Sound consists of longitudinal waves: the particles of the medium through which a sound travels

oscillate along the direction in which the sound is travelling. In air, this causes small compressions and
rarefactions of pressure, above and below nominal atmospheric pressure.

Overall, "sound theory" can encompass a wide range of topics depending on the specific field or
discipline in which it is being discussed. If you have a more specific aspect of sound theory in mind, feel
free to provide additional details for a more targeted explanation.

 In a longitudinal wave, the medium or the channel moves in the same direction with respect to
the wave. Here, the movement of the particles is from left to right and forces other particles to
vibrate.

 In a transverse wave the medium or the channel moves perpendicular to the direction of the
wave. Here, the particles move up and down as the waves move horizontally.

What are examples of transverse and longitudinal waves?

Some examples of transverse waves are the ripples on the surface of water, vibrations on a guitar string,
and electromagnetic waves such as light. Some examples of longitudinal waves are sound waves and
ultrasound waves.

What are transverse waves and longitudinal waves?

Transverse waves are ones in which the particles travel perpendicular to the direction of the wave.
Longitudinal waves are ones in which the particles travel parallel to the direction of the wave.

In transverse waves, the particle movement is perpendicular to the movement of the wave, but there is
another type of wave where the particles move parallel to the wave or in the same direction as the
wave. These waves are called longitudinal waves. These waves are formed by the compression of
particles. An example of a longitudinal wave is sound. For example, when a person talks, their vocal
cords vibrate and push on air. These air particles then push on other air particles, that push on other air
particles. Eventually, the sound reaches another person, and the pressure of the air particles pushes on
bones in their ear, and they hear the sound. This pushing on particles creates areas of high pressure that
are known as compressions. It also creates areas of low pressure that are known as rarefactions. These
take the place of the crests and troughs in the transverse wave. The wavelength of longitudinal waves
can be determined by measuring the distance between two compressions or two rarefactions.

Longitudinal and transverse waves are two fundamental types of mechanical waves that describe the
way in which energy is transmitted through a medium.
Longitudinal Waves:

In a longitudinal wave, the particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave.

The wave motion is characterized by compressions (regions of high pressure and density) and
rarefactions (regions of low pressure and density).

Sound waves are a common example of longitudinal waves. In a sound wave, air particles move back and
forth parallel to the direction of the wave, creating areas of compression and rarefaction.

Transverse Waves:

In a transverse wave, the particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of the wave.

The wave motion is characterized by crests (peaks) and troughs (valleys).

Examples of transverse waves include electromagnetic waves (like light waves) and the motion of a string
when plucked.

Comparison:

Direction of Particle Vibration:

In longitudinal waves, particles move parallel to the direction of the wave.

In transverse waves, particles move perpendicular to the direction of the wave.

Wave Motion:

Longitudinal waves have compressions and rarefactions.

Transverse waves have crests and troughs.

Examples:

Longitudinal waves: Sound waves (in air, water, or solids).

Transverse waves: Light waves, radio waves, and the motion of a rope when it is shaken.

Propagation:
Longitudinal waves can propagate through gases, liquids, and solids.

Transverse waves are often associated with solids but can also propagate through gases and liquids in
certain conditions.

Understanding the differences between longitudinal and transverse waves is fundamental to grasping
various phenomena in physics, including the behavior of sound, light, and other types of waves.

What is the best definition of frequency?

The frequency of waves is how many waves pass a given point in a specific unit of time. Frequency is
directly proportional to the energy. The higher the frequency, the higher the energy.

What is meant by frequency in sound?

Frequency in sound refers to the number of mechanical sound waves that pass a certain point in one
second. Higher frequency sound waves produce higher-pitched sounds.

Frequency, in physics, the number of waves that pass a fixed point in unit time; also, the number of
cycles or vibrations undergone during one unit of time by a body in periodic motion. A body in periodic
motion is said to have undergone one cycle or one vibration after passing through a series of events or
positions and returning to its original state.

What is frequency?

Frequency describes the number of waves that pass a fixed place in a given amount of time. So if the
time it takes for a wave to pass is is 1/2 second, the frequency is 2 per second. If it takes 1/100 of an
hour, the frequency is 100 per hour.

Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time. It is also referred to as
temporal frequency, which emphasizes the contrast to spatial frequency and angular frequency.
Frequency is measured in units of hertz (Hz) which is equal to one occurrence of a repeating event per
second. The period is the duration of time of one cycle in a repeating event, so the period is the
reciprocal of the frequency. For example: if a newborn baby's heart beats at a frequency of 120 times a
minute (2 hertz), its period, T, — the time interval between beats—is half a second (60 seconds divided
by 120 beats). Frequency is an important parameter used in science and engineering to specify the rate
of oscillatory and vibratory phenomena, such as mechanical vibrations, audio signals (sound), radio
waves, and light.
What is the velocity of wave propagation?

Wave propagation speed quantifies how fast the wave travels. It is determined using v = f λ , where v is
the wave speed in meters per second (m/s), f is the frequency in hertz (Hz or 1/s), and is the wavelength
in meters (m). Various factors affect wave speed, including tension, rigidity, density, and temperature.

The term "wave" is commonly associated with water such as when seawater moves toward the shore or
when concentric ripples are formed when a pebble is thrown on a calm water surface. Waves are also
formed when one end of the string is moved up and down, or when a slinky is moved left and right.
Earthquakes also produce seismic waves that travel throughout the Earth's interior and may even reach
the surface. All these wave examples have one thing in common— vibrations. Vibrations are the sources
of waves. In this lesson, learn more about waves, propagation physics, and the factors affecting wave
speed.
The period, T, is the amount of time for the harmonic motion to repeat itself, or for the object to go one
full cycle. In SHM, T is the time it takes the object to return to its exact starting point and starting
direction. The period of a wave depends on the period of oscillation of the object creating the wave.

The frequency, f, is the number of cycles an object or wave goes through in 1 second. Frequency is
measured in Hertz (Hz). 1 Hz = 1 cycle per sec.

The amplitude, A, is the distance from the equilibrium (or center) point of motion to either its lowest or
highest point (end points). The amplitude, therefore, is half of the total distance covered by the
oscillating object. The amplitude can vary in harmonic motion but is constant in SHM. The amplitude of a
wave often determines its strength or intensity; the exact meaning of "strength" depends on the type of
wave. For example, a sound wave with a large amplitude is a loud sound and a light wave with a large
amplitude is very bright.

A medium is the substance through which the wave travels. For example, water acts as the medium for
ocean waves, while air molecules act as the medium for sound waves.

When a wave passes through a medium, the medium is only temporarily disturbed. When wave travels
from one side of the lake to the other, no actual water molecules move this great distance. Only the
disturbance propagates (moves) through the medium.

An object oscillating with frequency f will create waves which oscillate with the same frequency f.

The speed v and wavelength λ of a wave depend on the nature of the medium through which the wave
travels.

There are two main types of waves we will consider: longitudinal and transverse waves.

In longitudinal waves, the vibrations of the medium are in the same direction as the wave motion. A
classic example is a wave traveling down a line of standing dominoes: each domino will fall in the same
direction as the motion of the wave. A more physical example is a sound wave. For sound waves, high
and low pressure zones move both forward and backward as the wave moves through them.

In transverse waves, the vibrations of the medium are perpendicular to the direction of motion. A classic
example is a wave created in a long rope: the wave travels from one end of the rope to the other, but the
actual rope moves up and down, and not from left to right as the wave does.

Water waves act as a mix of longitudinal and transverse waves. A typical water molecule pretty much
moves in a circle when a wave passes through it.

Most wave media act like a series of connected oscillators. For instance, a rope can be thought of as a
large number of masses (molecules) connected by springs (intermolecular forces). The speed of a wave
through connected harmonic oscillators depends on the distance between them, the spring constant,
and the mass. In this way, we can model wave media using the principles of simple harmonic motion.

The speed of a wave on a string depends on the material the string is made of, as well as the tension in
the string. This fact is why tightening a string on your violin or guitar will increase the frequency, or pitch,
of the sound it produces.
The speed of longitudinal waves depends on the medium through which they travel. In general, the
speed of longitudinal waves in a material is determined by the elastic properties of that material. These
waves are often referred to as compressional or pressure waves.

In solids, the speed of longitudinal waves is typically higher than in liquids, and even higher than in
gases. The relationship between the speed of longitudinal waves (

v), the elastic modulus of the material (

E), and the density of the material (

ρ) is given by the equation:

v=

where:

v is the speed of the wave,

�

E is the elastic modulus of the material,

ρ is the density of the material.

