
C + –
IB B IB
– B +
E – B
+ C
+ + +
– –
IE IB –
IC

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.6 Transistor conguration: (a) Common emitter (b) Common base (c) Common collector

4.4.1 B onfguration
The circuit diagram or determining the static characteristics curves o an NPN transistor in the common-base
conguration is shown in Fig. 4.7.

IE IC

E C IC – +
– A A
+
– B +
– +
VEE V VEB VCB V V
+ IB – – cc
+

Fig. 4.7 Circuit to determine CB static characteristics

 4.8 Electronic Devices and Circuits

Input Characteristics To determine the input characteristics, the collector-base voltage VCB is kept
constant at zero volt and the emitter current IE is increased rom zero in suitable equal steps by increasing
VEB. This is repeated or higher xed values o VCB. IE (mA)
A curve is drawn between emitter current IE and VCB > 1 V VCB = 0 V
emitter-base voltage VEB at constant collector-base 3.5
voltage VCB. The input characteristics thus obtained 3
are shown in Fig. 4.8.
2.5
When VCB is equal to zero and the emitter-
base junction is orward biased as shown in the 2
characteristics, the junction behaves as a orward- 1.5
biased diode so that emitter current IE increases
rapidly with small increase in emitter-base voltage 1
VEB. When VCB is increased keeping VEB constant, 0.5
the width o the base region will decrease. This
eect results in an increase o IE. Thereore, the
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 VEB (V)
curves shit towards the let as VCB is increased.
Fig. 4.8 CB input characteristics
Output Characteristics To determine the
output characteristics, the emitter current IE is kept
constant at a suitable value by adjusting the emitter-base voltage VEB. Then VCB is increased in suitable equal
steps and the collector current IC is noted or each value o IE. This is repeated or dierent xed values o
IE. Now the curves o IC versus VCB are plotted or constant values o IE and the output characteristics thus
obtained is shown in Fig. 4.9.

IC (mA)
Saturation Active region
region
IE = 50 mA
–50

–40 40 mA

–30 30 mA

–20 20 mA
10 mA
–10
0 mA
VCB (V )
–0.25 0 1 2 3 4 5
Cut off region

Fig. 4.9 CB output characteristics

From the characteristics, it is seen that or a constant value o IE, IC is independent o VCB and the curves are
parallel to the axis o VCB. Further, IC fows even when VCB is equal to zero. As the emitter-base junction is
orward biased, the majority carriers, i.e., electrons, rom the emitter are injected into the base region. Due
to the action o the internal potential barrier at the reverse-biased collector-base junction, they fow to the
collector region and give rise to IC even when VCB is equal to zero.
 Transistor Characteristics (BJT and FET) 4.9

Early Effect or Base Width Modulation As the collector voltage VCC is made to increase the reverse
bias, the space charge width between collector and base tends to increase, with the result that the eective
width o the base decreases. This dependency o base width on collector-to-base voltage is known as the
Early effect. This decrease in eective base width has three consequences:
(i) There is less chance or recombination within the base region. Hence, a increases with increasing
|VCB|.
(ii) The charge gradient is increased within the base, and consequently, the current o minority carriers
injected across the emitter junction increases.
(iii) For extremely large voltages, the eective base width may be reduced to zero, causing voltage
breakdown in the transistor. This phenomenon is called the punch-through.
For higher values o VCB, due to Early eect, the value o a increases. For example, a changes, say rom 0.98
to 0.985. Hence, there is a very small positive slope in the CB output characteristics and, hence, the output
resistance is not zero.

