FEDERAL UNIVERSITY, DUTSIN-MA

FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES

DEPARTEMENT OF MATHEMATICS

MTH 102
COURSE GUIDE

ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS II
(CALCULUS)

(2 UNITS)

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COURSE DESCRIPTION

Elementary Mathematics II (Calculus) is a course that covers fundamental topics in calculus.

It includes:

1. Functions of Real Variables: Understanding and working with functions that depend on
a single real variable. Analyzing and graphing functions to visualize their behavior.
2. Limits and the Concept of Continuity: Studying the concept of limits and how it relates
to the continuity of functions.
3. Differentiation: The derivative as a limit of the rate of change; exploring the concept of
the derivative and how it represents the instantaneous rate of change of a function.
Learning techniques of differentiation, which are methods used to compute derivatives of
various functions.
4. Integration: Integration as the inverse of differentiation, that is studying integration as
the reverse process of differentiation. Methods of integration; Learning techniques to
evaluate integrals. Exploring definite integrals.
5. Applications of Differentiation and Integration: Applications such as finding areas
and volumes under curves. Understanding and graphing extreme points (maxima and
minima) of functions.

This course provides a foundational understanding of calculus and its practical applications.

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 CHAPTER ONE

1. FUNCTIONS OF REAL VARIABLES

Definition 1.1 (Function) A function is a mapping from a set 𝑋 into a set 𝑌 in which every
elements of 𝑋 has an image in 𝑌. For instance if 𝑓 is a mapping from 𝑋 into 𝑌, and there exists
an element 𝑥 in 𝑋, then 𝑓 is a function if ∃ an element 𝑦, where 𝑦 is as a result of the action of 𝑓
on 𝑥. We denote this acting of 𝑓 on 𝑥 by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦.

1.1 Preliminary Properties of Functions

(i) 𝑋 is called the domain of 𝑓 while 𝑌 is called the co-domain of 𝑓. 𝑦 is the image
of 𝑥 under 𝑓.
(ii) The variable 𝑥 is called the independent variable while 𝑦 is called the dependent
variable.
(iii) The set of all the images of the elements of 𝑋 is called the range of 𝑓. This is the
set 𝑅 such that for every element 𝑦 in 𝑅 there exists an element 𝑥 in 𝑋 such
that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦. Note that 𝑅 ⊆ 𝑌.
(iv) We can write 𝑓 as the set of all ordered pairs (𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 and 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅.
Thus, 𝑓 = (𝑋 × 𝑅). That is, 𝑓 is a subset of the cross product of the sets 𝑋and
𝑅.
(v) Since 𝑓 = (𝑋 × 𝑅) and (𝑋 × 𝑅) ⊆ (𝑋 × 𝑌) it follows that 𝑓 ⊆ (𝑋 × 𝑌).

Example 1.1

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1.2 Finding Values of functions

If 𝑓 defines a function, then for each value 𝑥 in the domain of f, the corresponding processed
value, denoted as 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), is called the value of the function.

Example 1.2
Show that the rule 𝑦 = 25 − 2𝑥 defines a function. Find the values of the function for the
first three positive integers.
Solution:
(i) The rule 𝑦 = 25 − 2𝑥 instructs us to take a value 𝑥 from the domain, square it, multiply it
by a factor of 2, and then subtract it from 25. Since this rule generates only one value y in the
range for each x in the domain, it qualifies as a function.

The values of the function for the first three positive integers are:
For 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 25 – 2(1) = 23
For 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 25 – 2(2) = 17
For 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 25 – 2(3) = 7

Example 1.3
The domain of the function ℎ(𝑥) = 2(𝑥 − 1) is {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Find the range

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Solution:
For 𝑥 = 0, ℎ(0) = 2((0) − 1) = −2. For 𝑥 = 1, ℎ(1) = 2((1) − 1) = 0.
For 𝑥 = 2, ℎ(2) = 2((2) − 1) = 6. For 𝑥 = 3, ℎ(3) = 2((3) − 1) = 16.

For 𝑥 = 4, ℎ(4) = 2((4) − 1) = 30. For 𝑥 = 5, ℎ(5) = 2((5) − 1) = 48.

