LABORATORY PREPARATION GUIDE

CHAPTER

LABORATORY GLASSWARE
AND
EQUIPMENTS

BEAKER:
A beaker is a simple container for liquids, very commonly used in
laboratories. Beakers are generally cylindrical in shape, with a flat
bottom. Beakers are available in a wide range of sizes, from 1ml up
to several liters. They may be made of glass (very often pyrex) or of
plastic. Beakers used for holding solutions of corrosive chemicals,
such as acids, should be made of Teflon or other materials resistant
to corrosion. Beakers may be covered, perhaps by a watch glass, to
prevent contamination or loss of the contents. Beakers are often
graduated, marked on the side with lines indicating the volume
contained. For instance, a250ml beaker might be marked with lines
to indicate 50, 100,150, 200, and 250ml of volume. The accuracy of
these marks can vary from one beaker to another. A beaker is
distinguished from a flask by having sides which are straight rather
than slopping. Beakers are used more often in general chemistry
than flasks.

CONICAL FLASK:
Conical flask also known as “Erlenmeyer flask” is a widely used
type of laboratory flask which features a conical base with a
cylindrical neck. They are usually marked on the side (graduated)
to indicate the approximate volume of their contents. It is named
after the German chemist Richard Erlenmeyer, who created it in
1861.
The conical flask’s counterpart is the beaker; however the main
difference is its narrow neck. The neck, the neck allows the flask
to be stoppered using rubber bungs or cotton wool. The conical
shape allows the contents to be swirled or stirred during an
experiment (as is required in titration); the narrow neck keeps the
contents from spilling. The smaller neck also slows evaporative
loss better than a beaker. The flat bottom of the conical flask
makes it unlikely to tip over, unlike the Florence flask. The flask is
used to heat or boil substances over a Bunsen burner flame or hot
plate.

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GRADUATED CYLINDER:
A Graduated cylinder ( Grad or Graduate for short), also referred
to as a measuring cylinder, is a type of laboratory glassware
comprised of a tall cylinder with a range of calibrated marking that
is used visually measuring the volumes of liquids in a quantitative
manner. A graduated cylinder can be made of translucent plastic
or borosilicate glass such as pyrex. Often the largest graduated
cylinders are made of polyethylene or other rigid plastic, making
them lighter and lass fragile than glass, but more difficult to
sterilize.
The top usually has a small curled lip to allow easy pouring of
liquids, and the bottom is usually anchored with a wide base, to
keep the cylinder from easily tipping. The volumes of liquids
graduated cylinder can handle range from a few milliliters to many
liters. A sample rain gauge uses a cylinder with marks calibrated in
millimeters or inches of collected rain.
To read precisely the quantity of liquid collected, the cylinder is
heald at eye level, and the fluid’s meniscus is read against the
calibrated graduation marks printed, embossed or etched along
the cylinder.
A well equipped laboratory will have multiple cylinders in a variety
of ranges and sizes. Generally, as cylinder is narrowed, more
precise measurements can be obtained in reading. As the
graduation markings are farther apart for the same volume.
Dispensing burettes are often used to provide more precise
measurement options than ordinary graduated cylinders (fraction
of a drop). Beakers may also be calibrated and marked with
graduations for gross measurements (within milliliters or so).

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VOLUMETRIC FLASK:
A volumetric flask ( vol flask for short) is a type of laboratory
flask (piece of laboratory glassware) used to contain or
measure a very precise and accurate amount of a liquid. It is
shaped like a Florence flask with a flatter bottom so as to not
tip over. The single, rather long, narrow neck is marked
(usually by a circumferential scratch or etch on the glass) at a
very precise measurement. When the liquid has been added to
that point (so the bottom of the meniscus is on the line), it is
usually accurate to within a small fraction of a percent and
highly precise, however, a single flask can usually only be
used for a certain measurement, e.g, a 25,00 ml flask can only
be used to measure 250 ml the volume mark is usually made
by machine, so it can be more assuredly accurate than a hand-
made mark.
The use of a volumetric flask almost always involves
containing a certain amount of liquid, either for making
solutions or diluting a liquid to the size of the flask. This is
done by adding the solvent (or the liquid to be measured) to
the flask until it reaches the neck, at which point it is usually
added much more slowly, via pipette or dropper depending
on the size of the flask. One must be careful not to add more
than the amount the flask is supposed to measure; if one does
so, the process may need to be repeated. This can be
problematic, especially when working with expensive
chemicals. If a dilution is called for, the completely-filled flask
is then stoppered and inverted several times.
Volumetric flasks are often marked TC meaning “To
contain”, often with a certain temperature at which the
volume measurement is most accurate. TC means that when
filled to the circumferential mark on the neck, the flask will
contain the designated amount of liquid, as opposed to TD
(To Deliver) on other glassware meaning a vessel will deliver
a certain amount of liquid.
Volumetric flasks typically come with a stopper or cap for
capping the opening at the top of the neck. Such stoppers can
be made of glass or plastic. When a glass stopper is used (see
image at left), the opening at top of the neck has an outer ( or
female) tapered (conical) ground glass joint and the glass
stopper has a matching tapered inner (or male) ground glass
joint surface, but often only of stopper quality, very small
volumetric flasks having a capacity of a milliliter or so, have a
base at the bottom to stand on so they will not tip over
easily.

