Urban and Regional Planning-A Systems View 67

Urban and Regional Planning-A

Sys terns View
B. C. BUYYOWS*

The most interesting developments in the search for new Shepard, 1874. In this work the author attempts an
planning procedures are in the areas of ecology, as an eco objective assessment of the works and development of
system with the matrix structure of environmental impact
the city in the past.
analysis, and Ekistics, the science of human settlement.
The grid system developed in this approach combined
with the environmental impact analysis model, provides The last of the hopeful utopias was in the work of
a complete systems approach. The problem is to relate Robert Owen. Today our view of the future is one of
this to systems dynamics and to integrate this approach complete pessimism in such utopias as Nineteen Eighty
with the concept of society as a dynamic social system.
Four, Brave New World and most contemporary
The literature review highlights key works which lead to
or use the systems approach. By attempting to identify a science fiction.
systems approach many planning techniques and con-
cepts are not included. However, if one adopts this OWEN ROBERT
approach it is possible to test the use of any technique
within a recognized framework and not on the piecemeal
A New View of Society and Report to the County of Lanark.
basis which is used at present. Edited, with an introduction by V. A. C. Gatrell.
Penguin Books (1970). A New View of Society was first
published in 1813 and A Report to the County of Lanark
in 1820.

Owen was a New Lanark mill owner and a social

I. I An Historical Review philosopher. He believed that environment influenced
Aristotle, in his ‘Politics’, states that the basic unit of character and that a new moral order would come
society is the household and the polis is the supreme &rough education. Many of his views seem naive today,
form of human association. These essential principles but his belief in an organic community is still of interest.
have been ignored by many subsequent planners. A recent assessment of the impact of Owen on planning
is given in the following article.
This fact has been acknowledged in the following
article. HAWORTH, A.
Planning and philosophy: the case of Owenism and the
DOWNEY, GLENVILLE Owenite communities. Urban Studies, 13,147-153 (1976).
Aristotle as an expert in urban problems.
Ekisrics, 42, (253), 316-321 (December 1976).
There was little attempt to see society in relation to
planning techniques. These grew out of man’s concept 1.2 Founding Fathers of British
of society as a utopia, first seen in Plato’s Republic and
the Laws and Thomas Moore’s Utopia. All these works Urban and Regional Planning
held the view that man’s future was one ofimprovement. The founding fathers of British urban and regional
This approach continued into Victorian times and
planning were Patrick Geddes and Ebenezer Howard:
resulted in some practical applications of good urban
planning.
Patrick Geddes
Patrick Geddes was a biologist who became interested
One work which stands out in isolation from this is in town and country planning. He was interested in the
Fustei De Coulange’s The &cierlt City, Bosten Lee and sociology of Compte and Le Pay and developed a
holistic approach to planning which has much in
common with general systems theory. He called this the
‘The author’s address is 39 Vicarage Street, Woburn Sands,
Bucks, U.K. synoptic vision.
68 Long Range Planning Vol. 13 April 1980

GEDDES,SIR PATRICK OSBORN,FREDERIC J.

Cities in Evolution. An Introduction to the Town Planning Green-belt
Cities. Foreword by Lewis Mumford. Evely,
Movement and to the Study of Civics. Benn (1968). First Adams and Macky (1969).
published in 1915.
Osborn was inspired by Howard and was active in the
GOIST, PARKDIXON New Town movement.
Patrick Geddes and the city.
OSBORN, FREDERICJ. and WHITTICK, ARNOLD
journal of the American Institute of Planners, 40 (l), 31-37
The New Towns. The Ansloer to Megalopolis.Introduced
(January 1974).
by Lewis Mumford. Leonard Hill. Third Edition (1977).

KITCHEN,PADDY The term ‘megalopolis’ was coined by J. Gottman in

Patrick Geddes : nurturer of life. 1957 to describe the large soul-less cities.
Built Environment Quarterly, pp. 61-65 (June 1975).
PURDOM,C. B.
KITCHEN,PADDY The Building of Satellite Towns. A Contribution, to the
A Most Unsettling Person. An Introduction to the Ideas and Study of Town Development and Regional Planning. Dent
Life of Patrick Geddes. 351 pp. Gollancz (1975). (1949). First edition 1925.