In general, longitudinal waves travel faster in stiffer and denser materials. It's important to note that this
formula is a simplified representation and may not hold in all situations, as other factors can come into
play, such as temperature and the presence of other materials or impurities.

The speed of transverse waves, like longitudinal waves, depends on the properties of the medium
through which they propagate. Transverse waves are characterized by oscillations perpendicular to the
direction of wave travel. In a medium, such as a string or a solid material, the speed (

v) of transverse waves is related to the tension in the material (

T) and the mass per unit length (

μ) of the material. The formula for the speed of transverse waves in a stretched string is given by:

v=

T
where:

v is the speed of the transverse wave,

T is the tension in the string or material,

μ is the mass per unit length of the string or material.

In general, transverse waves travel faster in materials with higher tension and lower mass per unit
length. It's important to note that this formula is specific to transverse waves on a string, and the speed
of transverse waves in other media, such as fluids or solids, may be governed by different factors. The
specific characteristics of the medium will determine the speed of transverse waves in that medium.

Speed of a Longitudinal Wave

Longitudinal wave comprises of compressions and rarefactions of small volume elements of air/medium.
The elastic property that determines the extent to which the volume of an element of a medium
changes. When the pressure changes on it is given by Bulk modulus B.

B=ΔPΔv/v

The compressions and rarefactions momentarily change the density of the medium through which the
wave travels.

A relation between speed of longitudinal wave (v), Bulk modulus of elasticity (B) and density of the
medium (d), can be found using the method of dimensions.

v=Bd−−√
In solids B can be replaced by Y the young's modulus of elasticity. The speed of longitudinal waves in
solids is much high than that in fluids - gases it's because gases are highly compressible and have a high
value of B. We can also understand that factors like temperature, humidity, pressure change the density
of gases significantly and hence the speed of longitudinal wave(sound) change, with the listed factors.

Newton's formula for speed of sound in air/gases.

v=pd−−√B=P for an ideal gas

Calculation p for air v=280 m/s at STP.

Laplace's Correction

Newton assumed that the pressure variations in a medium during propagation of sound are isothermal -
Laplace pointed out that the pressure variations in a gas were so fast that the temperature could not
remain constant and that the variations were adiabatic and not isothermal.

v=rpd−−−√r=CpCv

This change is Newton's formula is referred to as the Laplace's correction for air r=75 and speed of sound
at STP is 331.3 ms−1, which agrees with the measured speed.

Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

In transverse waves, the constituents of the medium oscillate perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation and in longitudinal waves they oscillate along the direction of wave propagation.

The transverse and longitudinal waves are progressive waves if the energy associated travels from one
point to another and termed stationary or standing waves if the energy is localized in a section of the
medium.

In transverse waves, the particle motion is normal to the direction of propagation of the wave. Hence as
the wave travels each element of the medium undergoes shearing strain.
Transverse waves can therefore, be propagated only in those media which can sustain shearing stress
such as solids and strings but not in fluids. Fluids as well as solids can sustain compressive strain
therefore longitudinal waves can propagate in all elastic media. So through a steel bar both transverse
and longitudinal waves can propagate while air can only sustain longitudinal waves. Please note we are
talking only about material waves and not electromagnetic waves.

Transverse waves are composed of peaks and troughs. The peak is the top point of the wave and trough
is the bottom point of the wave. Refer to the diagram below for the visual representation of these terms.

16.6: Speed of a Transverse Wave

The speed of a wave depends on the characteristics of the medium. For example, in the case of a guitar,
the strings vibrate to produce the sound. The speed of the waves on the strings and the wavelength
determine the frequency of the sound produced. The strings on a guitar have different thicknesses but
may be made of similar material. They have different linear densities, and the linear density is defined as
the mass per length.

One of the key properties of any wave is the wave speed. Light waves have a much greater propagation
speed than sound waves in the air. For that reason, a flash is seen from a lightning bolt before the clap of
thunder is heard. It is important to understand the speed of transverse waves on a string because this
speed is essential for analyzing stringed musical instruments. Furthermore, the speeds of many kinds of
mechanical waves have the same primary mathematical expression as the speed of waves on a string.
The physical quantities that determine the speed of transverse waves on a string are the tension in the
string and its mass per unit length (also called the linear mass density). Increasing the tension increases
the restoring forces that tend to straighten the string when disturbed, thus increasing the wave speed.
Increasing the mass makes the motion more sluggish and decreases the speed.
The most important characteristic of a sound wave is wavelength. The wavelength is the distance
between adjacent crests or identical points in the adjacent cycles of a waveform signal transmitted
through space or along a wire.