Transistor Parameters
The slope o the CB characteristics will give the ollowing our transistor parameters. Since these parameters
have dierent dimensions, they are commonly known as common-base hybrid parameters or h-parameters.
 Input Impedance (hib ) It is dened as the ratio o the change in (input) emitter voltage to the change
in (input) emitter current with the (output) collector voltage VCB kept constant. Thereore,
DVEB
hib = , VCB constant (4.19)
DI E
It is the slope o CB input characteristics IE versus VEB as shown in Fig. 4.8. The typical value o hib ranges
rom 20 W to 50 W.
 Output Admittance (hob ) It is dened as the ratio o change in the (output) collector current to
the corresponding change in the (output) collector voltage with the (input) emitter current IE kept constant.
Thereore,
DIC
hob = , I constant (4.20)
DVCB E
It is the slope o CB output characteristics IC versus VCB as shown in Fig. 4.9. The typical value o this
parameter is o the order o 0.1 to 10 m mhos.
 Forward Current Gain (hfb ) It is dened as a ratio o the change in the (output) collector current to
the corresponding change in the (input) emitter current keeping the (output) collector voltage VCB constant.
Hence,
DI
hfb = C , VCB constant (4.21)
DI E
It is the slope o IC versus IE curve. Its typical value varies rom 0.9 to 1.0.
 Reverse Voltage Gain (hrb) It is dened as the ratio o the change in the (input) emitter voltage and
the corresponding change in (output) collector voltage with constant (input) emitter current, IE. Hence,
DVEB
hrb = , I constant (4.22)
DVCB E
It is the slope o VEB versus VCB curve. Its typical value is o the order o 10 – 5 to 10 – 4.
4.10 Electronic Devices and Circuits

4.4.2 e onfguration
Input Characteristics To determine the input characteristics, the collector-to-emitter voltage is kept
constant at zero volt, and the base current is increased rom zero in equal steps by increasing VBE in the circuit
shown in Fig. 4.10.

Fig. 4.10 Circuit to determine CE static characteristics

The value o VBE is noted or each setting o IB. This IB (mA)
procedure is repeated or higher xed values o VCE, 250 VCE = 0V VCE > 0 V
and the curves o IB Vs. VBE are drawn. The input
characteristics thus obtained are shown in Fig. 4.11. 200
When VCE = 0, the emitter-base junction is orward
biased and the junction behaves as a orward biased 150
diode. Hence, the input characteristic or VCE = 0 is
similar to that o a orward-biased diode. When VCE
100
is increased, the width o the depletion region at the
reverse-biased collector-base junction will increase.
50
Hence, the eective width o the base will decrease.
This eect causes a decrease in the base current IB.
Hence, to get the same value o IB as that or VCE = 0, 0 VBE(V)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
VBE should be increased. Thereore, the curve shits
to the right as VCE increases. Fig. 4.11 CE input characteristics

Output Characteristics To determine the output characteristics,

the base current IB is kept constant at a suitable value by adjusting
the base-emitter voltage, VBE. The magnitude o the collector-emitter
voltage VCE is increased in suitable equal steps rom zero and the
collector current IC is noted or each setting VCE. Now, the curves o
IC versus VCE are plotted or dierent constant values o IB. The
output characteristics thus obtained are shown in Fig. 4.12.
From Eqs. (4.11) and (4.12), we have
a
b= and IC = (1 + b) ICBO + b IB O
1-a

Fig. 4.12 CE output characteristics

 Transistor Characteristics (BJT and FET) 4.11

For larger values o VCE, due to Early eect, a very small change in a is refected as a very large change in b.
0.98 0.985
For example, when a = 0.98, b = = 49 . I a increases to 0.985, then b = = 66. Here, a
1 - 0.98 1 - 0.985
slight increase in a by about 0.5% results in an increase in b by about 34%. Hence, the output characteristics
o CE conguration show a larger slope when compared with CB conguration.
The output characteristics have three regions, namely, saturation region, cut-o region, and active region.
The region o curves to the let o the line OA is called the saturation region (hatched), and the line OA is
called the saturation line. In this region, both junctions are orward biased and an increase in the base current
does not cause a corresponding large change in IC. The ratio o VCE(sat) to IC in this region is called saturation
resistance.
The region below the curve or IB = 0 is called the cut-off region (hatched). In this region, both junctions are
reverse biased. When the operating point or the transistor enters the cut-o region, the transistor is OFF.
Hence, the collector current becomes almost zero and the collector voltage almost equals VCC, the collector-
supply voltage. The transistor is virtually an open circuit between collector and emitter.
The central region where the curves are uniorm in spacing and slope is called the active region (unhatched).
In this region, emitter-base junction is orward biased and the collector-base junction is reverse biased. I the
transistor is to be used as a linear amplier, it should be operated in the active region.
I the base current is subsequently driven large and positive, the transistor switches into the saturation region
via the active region, which is traversed at a rate that is dependent on actors such as gain and requency
response. In this ON condition, large collector current fows and collector voltage alls to a very low value,
called VCEsat, typically around 0.2 V or a silicon transistor. The transistor is virtually a short circuit in this
state.
High-speed switching circuits are designed in such a way that transistors are not allowed to saturate, thus
reducing switching times between ON and OFF times.