LESSER,WENDY C. B. Purdom worked with Frederic Osborn on the new

Patrick Geddes : the practical visionary. town planning in Great Britain.
Town Planning Review, 45 (3), 311-327 (July 1974).
Buckminster Fuller
Buckminster Fuller is a research professor in the
HOWARD,EBENEZER
Department of Design at Southern University and is
Garden Cities of Tomorrow. Edited, with a preface by
the inventor-discoverer of energetic-synergetic geo-
F. J. Osborn. Introductory essay by Lewis Mumford.
metry, geodesic structures and tensegrity structures.
Faber (1946). First published in 1898.
He also has a holistic attitude to form which he calls
the synergetic approach. John McHale was one of his
This work resulted in Letchworth and Welwyn
pupils and has been influenced by his thinking.
Garden City, both successful community develop-
ments. Milton Keynes is an attempt to combine the
FULLER,R. BUCKMINSTER
city and country on a larger scale.
The Buckminster Fuller Reader. Edited and introduced by
James Meller. Penguin Books (1972).
Lewis Mumford has written widely on the whole
human condition. He was a pupil of Geddes and to-
FULLER,BUCKMINSTER
gether with the New Town movement in Britain he
Operating Manualfbr SpaceshipEarth. Carbondale, U.S.A.
has made a major contribution to human settlement
(1970).
planning for people and not for planners. His work
forms the basis for a systems approach to planning.
FULLER,R. BUCKMINSTER
Utopia or Oblivion. The Prospect for Humanity. Penguin
MUMFORD,LEWIS Books (1972). First published 1969.
Story of Utopias (1922).
Technics and Civilisation. Routledge (1934). FULLER,R. BUCKMINSTER
Culture of Cities. Seeker and Warburgh (1938). Syncrgetics. Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking.
The Condition of Man. Seckcr and Warburgh (1944). Collier MacMillan (1976). 912 pp.
Conduct ofLij. Seeker and Warburgh (1952).
The Transformation of Man. Allen and Unwin (1957). A comprehensive presentation of Buckminster Fuller’s
The City in History. Seeker and Warburgh (1961). philosophical and geometrical thoughts with allusions
Penguin Books (1966). A revised version of Culture to politics, economics and current topics.
of Cities.
The Myth of the Machine. Technics and Httman Dcvelop- Reviews
ment. Seeker and Warburgh (1967). Architectural Design, 46, 296-297 (May 1976), by Keith
The Myth of the Machine. The Pentagon of Power. Critchlow.
Scckcr and Warburgh (1970). Nets Society, pp. 30-31 (1 July 1976).

After reading the Culture of Cities Frederic Osborn

wrote to Lewis Mumford. A dialogue resulted which 2. I Sociological Approach-The
is published in the following work.
Historical Basis
MUMFORD,LEWIS and OSBORN,FREDERIC J. PARK, ROBERTE. and BURGESS,ERNESTW.
Letters. A Transatlantic
Dialogue 1938-1970. Edited by The City. Introduced by Morris Janowitz. University of
Michael Hughes. Adams and Dart (1971). Chicago Press (1967). (First published 1925).
 Urban and Regional Planning-A Systems View 69

WEBER, MAX This book contains the revised papers of the second
The City. Translated and cditcd by Don Martindale and International Architectural Psychology Conference
Gertrud Neuwirth. Free Press (1958). which was held at Lund, Swcdcn (1973). Papers by
David Canter and Pctcr Smith arc included.
WIRTH, LOUIS
On Cities ad So&l Lifi. Selcctcd Papers. Edited, with LEE, TERENCE
an introduction by Albert J. Rciss Jr. University of Psychology of the Envirorznzcnt. (Essential Psychology
Chicago Press (1964). Scrics) Mcthucn (1976).
Outlines the ways in which the built environment
These papers range from 1910 to 1953 and give a social influences the pcrccptions, attitudes and bchaviour of
and community view of the city. people.

SMITH, P. F.
The Dynmics of Udartisnz. Hutchison (1974). 256 pp.
2.2 Sociological Approach-Today Discusses the nature of the city arguing that what
matters to the inhabitants of urban areas, apart from
BAILEY,J. the basic essentials, is the quality of buildings and the in-
Socinl Theory for Plmnirzg. Routledge and Kcgan Paul between spaces they generate. Attempts to make a case
(1975). 167 pp. for a design process which meets psychological needs
Presents a variety of sociological approaches to social and directs it not only at architects but also at those
life in an attempt to indicate to planners some of the who exercise statutory control over the built cn-
more recent developments in social theory. Emphasizes vironment.
the value of such theories in defining planning problems
rather than in solving them. The advantages of conflict SMITH, PETERF.
theory, interpretative sociology, evolutionism, and sys- The Syntax ofCitics(BtrihEnvironment Series). Hutchinson
tems theory arc assessed and urban sociology and re- (1977).
search methods evaluated in the light of alternative The author applies different aspects of psychology to
social thcorics. the problem of urban design in an attempt to probe
into how some towns and cities are able to offer
MELLOR, ROSEMARY pleasure in many dimensions.
Urban sociology in an urbanized society, British Journal
of Sociology, 36 (3), pp. 276-293. (September 1975).
The argument of this paper falls into three broad
sections; firstly an outline of the intellectual crisis
confronting urban sociologists; secondly an account of 4. Geographical Approach
the direction taken by British urban sociology; and
thirdly, a discussion of the statement of ‘metropolitan Geography has attempted to continue its existence as a
dominance’ and its implications for the study of separate discipline by the inclusions of spatial analysis
settlcmcnts. techniques but it soon will be part of ecology. In fact by
the use of a system approach this subject becomes an
ecosystem. This can then be linked into a unified theory
of human geography and General Systems theory.
3. Psychological Approach
CHISHOLM,MICHAEL
CANTER, DAVID Gcncral systems theory and geography.
,4rchitcctr/r.n/ Psyrhology. RIBA Publications Ltd. (1970). IBG Trms, 42, pp. 45-52 (1967).
P~ycllolo~y for ,4dritccts. Applied Science Publications
(1974). - CHORLEY,R. J.
T/JL~Psychology of P/m. Architectural Press Ltd. (1977). Gcomctry and gcncral systems theory.
This author <is, like Peter Smith, intcrestcd in how we U.S. Gcol. Sway. Prof. Paper 500B. 10 pp. (1962).
see things in relation to the conceptual and cognitive.
Hc is an cnvironmcntal psychologist. CHORLEY, R. J. and KENEDY, BARBARAA.
Physicnl Geography. -4 System Appronch. Prentice Hall
CANTER, DAVIS and LEE, TERENCE,(cds) (1971).
PA$JO~~ OIJ~rhc BJI~~ EIIV~IWJIIJCVJ~.
Architectural Press
(1974). Both Chishohn and Chorley use GST as a basis for
human geography.
A sclcction of papers by David Canter, Peter Smith and
others. HARVEY, DAVID W.
Explntzntior~ irl Gcogrqhy. Arnold (1969). 521 pp.
KULLER,RICHARD(cd.) A wide ranging view of geography, its philosophy,
A~~~itc~trrrn/Ps)drolo~p. Do\\-den. Hutchinson and Ross methodology, thcmcs, laws and mod&. Chapter 23
Inc. U.S.A. (1973). deals with a systems approach.
70 Long Range Planning Vol. 13 April 1980