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BURETTE:
A Burette (also buret) is a vertical cylindrical piece of
laboratory glassware with volumetric graduation on its
full length and a precision tap, or stopcock, on the
bottom. It is used to dispense known amount of a liquid
reagent in experiments for which such precision is
necessary, such as a titration experiments for which such
precision is necessary, such as a titration experiment.
Burettes are extremely precise: class A burettes are
accurate to A±0.05ml.
The precision of a burette makes careful measurement
with a burette very important to avoid systematic error.
When reading a burette, the viewer’s eyes must be at the
level of the graduation to avoid parallax error. Even the
thickness of the lines printed on the burette matters; the
bottom of the meniscus of the liquid should be touching
the top of the line you wish to measure from. A common
rule of thumb is to add 0.02 ml if the bottom of the
meniscus is touching the bottom of the line, due to the
precision of the burette, even a single drop of liquid
hanging from the bottom of a burette should be
transferred to the receiving flask, usually by touching the
drop to the side of the receiving flask and washing into
the solution with the experimental solvent (usually water).
Through careful control of the stopcock and rinsing,
even partial drops of liquid can be added to the receiving
flask.

PIPETTE
A pipette also called a pipet or a pipettor is a laboratory
instrument used to transport a measured volume of
liquid. Pipettes are commonaly used in chemistry and
molecular biology research as well as medical test.
Pipettes come in several designs for various purposes
with differing levels of accuracy and precision, from
single piece flexible plastic transfer pipettes to more
complex adjustable or electronic pipettes. A works by
creating a vacuum above the liquid-holding chamber and
selectively releasing this vacuum to draw up and dispense
liquid. Pipettes that dispense between 1 and 1000 are
micropipettes

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PETRI DISH
A Petri dish is a shallow glass or plastic
cylindrical dish that biologists use to culture
cells, which can be bacterial, animal, plant, or
fungus. It was named after the German
bacteriologist Julius Richard Petri (1852).
Who invented it in 1877 when working as an
assistant to Robert Koch.

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CHAPTER

IUPAC NOMENCLATURE
OF
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

T he IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry is systematic way of naming

inorganic chemical compounds as recommended by the International Union of Pure
and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Ideally, every inorganic compound should have a
name from which an unambiguous formula can be determined. There is also a IUPAC
nomenclature of organic chemistry.

The names “caffeine” and “3,7-dihydro-1,3,7-trimethyl-1H-purine-2,6-dione” both

describe the same chemical. The systematic name encodes the structure and composition of
the caffeine molecule in some detail, and provides an unambiguous reference to this
compound, whereas the name “caffeine” just names it. These advantages make the
systematic name far superior to the common name when absolute clarity and precision are
required. However, even professional chemists will use the non-systematic name almost all
the time, because caffeine is a well-known common chemical with a unique structure.
Similarly, the chemical water is always known as such, never as “dihydrogen monoxide.”

A. Single atom anions are named with an –ide suffix: for example, H- is Hydride.

B. Compounds with a positive ion cation, the name of the compound are simply the
cation’s name (usually the same as the element’s) followed by the anion. For example
NaCl sodium chloride and CaF2 calcium fluoride.

C. Cation able to take on more than one positive charge is label with Roman numerals
in parentheses. For example, Cu+ is copper (i), Cu2+ is copper (ii): An older,
deprecated notation is to append –ous or –ic to the root of the Latin name to name
ion with a lesser or greater charge. Under this naming convention, Cu+ is cuprous and
Cu2+ is cupric.