Therefore, the range of the function is {−2, 0, 6, 16, 30, 48}.

Example 1.4
Given that 𝑓(𝑡) = 4(𝑡 − 3) + 6𝑡. Find the values of
(i) 𝑓(−3) (ii) 𝑓(0) (iii) 𝑓(3𝑡) (iv) 𝑓(𝑥 + 3)

Solution:
(i) For 𝑡 = −3, 𝑓(−3) = 4(−3 − 3) + 6(−3)
= 4(−6) + 6(−3)
= −24 − 18 = −42

(ii) For 𝑡 = 0, 𝑓(0) = 4(0 − 3) + 6(0)

= 4(−3) + 6(0)
= −12 + 0 = −12

(iii) For 𝑡 = 3𝑡, 𝑓(3𝑡) = 4(3𝑡 − 3) + 6(3𝑡)

= 12𝑡 − 12 + 18𝑡
= 30𝑡 − 12 = 6(5𝑡 − 2)

(iv) For 𝑡 = 𝑥 + 1, 𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = 4(𝑥 + 1 − 3) + 6(𝑥 + 1)

= 4𝑥 − 8 + 6𝑥 + 6
= 10𝑥 − 2 = 2(5𝑥 − 1)

NOTE: All functions are rules, but not all rules are functions. To be considered a function, a rule
must have a one-to-one correspondence between values in the domain and values in the range.

Exercise 1.1
1. Suppose that a function 𝑔 is defined for all real numbers t by 𝑔(𝑡) = 2𝑥 − 𝑥. Find
the values of (i) 𝑔(5) (ii) 𝑔(11) (iii) 𝑔(−4) (iv) 𝑔(𝑘 + 1) (v) 𝑔(2𝑡)

2. Given that {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Find the corresponding values of g, where g is given by the
rule (i) 𝑔 = 𝑥 + 5 (ii) 𝑔 = (𝑥 − 2)

3. The volume of a solid sphere of radius r is given asV(r) = πr . Find the volume of
the sphere with a radius of 9 meters.

4. State whether or not the following rules express a function

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 (i) 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 5 (ii) 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 3 (iii) 𝑦 = (iv) 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑥
±
(v) 𝑦 = 6 − 𝑥 (vi) 𝑦 = √𝑥 + 1

1.3 Finding Domain and Range of Functions

Definition 1.2 (Domain) The domain of a real-valued functions is the set of all possible input
values (x-values) for which the function is defined. It specifies the valid inputs that the function
can accept.

Definition 1.2 (Range) The range of a real-valued function is the set of all possible output
values (y-values) that the function can produce.

Example 1.5
(i) Find the domain and range of 𝑓(𝑥) =

Solution:
𝒇: ℝ → ℝ,

1
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥

∴ 𝑓(0) = , f is not defined

∴ 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = ℝ − {0}

Or 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞) Or 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ}

Range is obtained by substituting the minimum and maximum values of the domain in the

function. Therefore from the domain, 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑓) = ℝ − {0}

Or = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞)

Or = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ}

Example 1.6
(i) Find the domain and range of 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥

Solution:

Give that 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥

Domain: We express those inside the radical so that it must be non-negative, therefore

1−𝑥 ≥0

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 −𝑥 ≥ −1

𝑥 ≤ ±1

Therefore, the 𝐷𝑜𝑚(𝑓) = [−1,1].

And the 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒(𝑓) = [0,1].

Exercise 1.2
Find the domain and range of the following functions

(i) (ii) 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 4 (iii) 𝑦 =

(iv) 𝑦 = √

1.4 Types of Functions

1.4.1 Even, Odd and Periodic Functions

Definition 1.2 (Even Functions) A function 𝑓(𝑥) is even if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in the
domain of 𝑓. Even functions are symmetric about the 𝑦-axis. An example of an even function is
𝑦=𝑥 .