5. Control Engineering Approach The paper argues that systems analysis provides an
invaluable frame for many aspects of urban studies.
CLOWES, GEORGE A. and MARSHALL, SAM A. Two uses of the systems approach are identified. First,
A control engineering framework for planning. there is the use of the approach to conceptualize the
Long Range Planning, pp. 70-80 (August 1975). phenomenon of study such that the researcher’s
Control engineering provides a convenient framework emphasis is on the nature of the inter-relationships of the
for analyzing and understanding the essential features of objects and the attributes of the system of interest on
business planning and control processes. This is because the one hand, and the study of sub-systems of interest
the basic idea of a control hierarchy is fundamental both within an interacting whole, on the other. Secondly,
to control engineering and to the control of a business. there is the use of the systems approach to generate
Control hierarchies in both business and in engineering appropriate methodological tools for the analysis and
are information-processing devices. As a business grows description of urban spatial and fundamental structure.
in size and complexity, its control hierarchies grow For these uses of the system approach, the concept of
correspondingly more complex (‘The principle of entropy, introduced from both thermodynamics and
hierarchization’): this is in order to manage the in- information theory, plays a significant role.
creased information-processing load. The authors
describe how the basic control diagram can provide CESARIO, F. J.
valuable insight into the planning and control hier- A primer on entropy modclling.
archies of business systems. The authors emphasize that American Institute of Pkmzers, In/., 41 (l), 40-48 (‘January
the ‘control engineering’ method of analyzing the 1975).
management process complements existing theories of Although the concept of entropy is increasingly mcn-
management planning and control. tioned in urban and regional planning, there is no clear
presentation of its potential applications. This is partly
because entropy can be interpreted in several diGrent
ways both physical and statistical. The potential
6. Operational Research Approach relevance of entropy to urban and regional modelling
is, however, largely related to its statistical interpre-
This subject is beginning to merge with cybernetics tation and this article attempts to explain entropy as a
and information theory. measure of uncertainty.

FRIEND, J. K. and JESSOP, N. MCHALE, JOHN

Local Government and Strategic Choice: An Operational The Changing Informdon Environment. Paul Elek. 117 pp.
Research Approach to the Processes of Public Planning. (1976).
Tavistock. Second edition (1976). 304 pp. (First pub- This is a general study of contemporary society, loosely
lished 1969.) put into an information framework. The direction is
This is a study of decision making in local government from specific to general, so the first chapter is on in-
and has a wide influence on planners. formation, technology and communications and covers
developments in computer tech&logy and the inter-
KITCHEN, T. action of information and communication technology.
Operational influences on planners’ behaviour. The progression towards the final chapter, global
Plamer. 60 (9).\I’
DD. 894-897 (November
I‘
1974). I aspects, is via changes in the nature of resources, the
Argues that the ideology ind values of planning, as individual and society, education and culture, business
Dasscd on in olanning literature and education. have and management and the political process. Information is
&en planncrs’an operational model which they regard the new social wealth because no resource can be
as having both normative and descriptive associations. cxploitcd without information. Information technology
Looks at some major works in the develop&t of has the following cffccts: changes in management style
planning thought and suggests that these provide a and nature; trend towards incrcascd social awareness;
normative view of planning as ‘technical rationality’. trend towards convcrgcncc of public and private
Howcvcr, more work is needed to show how far the organizations. The author questions the aims and values
model relates to actual practice. 60 refcrenccs. of contemporary society, e.g. is formal education for
everyone really necessary or would on-site training for
a particular job bc more useful and fulfilling for the
individual? The general change in society and its eff‘ccts
7. Information Science, Cybernetics on the information cnvironmcnt are amply docu-
mentcd.
and Entropy
These subjects, togcthcr with operational rcscarch, are PETREY, R. CLAY
beginning to form the basis for a scicncc of com- Political cybernetics: information systems and urban
munications and information. policy analysis.
T~~csscr P/nnncr, 33 (2) 21-29 (1976).
AYENI, M. A. 0. The author dcrivcs a political cybcrnctics theory of
The city system and the USCof entropy in urban analysis. planning. He discusses the nature of a planning theory,
Urbnn Ecolo~gy, 2, 33-53 (1976). the position of the planner and the role of public
 Urban and Regional Planning-A Systems View 71