D. Oxyanions (polyatomic anions containing oxygen) are named with –ite or –ate, for a
lesser or greater quantity of oxygen. For example NO2- is Nitrite, while NO3- Nitrate
If four oxyanions are possible the prefixes hypo- and per- are used: hypochlorite is
ClO-, perChlorate is ClO4- .

E. The prefix bi- is a deprecated way of indicating the presence of single hydrogen ion,
as in “sodium bicarbonate” (NaHCO3). The modern method specifically names the
hydrogen atom. Thus, NaHCO3 would be pronounced “Sodium hydrogen
carbonate”.

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LABORATORY PREPARATION GUIDE

1. Ionic compounds: (an association of a cation and an anion)

The positive ion (cation) is always named first and listed first in writing the formula for
the compound.

The vast majority of monatomic (composed of a single atom) cations are formed from
metallic element:

 Na+ Sodium ion

 Zn2+ Zinc ion
 Al3+ Aluminum ion

If an element can form more than one positive ion, the positive charge of the ion is
indicated by a Roman numeral in parentheses following the name of the metal:

 Fe2+ Iron (II) ion

 Fe3+ Iron(III) ion
 Cu+ copper (I) ion
 Cu2+ copper(II) ion

Iron and copper are examples of transition metals. They occur in the block of elements
from IIIB to IIB of the periodic table.
The transition metals often form two or more different monatomic cations.

An older nomenclature for distinguishing between the different ions of a metal is to use
the suffixes –ous and –ic. The suffix –ic will indicate the ion higher ionic charge:

 Fe2+ ferrous ion

 Fe3+ Ferric ion
 Cu+ Cuprous ion
 Cu2+ Cupric ion

Note that the different ions of the same element often have quite different chemical
properties (again, pointing to the importance of electrons in determining chemical
reactivity).

2. Ionic compounds: Anions

Monatomic anions are usually formed from non-metallic elements. They are named by
dropping the ending of the element name and adding –ide.

 Cl- chloride ion

 F- Flouride ion
 S2 - Sulfide ion
 O2- Oxide ion

Some common polyatomic anions include:

 OH- hydroxide ion

 CN Cyanide ion

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Many polyatomic anions contain oxygen, and are referred to as oxyanions. When an element
can form two different oxyanions the name of the one that contains more oxygen ends in –
ate, the one with less ends in –ite.

 NO2- Nitrite ion

 NO3- Nitrate ion
 SO32- Sulfite ion
 SO42- sulfate ion

Note that unlike the –ous and –ic suffix nomenclature to distinguish the different cations of
a metal, the –ite and –ate suffix is used to distinguish the relative amounts of the oxygen
atoms in a (polyatomic) oxyanion (in the above examples the ionic charge is the same for the
–ite and –ate ions of a specific oxyanion).

Some compounds can have multiple forms (the oxyanions involving the halogens, for
example):

 ClO-
 ClO2 -
 ClO3 -
 ClO4 -

Note again, that the number of Oxygens relative to the Chlorine is changing, but that the
ionic charge is not How do we name these? The –ite and –ate suffixes are still used, but we
have to add an additional modification to allow us to distinguish between the four forms:

 ClO- Hypochlorite ion

 ClO2 - Chlorite ion
 ClO3 - Chlorate ion
 ClO4 PerChlorate ion

Many polyatomic anions that have high (negative) charges can add one or more hydrogen
cations (H+) to form anions of lower effective charge. The naming of these anions reflects
whether the H+ addition involves one or more hydrogen ions:

 HSO4- hydrogen sulfate ion

 H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate ion

Acids

 An acid is a substance whose molecules yield hydrogen (H+) ions when dissolved in
water.
 The formula of an acid consists of an anionic group whose charged is balanced by
one or more H+ ions.
 The name of the acid is related to the name of the anion
 Anions whose names end in -ide have associated acids that have the hydro- prefix
and an -ic suffix:

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 Cl- Chloride anion HCl Hydrochloric acid

 S2 - Sulfide anion H2SO4 Hydrosulfuric acid

Using the -ic suffix here may seem a bit inconsistent since it was used in naming metal
cations to indicate the form which had the higher positive charge. However, when you
think about it, the acid compound has a higher net positive charge than the anion from which
it is derived (the anion is negatively charge and the associated acid is neutral).