What is 'Wavelength'

Definition: Wavelength can be defined as the distance between two successive crests or troughs of a
wave. It is measured in the direction of the wave.

Description: Wavelength is the distance from one crest to another, or from one trough to another, of a
wave (which may be an electromagnetic wave, a sound wave, or any other wave). Crest is the highest
point of the wave whereas the trough is the lowest. Since wavelength is distance/length, it is measured
in units of lengths such as metres, centimetres, milimetres, nanometres, etc.

The following equation is known as the wavelength formula or the wavelength equation:

? = V/f (where ' V' is the speed of the wave and 'f' is the frequency of the wave)

Thus, Wavelength of the wave = Speed of the wave/ Frequency

Example: If the speed of a wave is 600m per second and the frequency of the waves is 30 waves per sec,
then the wavelength will be equal to:

? = 600/30

? = 20 m

Wavelength of light varies with colours, i.e., it is different for every colour. Red colour has the longest
wavelength while violet has the least. The wavelength of UV radiation is shorter than violet light.
Similarly, the wavelength of infra red radiation is longer than the wavelength of red light.

Wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency. This means the longer the wavelength, lower the
frequency. In the same manner, shorter the wavelength, higher will be the frequency.
What is the intensity free field propagation?

The Free Field

Free field propagation is characterized by a 6 dB drop in sound pressure level and intensity level (in the
direction of sound propagation) each time the distance from the source is doubled . This is simply a
statement of the inverse square law .

Sound pressure, or sound pressure level, is the result of the pressure variations in the air achieved by the
sound waves. The lowest sound pressure which can be heard by humans is called the hearing threshold,
the highest which can be endured is known as the pain threshold.

14.1.5 Sound pressure level (SPL)

The sound power level of a fan is comparable to the power output of a heater. Both measure the energy
(in one case — noise energy, the other — heat energy) fed into the environment surrounding them.
However, neither the sound power level nor the power output will tell us the effect on a human being in
the surrounding space.

In the case of a heater, the engineer, by considering the volume of the surroundings, the materials of the
room, and what other heat sources are present, can determine the resulting temperature at any point. In
a similar way, the acoustic engineer, by considering very similar criteria, can calculate the sound pressure
level at any point. (Remember, it is sound pressure that vibrates the eardrum membrane and determines
how we hear a noise.)

Sound pressure levels are also measured on a logarithmic scale but the unit is the decibel re 2 × 10−5 Fa.
There is another advantage in using the decibel scale. Because the ear is sensitive to noise in a
logarithmic fashion, the decibel scale more nearly represents how we respond to a noise.

Sound pressure refers to the local pressure deviation from the ambient (average or equilibrium)
atmospheric pressure caused by a sound wave. In other words, it measures the variation in air pressure
created by a sound wave as it travels through a medium, usually air.
The unit of measurement for sound pressure is the Pascal (Pa), which is the SI unit of pressure. However,
because the variations in air pressure due to sound waves are often very small, sound pressure levels are
commonly expressed in decibels (dB), which is a logarithmic scale.

The formula for calculating sound pressure level (SPL) in decibels is:

20

log

10

SPL=20⋅log

10

P
)

where:

SPL is the sound pressure level in decibels.

P is the root mean square (RMS) sound pressure.

is the reference sound pressure, typically set to

20

20×10

−6

Pa (which is approximately the threshold of human hearing at 1 kHz).

This formula indicates that the sound pressure level is proportional to the logarithm of the ratio of the
sound pressure to a reference pressure. It's worth noting that sound pressure level provides a
convenient way to express the intensity of sound on a scale that is more perceptually relevant to human
hearing.

Understanding sound pressure is crucial in fields such as acoustics, audio engineering, and
environmental noise assessment, among others.

SOUND PRESSURE

Sound pressure or acoustic pressure is the local pressure deviation from the ambient (average or
equilibrium) atmospheric pressure, caused by a sound wave. In air, sound pressure can be measured
using a microphone, and in water with a hydrophone. The SI unit of sound pressure is the pascal (Pa).