opinion in helping to determine the goals of the theory. WEBBER, MELVIN M.

The advantages and disadvantages of political cyber- The role of intelligence systems in urban system
netics are presented but the effcctivcncss of rational planning. Jorrrrlal of the American Institute of Planners, 31,
decision making in a non-rational society is considcrcd 289-296 (1965).
to be limited.
WILSON, ALAN GEOFFRY
RADFORD, R. Entropy in Urbarl and Rqional Modding. Pion (1970).
Systems cybernetics computers and health buildings. The author attempts to establish a gcncral theory of
Comprtcr Aidd Dcsigrt, pp. 16-22 (Autumn 1971). utility-maximizing systems by the use of entropy in
This paper briefly sets out the application of cybernetics urban and regional planning models and general system
and the USCof computers to the total process of bringing theory. The approach is mathematical.
health building projects from inception to completion
within a rolling integrated programme. It provides an
interim account of the work now being carried out by
the Department of Health and Social Security and is
known as the CUBITH system (Co-ordinated Use of
8. Ekistics-The Science of Human
Building Industrial Technology for Health Programme). Settlement
CHRISTAKIS, ALEXANDERN.
FRIEDMANN,JOHN and HUDSON, BARCLAY Towards a symbiotic appreciation of the morphology
Knowledge and action : a guide to planning theory. of human settlements.
Journal of the American Instittlte of Planners, pp. 2-16 Ekistics, pp. 449-463 (December 1974).
(January 1974). This is a very important paper for the advancement of
Planning is considered as an activity centre concerned systems thinking. The author builds a model using
with the linkage between knowledge and organized morphological mapping developed by Fritz Zwickey
action. The major traditions of planning theory are with the ekistics grid system. This gives a detailed
philosophical synthesis, the tradition of rationalism, the structure of a system for planning.
tradition of organization development and the tradition
of empiricism.
CLIFF, URSULA
Designers of human settlements.
GERBNER, R. GROSS, L. P. and MELODY, W. H., (eds). Desigrz and Enviromwnt, pp. 18-35 (Spring 1976).
Cor~lrl~~rlliratio~zsT~‘clmo1opy ad Social Policy, Under- Not only architects, but bankers, historians and bureau-
stdirzg the Nuv Cdtwal Revobon. Wiley and Sons crats help to shape cities. The ideas of Arnold Toynbee,
(1973). 573 pp. Lewis Mumford, Hassen Fathy, Buckminster Fuller,
Forty-two contributors attempt to place communi- Constantinos Doxiadis, Charles Correa, Paul Mivaluho,
cations technology in a realistic perspective by relating Robert McNamara and John F. C. Turner are briefly
it to the struggle for economic and political control, as described.
well as the real advantages and disadvantages that the
subject holds in education, and urban and international DOXIADIS, C. A.
dcvclopment. Specific topics include communications Ekistics: An Illtrodlrction to the Science of Hwrrarz Settle-
satellites, cable TV, urban communication, mass media, nler~ts. Hutchinson (1968). 527 pp.
and new technical developments. This is Doxiadis most detailed study of his views and is,
in fact his major work. It is challenging, difficult to
LYLE, JOHN and WOOTKE, MARK VON comprehend and a key work in the forming of planning
An information system of environmental planning. theory.
]ol1rw/ qfthc Amcricarz Iflstitrite ofPlarzrlirzg, 40 (6) pp. 394-
413. (November 1974). DOXIADIS, C. A.
New laws regarding environmental impact evaluation The ecological types of space that we need.
require more careful consideration of physical factors Environmental Conservatiorl, 2 (1) 3-13 (Spring 1975).
in land use planning. An information system to aid in Suggests that humanity in the past has survived during
environmental planning has been developed for San its various chases of develomnent bv creating
I
an
Diego County by the Laboratory for Experimental ecological balance with the en&onment. Modern kan’s
Design at Cal Poly, Pomona, under a Ford Foundation danger lies in his increased ability to invade nature
grant. This information system is based on interactions without being aware of the conscquenccs. The answers to
of location, environmental effects, and departmental ac- the resulting confusion in the use of space is a clearer idea
tions. The system is designed to identify optimum lo- of the types of space we need, i.e. areas of cultivation,
cations for dcvclopment on the basis of natural processes, areas of nature, areas of human living and arcas of
to make qualitative predictions of environmental effects industry. Within these broad arcas, twelve zones of
of proposed developments in order to evaluate en- land-use are identified with the ultimate goal of reach-
\~ironmental impact, and to determine what human ing a global ecological balance and the immediate goals
activities will bring about the least change in natural of saving land for agriculture and conserving the
processes on given land. natural environment. 10 references.
72 Long Range Planning Vol. 13 April 1980