Again, things get complicated when we consider the acids of oxyanions:

 If the anion has an -ate ending, the corresponding acid is given an -ic ending
 If the anion has an -ite ending, the corresponding acid has an -ous ending.
 Prefixes in the name of the anion are kept in naming the acid

ClO- hypo chlorite ion HClO hypochlorous acid

ClO2 - chlorite ion HClO2 chlorous acid
ClO3 - chlorate ion HClO3 chloric acid
ClO4 - perchlorate ion HClO4 perchloric acid

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CHAPTER

PREPARATION OF STANDARD
SOLUTIONS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

S olution plays an important role in every day life. The body fluids of animal, blood,
lymph etc are solutions. The plant take up nutrients from the soil, are also in the form
of solution. Most of the chemical reagents, drugs and medicines are also solutions.
Many important chemical reactions take place in aqueous solution.

1.2 WHAT IS SOLUTION?

A solution consists of a dissolved substance called solute
and dissolving medium in which solute is uniformly
dispersed, is the solvent. A solution is, therefore, a
homogeneous mixture of two components i.e solute and
solvent.
Solution = Solvent + Solute

1.3 WHAT IS STANDARD SOLUTION?

A solution of exactly known concentration
is called standard solution.

1.4 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION?

Concentration of a solution is the
amount of solute dissolved in a
definite weight of volume of the
solution. When we describe a solution,
we need to specify it composition in
terms of how much solute there is in
unit of solvent or solution. This is the
concentration of the solution.

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There are a number of different ways of defining the concentration of a solution. We

will discuss:

A. Percent Solution.(%)
B. Molar or Molarity solution.(M)
C. Molality solution. (m)
D. Mole fraction.
E. Normal or Normality solution. (N)
F. Part per million (ppm) and parts per billion (pbb) solutions.

A. PERCENT SOLUTION (%): The word percent comes from the Latin
“Percentum” which mean “For every hundred”.
Percent then means a composition of so many
parts in every hundred parts of the whole.
Or
The composition of solution is frequently
expressed in percent by mass or percent by volume.
It is the number of parts by mass or volume of the
solute dissolved in 100 parts by mass or volume of
the solvent or solution.

There are three types of percent solution.

(i) Percent by mass or weight (%W/W):

Solution concentration can be expressed as
percent by mass. This means that there are
so many mass units of solute in each 100
mass units of solution. Percent by weight of
solute in the total weight of the solution.
Percent here is the number of grams of
solute in 100 grams of solution

Example: 100% W/W NaCl solution is made by weighing 100grams of NaCl and
dissolving in 100grams of solution.

Formula:
Mass of solute in grams
Percent by mass = ________________________________________
100
Mass of solution in grams

100 grams
Percent by mass = ___________ _________100 = 100%
100 grams

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(ii) Percent mass by volume (%W/V):

If the solution is measured in volume instead of
mass we get percent mass by volume; is the
number of mass units of solute for each 100
volume units of solutions. Percent of weight of
solution in the total volume of solution.
Percent here is the number of grams of solute
in 100ml of solution.

Example: 4% (W/V) of sodium chloride (NaCl); 4 grams of NaCl in 100ml of water

(solvent).

Formula:
Mass of solute (grams)
Percent mass by volume = ______________________________________
100
Volume of solution(ml)

4 grams
Percent mass by volume = ___________________
100 = 4%
100 ml

(iii) Percent by volume (%V/V):

If both solute and solvent are liquids, it is common
to use percent by volume; %V/V is the volume of
solute dissolved to give 100 units of volume of
solution. Percent of volume of solute in the total
volume of solution %V/V. percent here is the
number of milliliters of solute in 100ml of solution.

Example: 10% (V/V) ethanol solution is 10ml of solution.

Formula:
Volume of the solute (ml)
100
_____________________________________________
Percent by volume =
Volume of the solution(ml)

10 ml
Percent by volume = ____________
100 = 10%
10ml

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B. MOLARITY OR MOLAR (M) SOLUTION:

Molar solution is a solution that contains 1 mole of solute in
each liter of solution. The molarity solution is usually denoted
by the letter “M”.
Molarity = Moles of solute/Liter of solution.