Transistor Parameters
The slope o the CE characteristics will give the ollowing our transistor parameters. Since these
parameters have dierent dimensions, they are commonly known as common-emitter hybrid parameters or
h-parameters.
 Input Impedance (hie) It is dened as the ratio o the change in (input) base voltage to the change in
(input) base current with the (output) collector voltage VCE kept constant. Thereore,
DVBE
hie = , VCE constant (4.23)
DI B
It is the slope o CE input characteristics IB versus VBE as shown in Fig. 4.11. The typical value o hie ranges
rom 500 to 2,000 W.
 Output Admittance (hoe) It is dened as the ratio o change in the (output) collector current to
the corresponding change in the (output) collector voltage with the (input) base current IB kept constant.
Thereore,
DIC
hoe = , I constant (4.24)
DVCE B
It is the slope o CE output characteristic IC versus VCE as shown in Fig. 4.12. The typical value o this
parameter is o the order o 0.1 to 10 m mhos.
4.12 Electronic Devices and Circuits

 Forward Current Gain (hfe) It is dened as a ratio o the change in the (output) collector current to
the corresponding change in the (input) base current keeping the (output) collector voltage VCE constant.
Hence,
DI
hfe = C , VCE constant (4.25)
DI B
It is the slope o IC versus IB curve. Its typical value varies rom 20 to 200.
 Reverse Voltage Gain (hre) It is dened as the ratio o the change in the (input) base voltage and the
corresponding change in (output) collector voltage with constant (input) base current, IB. Hence,
DVBE
hre = , I constant (4.26)
DVCE B
It is the slope o VBE versus VCE curve. Its typical value is o the order o 10–5 to 10–4.

Derivation of analytical expression for CE output characteristics of BJT

We know that, or a PNP transistor, the collector-emitter voltage VCE is given by
VCE = VC – VE

Ê a I +I ˆ Ê a I + IE ˆ
where VC = VT ln Á 1 - N E C ˜ and VE = VT ln Á 1 - I C ˜¯ .
Ë ICO ¯ Ë I EO
Here, aN is the current gain when the transistor is in the normal operation and aI is the current gain when the
transistor is in the inverted operation.
Thereore,
Ê a I +I ˆ Ê a I +I ˆ
VCE = VT ln Á 1 - N E C ˜ - VT ln Á 1 - I C E ˜
Ë ICO ¯ Ë I EO ¯

Ê I - a N I E - IC ˆ Ê I - a I IC - I E ˆ
= VT ln Á CO ˜ - VT ln Á EO ˜¯
Ë ICO ¯ Ë I EO

Ê I - a N I E - IC ˆ Ê I EO ˆ
= VT ln Á CO
Ë I EO - a I IC - I E ˜¯ ÁË ICO ˜¯

We know that, IE = –(IB + IC)

Hence,
Ê I + a N I B + a N IC - IC ˆ Ê a I ˆ Ê I EO a I ˆ
VCE = VT ln Á CO ÁË since I = a ˜¯
Ë I EO - a I IC + I B + IC ˜¯ ÁË a N ˜¯ CO N

Ê I + a N I B + (a N - 1)IC ˆ Ê a I ˆ
= VT ln Á CO
Ë I EO + I B + (1 - a I )IC ˜¯ ÁË a N ˜¯

aI Ê I + a N I B - IC (1 - a N ) ˆ
= VT ln + VT ln Á CO
aN Ë I EO + I B + IC (1 - a I ) ˜¯