DOXIADIS, C. A. Discusses the growing importance of environmental

Ecology and Ekistics.
Elek (1977). 120 pp. planning, reviews the growth of regional shopping
His last work which was in draft form when he died. centres, and describes the damaging effects of uni-
Attempts to unify the ekistics grid system with ecology. functional complexes such as civic and cultural centres
which would combine a number of urban functions.
Doxiadis also organized many symposiums. These are Also comments on the planning techniques required
published in the journal Ekistics. including three-dimensional planning, multi-purpose
land usage and the platform principle.
Ekistics,
41, 310-364 (June 1976).
A useful collection and extracts of papers by Doxiadis. JEFFERS,J. N. R.
A good introduction to his thinking. The ecological contribution to planning. Tol~rz and
Country Planning, pp. 542-545 (December 1976).
The author claims we need to,study and understand the
9. Ecological Approach ecology of Great Britain in more detail by the use of
systems analysis and mathematical modelling.
ARONI, SAMUEL
The ecology of housing. KELCEY, J. G.
Ekistics, 39 (235) 373-376
(June 1975). Planning and ecology in a new town. Planner, 62 (2)
This article starts with the fact that the ecology of 45-47 (February 1976).
housing, as part of the human ecology is primarily Outlines a sequence of ecological inputs to the planning
concerned with people. A morphology of housing is and development of Milton Keynes and discusses the
developed from this concept. ecological appraisal of an area’s resources, the role of
detailed ecosystem studies, and the nature of ecological
ARVILL, R. engineering and design. 10 references.
Mrltl and Environrrrent-Crisis ad the Strategy of Choice.
Third edition. Penguin (1973). 376 pp. MCHALE, J.
Taking the overcrowded British Isles as a model the Global ecology. Facts and trends. Futms, 3 (3) 216-301
_
author discusses our use and misuse of the land, air and (December 1971).
water on which human and wild life dcpcnd for exist- One of this author’s most comprehensive works on
ence. Critical issues considered arc the effects of urban- developing the views of Buckminster Fuller.
ization, pollution and participation.
NEWMAN, P. W. G.
EWALD, W. R. An ecological model for city structure and development.
Access : Alternative Comprchcnsive Community En- Ekistics, 40 (239), 258-265 (October 1975).
viromncnt Study System. Argues that a city and an ccosystcm have the same
Ekisbcs, 41 (236) 293-299 (May 1976). functions and operate under the same restrictions and
How to bccomc a planning society, not a planned society. applies some of the lessons lcarncd from nature to urban
planning. Classifies the characteristics of young and
GEORGE, C. J. and MCKINLEY, D. mature cities and spcculatcs on the future of urbaniz-
Urban Ecolqqy-Ill Search oj‘ m Asphalt Rose. McGraw- ation. 31 rcfercnccs.
Hill (1974). 181 pp.
Looks at the growth and nature of the urban cnviron- NICHOLSON, M. cf (11.
mcnt arguing that, as cities arc now constructed, they Urbanism in the age of ecology. Plmuwr, 61 (2) 57-62
are poor places for living things, including man, to (February 1975).
exist in. Suggests that shortages of resources could Dcplorcs the failure of urban planners to respond
produce a worsening of conditions unless urban cn- cff>ctivcly to the implications of the energy crisis and
vironmcnts are made more diverse and therefore able the growing dissatisfaction of urban dwcllcrs with their
to accommodate a broader spectrum of the living cnvironmcnt. Argues that urban scttlcmcnts have grown
environment. up as ecological parasites on their immediate cnviron-
mcnt and that change is imperative if they arc not to
GRIFFITIIS,J. F. destroy their hosts. Gives some guidclincs towards
Clinrdtc mf,f t/w &vircjrfrrrcW:
T/W Atrrrorplwric Impur on creating a new type of cco-urbnnism and suggests
hTfdJl.Elck (1970). various indicators of urban health or decay which
This work covers the most important cnvironmcntnl could be used in tlic contest of pl:uis for tlic ~.~i~wal of
problems wliich nfkt man in tlic coiitcxt of his towns and cities. 1-l rcfct-cnccs.
cnvironmcm. The subjects range from the familiar but
q-owing problems of pest control, wntcr pollution, to
the Icsscr known clcctromngnctism and cnvironmcutnl
aspects of &ability.
 Urban and Regional Planning-A Systems View 73