Mole: A mole is the number of gram molecular weight (gmw) of compound.

Gram molecular weight: Sum of the atomic weight is called molecular weight and when
molecular weight expressed in grams is called gram molecular
weight.

Formula:
Amount of solute 1000
_____________________________________________
Molarity =
Mol: weight Vol: milli liters

For example: How would you make 1 Molar solution of sodium chloride NaCl?
Atomic weight of sodium chloride(NaCl):
Na =23
Cl =35.5 Gram molecular weight of NaCl : 58.5 grams

1 Molar may be made by weighting out 58.5 gram of NaCl and dissolved in 1 liter of water.

For example: How would you make a liter of 4Molar CaCl2?

(i) First find out the molecular weight of CaCl2.

Atomic weightof CaCl2: Ca = 40, Cl = 35.5
Gram Molecular weight: (40+35.5 2 = 111grams

Formula:
Amount of solute 1000
________________________________________
Molarity =
Mol: weight 1000

111 grams 1000

Molarity = ______________________________ =1M
111 1000

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(ii) We need 4 molar solutions.

111 4 = 444 grams
Dissolve 444grams of CaCl2 in a liter of water it will be 4 Molar solution.

Formula:
Amount of solute 1000
Molarity = ____________________________________________
Mol: weight Vol: milli liters

4441000
_______________________
Molarity = = 4M
111 1000

Example: How would you make 300ml of a 0.5M NaOH solution?

(i) First find out the molecular weight of compound (NaOH).
Atomic weight: Na = 23, O =16, H = 1
Molecular wt: 23+16+1 = 40 grams (40 grams is equal to 1mole)

For 1 Molar solution we need 40 gram

For half (0.5) molar solution we need 20 grams

Formula:
Amount of solute 1000
Molarity = ______________________________________
Molecular wt: 1000

20 1000
Molarity = _______________________ = 0.5M
40 1000

(ii) We need 300ml of 0.5 M solution

A liter of 0.5 molar is equal to 20grams of NaOH per liter or (1000ml)
By dividing the 20grams of NaOH with 1000ml (1 liter = 1000ml)
20grams/1000ml = 0.02 grams (Hence 1ml contain 0.02grams of NaOH)
By multiply the 0.02 grams of NaOH with 300ml of water
0.02grams 300 =6 grams
Hence dissolve 6grams of NaOH in 300ml of water to get 300ml of 0.5Molar solution.

Formula:
Amount of solute Vol: required in milli liters
Molarity = ____________________________________________________________________
Mol:wt: Volume required in milli liters

20grams 300ml
Molarity = _________________________________ = 0.5M
40 grams300ml

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Example:
You weighed out 58.5grams of NaCl and diluted it to 250ml. what is the
molarity of the solution?

58.5grams/250ml
By dividing it 58.5 grams with 250 ml
Hence 1 ml contain 0.234 gram of NaCl.
0.234 grams 1000ml = 234 grams
Hence one liter or 1000ml contain 234 grams of NaCl.
Since 1 Molar = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5 grams/liter
234 grams per liter/58.5 grams per liter = 4Molar

(C) MOLALITY SOLUTION (M):

Molality is defined similarly to molarity but do
not get them confused. Molality is the number of
moles of solute dissolved in each kilogram of
solvent. The units of molality are moles/kg; it is
denoted by small “m” the symbol “m” read as
“molal”. Thus 2.3m is “2.3 molal.
Formula: moles of solute/kg of solvent

Example:
What is the molality of a solution of 34.7gram of glucose, C 6H12O 6, in 476
grams of water? What is the final volume if the solution has density of
1.02grams/liter?

Formula:
No. of moles of substance =Mass of the substance Gram molecular weight
No. of moles of substance = 34.7 180 = 0.192 moles

Formula:
Moles of solute
Molality = __________________________________
Kilogram of solvent
Convert the 476 grams of water in kilogram 476gram/1000 = 0.476kg
Molality =0.192/0.476 = 0.40 m
To calculate the volume we need the total mass of solution.
476grams of water + 34.7 gram of glucose = 511 gram solution
Then use the density formula to calculate the volume
Mass
Density = ____________________
Volume
Density Mass
___________ ____________
= =
1 Volume
= Density volume = Mass
Mass 511
= Volum =________________________ = _____________ = 500.9 ml solution
Density 1.02

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(D) NORMAL OR NORMALITY SOLUTION (N):

The Normal solution is a solution that contains 1gram
equivalent weight (gEW) per liter solution.
Normality = equivalent weight/liter

Formula:
Amount of solute/liter
Normality = ____________________________________
Equivalent weight
Equivalent weight:
An equivalent weight is equal to the molecular weight divided by the
valence or (replaceable H ions).