3 𝑦=𝑥

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1

-2

From the graph above, we can see that 𝑦 = 𝑥 is symmetric about the 𝑦-axis.
Other examples of even functions are 𝑦 = 𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 , 𝑦 = cos 𝑥, etc

Definition 1.3 (Odd Functions) A function 𝑓(𝑥) is said to be odd if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥). An
example of odd functions is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥

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 56
46
36 𝑦=𝑥
26
16
6
-4
-6 -4 -2 -14 0 2 4 6
-24
-34
-44
-54
-64
This function is symmetric about the origin. Other examples of odd functions include 𝑦 =
𝑥 , 𝑦 = 𝑥 , 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 , 𝑦 = tan 𝑥, etc.

Example 1.7
Determine whether the following function is even or odd: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5.

Solution: Given that𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5,

Now,

𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥) − 5⟹ 𝑓(−𝑥) = (−) 𝑥 − 5

⟹ 𝑓(−𝑥) = (+)𝑥 − 5⟹ 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5

Since 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(−𝑥), we can conclude that 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function.

Definition 1.4 (Periodic Functions) A function is said to be periodic if there exists a constant 𝑘
such that 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑘) = 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓. The smallest such 𝑘 is called the period
of the function. In other words, the function repeats itself at a regular interval and such interval is
called the period of the function. An example of a periodic function is 𝑦 = sin 𝑥.

1.00

0.00
0.00 1.57 3.14 4.71 6.28 7.85 9.42 10.99 12.56 14.13 15.70
5𝜋

-1.00

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Notice that the period of the above function is 2𝜋. This is because sin(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = sin 𝑥. Other
examples of a periodic function include cos 𝑥 , tan 𝑥, etc.

1.4.2 Composition Functions

If ℎ(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are two functions, the composition function denoted by ℎ𝑜𝑔 is defined as
(ℎ𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑔(𝑥)).
To obtain(ℎ𝑜𝑔)(𝑥), we firstly obtain 𝑔(𝑥) and then ℎ(𝑔(𝑥)). Similarly, to obtain (𝑔𝑜ℎ)(𝑥), we
firstly ℎ(𝑥) and then obtain 𝑔(ℎ(𝑥)).

Example 1.8

(1) If ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1.Find

(i) (ℎ𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) (ii) (𝑔𝑜ℎ)(𝑥) (iii) (ℎ𝑜ℎ)(𝑥) (v) (𝑔𝑜𝑔)(𝑥)
(2) Given that ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3. Find
(i) ℎ(𝑔(0)) (ii) 𝑔(ℎ(2)) (iii) ℎ(ℎ( )) (v) 𝑔(𝑔(1))
Solution:
(1) Given that ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1, then
(i) From definition, (ℎ𝑜𝑔)(𝑥) = ℎ 𝑔(𝑥)
= ℎ(𝑥 + 1)

= (𝑥 + 1) + 5
= 𝑥 + 2𝑥 + 6
(ii) From definition, (𝑔𝑜ℎ)(𝑥) = 𝑔(ℎ(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑥 + 5)
=𝑥 +5+1 = 𝑥 +6
Solve (iii) and (iv)
Example 1.9 Given that ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 3. Find

(i) ℎ(𝑔(0)) (ii) 𝑔(ℎ(2)) (iii) ℎ(ℎ( )) (iv) 𝑔(𝑔(1))

Solution:
(i) ℎ 𝑔(0) = ℎ(0 − 3)
= ℎ(−3) = −3 + 5 = 2

(ii) 𝑔 ℎ(2) = 𝑔(2 + 5)

= 𝑔(7) = 7 − 3 = 11

Solve (iii) and (iv) as an exercise.

1.4.3 One-to-one Function

A function 𝑓 is said to be one-to-one if different elements in the domain 𝐴 have
distinct images.

Equivalently 𝑓 is one-to-one iff 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏

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Example 1.10

Example 1.11 A 𝑓: R → R by𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1, show that 𝑓 is one-to-one.

Proof:
Suppose𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏), we show that
𝑎 = 𝑏
By definition,
𝑎 + 1 =𝑏 + 1
Subtract 1 from both sides,
𝑎=𝑏
∴ 𝑓 is one-to-one function.

Example 1.12 𝑓: R → R by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 , verify whether 𝑓 is one-to-one or not.