PEARCE, D. W. understanding of both the ecological and thermo-

Ewironnzcntal Economics. Longmans (1976). 202 pp. dynamic implications of economic throughput and
Discusses the economics of enviromncntal problems flow rate modulation controls.
taken in this context to mean problems of pollution
(including noise) and natural rcsourcc depletion. Shows HALFON, EFRAIM
how the application of economic analysis to environ- Relative stability of ccosystcm linear mod&. Ecobgical
ment works in practice and emphasizes many of the Modclling, 2 (4), 279-286, rcfercnccs, tables (December
limitations faced by the practical investigator. Further 1976).
develops the fundamentals of an ‘ecological’ approach A method to test the relative stability of ecosystem
to some pollution problems and shows how ecology and linear models is developed. This method uses the
ecoiLomics may be synthesized in this field. Concludes cigenvaluc sensitivity to paramctcr perturbations to
with an ovcrvicw of the world population problem, compute the relative stability of the model. The pro-
the energy problem and recent world models of cn- cedurc is applied to the analysis of two models des-
vironmcntal catastrophe. cribing the calcium cycle in a forested watershed
ecosystem and the magnesium cycle in a tropical rain
WARD, BARBARA forest, respectively.
The How qf Mm. Penguin Books (1976). 294 pp.
Taking a global view of human scttlcmcnts attempts to JERNELOV, A. and ROSENBERG, R.
differentiate clearly between the prosperous cities such Stress tolcrancc of ecosystems. Enviromcntal Con-
as New York and those of Calcutta or Mexico City, ovation, 3 (l), 43-46 (Spring 1976).
and illustrates the historical development of both kinds. Argues that a stable ecosystem with high species
Concentrates on access, food, water, energy, shelter, diversity and constant physical parameters may be more
sanitation and a sense of community. Discusses problems sensitive to additional stress than a system with varying
of urban management. physical paramctcrs and low special diversity. This is in
direct contrast to traditional views of ecosystem stress
tolerance and indicates that areas already under stress
WARD, BARBARA and DUBOS, RENE
are more adaptable to pollution than those which are
Otlly One Earth. The Care and Maitltcnance of a Small
not. The findings have important implications for the
Planet. Penguin Books (1972).
localization of industry to minimize its environmental
An unofficial report commissioned by the Secretary-
impact. References.
General of the United Nations Conference on the
Human Enviromncnt, prepared with the assistance of a
LESOURNE, J.
152 member committee of corresponding consultants in
Systems analysis and international organizations. Eco-
58 countries.
logical Modclliry, 2 [4), 295-302 (December 1976).
Aiplicd syste& aiaiysis has begun to be a very im-
WARD, BARBARA portant subject of international co-operation. This
Synccsh;l> Em%h. Columbia University Press (1966). paper considers its international development; the
As far as I can discover this very explicit phrase was relationship between the research team and the policy
first used by Barbara Ward in this work on ecology. maker; its management; and the control of relations
througii public oiinion, .scientific research, branches of
technology and policy makers.

I o. Ecology-A Systems Approach U.S. OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION

A holistic perspective for environmental education.
EDENS, THO~~AS C. Ekisrics, 41 (246) 252-256 (May 1976).
Cassandra and the horn of plenty: ecological and This is a working paper of the U.S. Of& and does not
thermodynamic constraints and economic goals. Urban represent an official attitude.
Ecology, 2, 15-31 (1976).
Ecological and thermodynamic constraints on economic
activities arc becoming increasingly evident. Natural I I, Environmental Impact Analysis
ccosystcms arc self-correcting, stable systems primarily
bccausc of the operation of a bilaterally coupled fccd- BURCHELL, R. W. and LISTOKIN, D.
back information structure. Economic systems, on the T/w Envirormwtr~ Impct Hdbook. Rutgers University
orhcr hand, operate in the context of unilaterally (1975). 23-t pp.
coupled systems which allow the possibility of cumula- Presents a standardized approach to cnviromnental
tivc ci-ror over time. Contemporary economic functions impact study proccdurcs and rcquircments on the basis
of production, d’lsrll~‘butlon and control do not con- of cxpcricncc gathered in the U.S.A. It is particularly
stitutc a viable solution to the inconsistencies observed directed towards the housing sector. Rcfcrenccs.
bct\vccn natural cnvironmcntal limits and the stated
production goals of society. In addition, the increasing DEPARTMENT or TIIE ENVIRONMENT
entrap!. of remaining KSO'LU-ccs is being accclcratcd h!- Elll,iior?llrc’llflII 1111pCt ,+lm7/ysis.J. Callow and C. G.
economic politics. Long term harmony between humall Thirlwall (1975). 11 pp.
socictics and the natural cnvironmcnt requires a bcttcr l’apcr given at the Planning and Transport Rcscarch
 74 Long Range Planning Vol. 13 April 1980

Advisory Council symposium on environmental evalu- sions of the environment. The relevance of these
ation (September 1975). On the basis of an interim changes is determined by measuring their impact on the
report by a DOE study team, looks at the arguments in mission and the strategies of the company. The process,
favour of using environmental impact analysis in furthermore, provides a starting point for assessing an
Britain and suggests that it could be incorporated organization’s capabilities to respond to these forces for
within the statutory planning system. change.

DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT O’RIORDAN, T.

Research Report 13. Assessnrent of M+IY Idrrtrial Environmentalism. Pion Ltd. (1976). 373 pp.
Applications: A Mund (1976). Aims to provide a perspective on environmental
Research Workers: B. D. Clark, K. Chapman, R. management based upon critical analysis of what the
Bisset, P. Wathern, B. Manning and M. Makepeace. author feels are key writings in the area of environmental
Sponsors: SDD, DOE, Welsh Office. philosophy and design, and especially to link the
The objective of this study was to assist planners to make intellectual antecedents of the various ideologies dis-
a balanced assessment of major industrial applications cussed to the political and administrative institutions
by providing a guide to the identification and descrip- responsible for implementing ideas practically in the
tion of the impacts which may result from major real world. Discusses growth, resources, environmental-
developments. Chapter 1 outlines the background to ism and environmental law.
the research, Chapter 2 describes the work of the
research team and outlines the method of assessment of O’RIORDAN, T. 0. and HEY, R. D.
major developments which is proposed, Chapter 3 Environmental Impact Assessment. Saxon House (1976).
discusses the relationship of this method to the planning 323 pp.
system and Chapter 4 describes the method in detail. Looks at the background to environmental impact
There are five Appendices, including ten Technical assessment, current experience, the role of the law,
Advice Notes which set out the background to the methodology, and its wider implications.
assessment of particular types of impact and in some
cases suggest techniques which can be used to measure SCHWIND, P.
the scale of the effects which a major development may Environmental impacts of land Gse change. ]ou~nal
have. These advice notes cover such topics as noise, Environnlentul Systems, 6 (2), 125-145 (1976).
water pollution, landscape and ecological factors, as Develops an empirical matrix method for expressing the
well as social and economic aspects. environmental impacts of land users in a form com-
patible with economic evaluation techniques such as
DIVISION OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL EDU- benefit-cost analysis.
CATION. U.S. OFFICE OF EDUCATION. Ekistics, 41 (246),
257-262 (May 1976). UNITED NATIONS
The final report prepared for the above organization by The United Nutions Envirormcnt Pro~~rmwme-A Brief
Arizona State University. Intro&don. United Nations (1975) 14 pp.
The programme was set up following the first UN
MANNERS, IAN R. conference on the human environment in 1972 with
The environmental impact of modern agricultural the aims of promoting international co-operation in
techniques. EL&tics, 39 (230) 56-64 (January 1975). the cnvironmcntal field; monitoring the world en-
Modern agricultural systems, no less than urban systems, vironmental situation; and encouraging the acquisition,
can bc rcgardcd as artificial ecosystems that continue assessment and exchange of knowledge on the en-
to function only as a result of cxtensivc human manipu- vironment.
lation. The future challenge is to manage agricultural
ecosystems in a manner that will avoid build up of UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE IN.TERIOR
substances damaging to the ccosystcm, cnsurc the re- Geological Survey Circular 615.
cycling of essential plant nutrient and pressure spccics A procedure for evaluating cnvironmcntal impact by
diversity and spatial hctcrogcncity in the agricultural Luna B. Leopold, Frank E. Clarke, Bruce B. Hanshaw
landscape. and James R. Balsley. Washington (1971).
This was one of the first reports in environmental
NEUBAUER, F. FRIEDRIAL and SOLOMON, NORMAN B. impact analysis as a result of the environmental policy
A managerial approach to cnvironmcntal asscssmcnt. act of 1969 in the U.S.A.
Lo~z~~Rurye Pfunniry, 10,13-20 (April 1977).
The external cnvironmcnt of a corporation is one of the WALLER, R. A.
major dctcrminants of its strategy. While this view is Assessing the impact of technology on the cnvironmcnt.
readily acccptcd, the tools to monitor this important Lor!q Rmge Plotzrziy, 8 (I), 43-51 (February 1975).
dctcrminant arc still rclativcly under-dcvclopcd. The Considers the rclcvancc of Environmental Impact
authors have dcvclopcd a managerial process which Studies to industry, the govcrnmcnt and the public and
fills this gap by enabling an organization to assess its the structure of such studies. The nature of physical
cxtcrnal cnvi;onmcnt cffcctivcly and economically. changes brought about by dcvclopments of various
The approach helps cxccutivcs identify major forces for kinds is also discussed as well as the ecological, social
strategic change in the market and non-market dirncn- and economic cffccts of those changes. 7 references.
 Urban and Regional Planning-A Systems View 75

WHITTAKER, C., BROWN, P. and MONAHAN, J. broad definition of their problem and an exact strategy
7% Ha&book of Envirormcrd Powcrs. Architectural for solving it. The closer they come to one objcctivc,
Press (1976). 175 pp. the further they get from the other.
A handbook giving a description of the powers in each
of the many Acts of Parliament which affect the en- COLEMAN, ALICE
vironment. Describes to whom or to what authority Land USC planning, success or failure? Architects ]ownG1
these powers are granted and how they may bc cxcr- 165 (3), 94-134 (19 January 1977).
cised. Also covers legislation and circulars up to January A special report assessing the role of planning since the
1976. war.