Formula:
Molecular weight
Equivalent weight = __________________________
Valence

Problems involving in Normality are worked the same as those of involving Molarity but the
valence must considered.

1Normal Mol: weight Valence Eq:wt: = Mol:weight/valence

1N HCl 36.5 1 Eq:wt:= 36.5/1 = 36.5g/l =1N
1N H2SO4 98 2 Eq: wt: =98/2=49g/l =1N
!N H2SO4 98 3 Eq: wt: =98/3 = 32.7g/l = 1N

Example:
You weigh out 80gram of NaOH and dilute to 1 liter. What is the
normality?

(i) First find out gram Molecular weight of compound.

Symbol Atomic weight
Na = 23
O= 16
H= 1
Total Gram molecular weight of compound 40
(ii) Find out the gram equivalent weight gEW = 40/l =40
Normality = gEW/liter Normality = 40g/liter = 1N or
Normality
(iii) We have dissolved 80 grams in liter

Formula:
Amount of solute per liter
Normality = _______________________________________
Equivalent weight or gEW

80grams per liter

Normality =_________________________________ = 2N
40

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Example:
You weighed out 222 gram of of CaCl2 and diluted to liter. What will be
the Normality?

Where as Normality is Equivalent weight/liter

Therefore,
(i) First find out the molecular weight of compound.
Molecular weight is the sum of the atomic weight of substance or comound.
Atomic weight of compound is Ca=40, Cl =35.5
CaCl2= 40 + 35.5 2 = 111 grams (where 2 is two molecules of chloride)
(ii) Secondly find out the Gram equivalent weight (gEW) of compound
Gram equivalent weight = Molecular weight/Valence
Gram equivalent weight = 111/2 = 55.5grams
(111grams is molecular weight of compound and 2 is the valence of Ca +2
Where Noramlity is the grams equivalent weight per liter
Where Gram Equivalent weight of CaCl2 is 55.5 grams
By dissolving the 55.5 grams of CaCl2 in a liter is equal to 1Normal or Normality
(iii) We have dissolved 222grams of CaCl2 in liter.

Formula:
Amount of solute per liter
______________________________________
Normality =
Equivalent weight

222grams per liter

Normality = __________________________ = 4Normal
55.5

(E) PART PER MILLION (ppm) AND PART PER BILLION (ppb) SOLUTION:
A part per million, ppm is a concentration term
similar to percent by mass. In this case it is so many
mass units in every million rather than only 100
parts per billion, ppb, is defined similarly.
Or
Parts per million is a convenient way to express
dilute concentration. Historically, 1mg per liter or
per 1000ml is referred as 1ppm. However, this is
not really the case, as parts per million should be
expressed as:

Formula:
Mass of solute
ppm = ______________________________________ 106
Mass of solution
Example:
Make a 1000ppm standard of Na using the salt NaCl.
Formula weight (FW) of salt: (NaCl) = 23 + 35.5 = 58.44
1g Na in relation to (FW) of salt = 58.44/23 = 2.54g.
Hence weight out 2.542g NaCl and dissolve in 1 liter volume to make 1000

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ppm Na standard.
Example:
Make a 1000 ppm from an acidic radical of salt phosphate standard using
the salt KH2 PO4.
Formula weight of salt = 136.09
Formula weight of radical = 95
1gram PO 4 in relation to FW of salt = 136.09/95 = 1.432gram.
Hence weigh out 1.432gram of KH 2PO4 and dissolve in liter volume to make a
1000ppm PO4 standard.

Example:
Make a 1000ppm from pure metal.
Weigh out accurately 1.000g of metal, dissolve in 1:1 conc. Nitric or
Hydrochloric acid, and make up to the mark in liter volume deionised water.

DILUTION FORMULA:

Required ppm required volume

________________________________________________
No. of mls for required volume=
Stock
Note: This formula works same as (V1 C1 = V2C 2)

Example:
Make up 50milliliters volume of 25ppm concentration from 100ppm.