Proof:
Suppose 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏), we show that

𝑎 = 𝑏
By definition, a2=b2.
e.g (—3)2=32
9=9 but —3/=3.
∴ 𝑓 is not one-to-one function.

1.4.4 Onto Function

A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is said to be onto if every element in B is the image of
some elements in 𝐴. A function is said to invertible if it is both one-to-one and
onto.

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Example 1.13

Solution:

𝑓 (𝑟) = 1, 𝑓 (𝑠) = 4.

𝑓 (𝑡) = 2, 𝑓 (𝑢) = 3.

A one-to-one function is called injective function. An

onto function is called surjective function.

An invertible function is called bijective function.

1.5 Inverse of a Function

A function 𝑔 has an inverse denoted by 𝑔 iff it is injective (i.e. one-to-one). We find
the inverse of 𝑔 by reversing a one-to-one function.

1.5.1 Finding Inverse of a Function

Let 𝑔(𝑥) be a function, then to find 𝑔 (𝑥), we consider the following;
(i) Let 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) and solve the equation for 𝑥 in terms of 𝑦
(ii) Interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the result which gives the inverse

Example 1.14
Find the inverse of the following functions
(i) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4 (ii) 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3 (iii) 𝑔 = √4 − 𝑥
(iv) 𝑔 =

Solution:
(i) Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 4
𝑥 =𝑦+4
𝑥= 𝑦 + 4 , now by interchanging 𝑥 and 𝑦, we get
𝑦 = √𝑥 + 4
∴ 𝑔 (𝑥) = √𝑥 + 4

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(ii) Let 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3
5𝑦 − 15 = 2𝑥
( )
𝑥= , now by interchanging 𝑥 and 𝑦, we get
5(𝑥 − 3) 5(𝑥 − 3)
𝑦= ∴ 𝑔 (𝑥) =
2 2
Solve (iii) and (iv) as an exercise.

1.6 Graphs of Functions

When a function's domain encompasses the entire set of real numbers ℝ, it is consistently
depicted along the horizontal axis, while the associated values of the dependent variable are
indicated by points on the vertical axis. In typical usage, the 𝑥 − axis represents the domain
(typically denoted as ' 𝑥 '), and the y − axis represents the co-domain (typically denoted as ' y ').

Note: It is crucial to acknowledge that the fundamental rule of a function, which dictates that
each element in the domain maps to only one element in the co-domain, is applied to the graph
of a function, not all graphs faithfully depict a function.

Example 1.15
Sketch the graphs of the following and state whether or not it represents graph of a
function

(i) y = x for 𝑥 = −3 to 𝑥 = 3

(ii) y = √𝑥 for 𝑥 = {0, 1, 4, 9, }

(iii) y = √𝑥 for 𝑥 = {−1, 0, 1, 8, 27}

(iv) 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 100, for 𝑥 = {−6, −3, 0, 3, 6}

(v) y= ,𝑥≠0

(vi) y = x for 𝑥 = −3 to 𝑥 = 3

Solution:
(i) Let y = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 for 𝑥 = −3 to 𝑥 = 3

Table 1: Values of y = 𝑥 for 𝑥 = −3 to 𝑥 = 3

𝑥 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 (−3) (−2) (−1) (0) (1) (2) (3)
Y 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

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 10
9
y=x2
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-4 -2 0 2 4

(ii) Let y = 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 for 𝑥 = {0, 1, 4, 9}

Table 2: Values of y = √𝑥 for 𝑥 = {0, 1, 4, 9, 16}

𝑥 0 1 4 9 16
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 √0 √1 √4 √9 √16
Y 0 ±1 ±2 ±3 ±4

4
y = √𝑥
3
2
1
0
-1 0 2 4 6 8 10

-2
-3
-4

We observed that figure in (i) represents graph of the function, while figure in (ii)
did not, as there are values of 𝑥 that yield more than one value of 𝑦. For example,
for x = 1 the corresponding values of is y = ±1 which doesn’t satisfy the rule of
functions.
Solve (iii)-(vi) as an exercise.

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