Formula:
Required ppm Required volume
No. of mls for required volume = ______________________________________________________
Stock
25 20
No. of mls for required volume = _________________________ = 12.5mls
100
12.5mls of 100ppm in 50ml volume will give a 25 ppm solution.

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SOLUTION FROM SOLUTION AND TITRATION

Many times the solution we are made from more concentrated
solution rather then dry chemicals. For figuring out it can just be
easier to remember a formula then figuring them out that formula
is
Formula:
V1C1 = V2C2

Where “V” is volume and “C” is concentration in (%,M and N)

1. Where V1C1 is more concentrated solution.
2. Where V2C2 is the (dilute) solution.
Or in other words the volume of a concentrated solution times its
concentration will contain the proper amount of chemical to give
the volume of a weaker solution times its concentration.

Example:
How much12N HCl do you need to make 400ml of 2N solution?
Formula:
V1C1 =V2C2
V1(12N) = (400ml) (2N)
V1 = 400 2 /12 = 66.67ml
Example:
You took 100ml of a concentrated acid and made 2 liters of 0.5N solution.
What was the normality of original solution?

Formula:
V1C1 = V2C2
(100ml) C1 = (2L) (0.5N)
Note: Units on both sides of the formula must agree. Since the units of volume are not the same,
2liter should be converted to 2,000ml or 100ml converted into liter.

(100ml) C1 = (2000ml) (0.5N)

2000ml 0.5
C 1 = ________________________
100ml
C 1 = 10.0N (The Normality of the original solution 10Normal)

Example:
How much7M H2SO 4 will you need to make 100ml of 7N H 2SO 4?

Note: This formula only works when concentrations are expressed in the same units. Therefore the
7M H2SO4 should convert to Normality first.

Convert the Molarity into Normality:

Formula:
Normality = Moles Valence of the Normal solution or compound

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Normality =7 2 = 14 Normal

Formula:
V1C1 = V2C2
V1 14N = 100ml 7N
1007
________________
V1 = = 150ml
14
Note: This formula (V1C 1 = C2 V2 ) may also be used to calculate concentration when one solution
of known concentration is titrated to neutrality against a second (unknown concentration)
solution.

CONCENTRATED SOLUTIONS: Concentrated acids and bases and other stock

reagents exist as liquids and usually do not have
their concentration listed as %( percent), Molar
or Normal. They usually have a specific gravity or
density of the solution. The concentration may be
calculated from this. Then how to make the
weaker solution from this concentration solution
is determined. So when the only information
about the concentration of a concentrated
solution is specific gravity and percent assay, we
must first calculate concentration.

Specific gravity: For all purpose is then umber of gram per milliliter.

Example:
HCl specific gravity is 1.080 would mean that there is 1.080 of HCl in every ml
of solution convert it into Normal solution.

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Since Normal is gram equivalent per liter we to convert to liter.

1.080gram/ml (one ml contains 1.080g)
1.080 1000 = 1080gram/liter (one liter contains 1080g)
Amount of solute required to prepare 1Normal of HCl

Formula:
Amount of solute = required normality Equivalent weight
Amount of solute = 1 36.5 = 36.5 grams/liter
For 1Normal of HCl we require 36.5 grams.
A liter of concentrated Stock solution contain 1080gram/liter
1080/36.5 = 29.6
Normality of Stock solution is 29.6N
One problem with most purchased solution, even the best, is that they are not
pure. Some of the weight is due to other substance. But the bottle will state the
percent assay or what percent is really there.

Example:
95% HCl and have specific gravity 1.080 in this case
1.080grams of contain every ml of 1 liter solution; and liter is equal to 1000ml;
and it is 95% pure.
1.080 1000 = 1080g/liter (one liter contain 1080 grams of HCl)
1.080 0.95 = 1026g/liter
Now if you want to know concentration in %W/V, Molar or Normal convert
Percent mass by Volume:
%W/V = amount of solute/Volume of solution 100
%W/V = 1026/1000 100
%W/V = 102.6%
If you want to know concentration in Molarity.
Molarity means moles per liter. (means convert the solute into moles)

Formula:
Mass of the substance
No. of moles of a substance = _______________________________________
Gram molecular mass

1026grams
_________________________
No. of moles of a substance = = 28.1
36.5
1 Molar solution is equal to 36.5 gram/liter
28.1 Mole in liter means a liter of 28.1M

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