FRIEND, J. K.
The dynamics of policy change. Long Range Planning
12.Multi-Discipline or Pluralistic 10,40-47 (February 1977).
Approach This paper is concerned with policy adaptation and
policy design in the public sector. The author com-
ALEXANDER, CHRISTOPHER mences with examples from U.K. experience relating
Major changes in enviromnental form required by social to policy, initially using the local authority structure
and psychological demands. Ekistics, 48, 78-85 (1969). plans as an illustration. Hc then develops three assertions :
The author claims that architects create mad idealistic that (1) turbulence undermines policy; (2) complexity
utopias and the planners talk about piecemeal planning undermines policy and (3) responsiveness undermines
which is boringly sane. policy. Subsequently he discusses ways in which policy
development may make a positive contribution to
APPLEYARD, DONALD public planning, taking account of these realities.
Planiziizg a Plrrralist City: Conjlicting Realities in Cidud
Guayana. MIT Press (1976) 312 pp. KANTOR, P.
This book pulls together and advances current Elites, pluralists and policy arenas in London: toward a
knowledge on how people in cities perceive their urban comparative theory of city policy formation. British
environment. It sets forth techniques for ascertaining ]owd of Political Science, 6, 31 l-334 (1976).
such perceptions and demonstrates how these have been Seeks to explore two approaches that have been in-
implicated in the planning of Ciudad Guayana- flucntial in orienting theory-building in American local
Venezuela. This work has been based on that of Kevin politics-the ‘elite’ approach and the ‘pluralist’-and
Lynch in The Image of‘the City. to examine their relevance to policy analysis in urban
Britain. Data are based on three Greater London
BOURNE, LARRY S., (ed.) boroughs.
Internal Structure qf the City. Readings on Space and
Enviror~rmwt. Oxford Univeristy Press (1971). KOLBUSZEWSKI, J.
A sclcction of articles under the following headings: Abstract sciences, engineering and human environment
Images, Patterns, Processes, Networks, Communities, planning Imtitution of Civil Eftgineers Proceedings, Part 2 :
Activities, Problems and Prospects. Research and Theory, 55, 557-580 (September 1973).
The author is Professor and Head of Department of
BRUTON, M. J., (ed.) Transportation and Environmental Plamiing University
The Spirit ad Pwposc o-f P~aming. Hutchinson (1974). of Birmingham and his approach is via ecology and
233 pp. system simulation techniques.
A group of authors examine the philosophy and develop-
ment of planning and plamiing thought, with individual MARUYAMA, MAGOROH
contributions concentrating on particular areas such as Hierarchists, individualists and mutualists. Three para-
economic, social, corporate and transport plamiing. digms among planners. Flrtnrcs, pp. 103-l 13 (August
224 references. 1974).
In planning which involves many disciplines, the failure
CARTWRIGHT, T. J. to communicate often impedes progress from the
Problems, solutions and strategies. A contribution to the outset. In this article the author exposes the fundamental
theory and practice of planning. ]011rnnl of the Amvkw~ cause of this failure: people use diverse paradigms
Ifrstitutc ~fP~arzncrs, 39 (3), 179-187 (May 1973). without realizing it and are often unwilling or unable
The purpose of this paper is to suggest that the nature to apply different kinds of logic to a problem. Three
of a problem governs both the range of possible solu- broad categories of paradigm are analyzed: one-way
tions to the problem and the kind of strategies appro- causal, random process and mutual causal. The author
priate for achieving those solutions. The argument illustrates that a situation has apparently contradictory
centres on the definition of four fundamental types of implications according to the system of logic used.
problem, or namely : simple problems, compound
problems, complex problems, and metaproblems. Each MACKETT, R.
of these problem-types is held to entail a corresponding Hierarchical policy relationships, consistency and in-
kind of strategy. From this, it is concluded that planners dicators in the planning process. Socio-Economic Planning,
face a persistent dilemma in trying to choose between a 10 (4), 149-153 (1976).
 76 Long Range Planning Vol. 13 April 1980

Describes a set of relationships that exist between plan- BARRAS, R. and BROADBENT, T. A.
ning variables in urban systems. Examines briefly the The development of an activity-commodity represent-
development of planning philosophies through to ation of urban systems as a potential framework for
current ideas, and how these relate to the planning evaluation. Ccntre for EnvirorzrnentaI Studies. Research
process. Describes the framework of policy relationships Paper No. 2, (1973), 53 pp.
in the form of a spatial hierarchy, into which time is Outlines recent trends in the theory and practice of
introduced as a fundamental factor in the planning evaluation of urban or regional plans and stresses the
process. Relationships between plans at different scales importance of distinguishing between the descriptive
for adjacent areas and between requirements of the representation of system behaviour and the normative
population and the availability of urban activities are representation of the evaluation process. A descriptive
examined. The framework is then used to show how representation of the urban system is then built up using
consistency in plans can be achieved, to make part of commodities as the basic entities and activities as the
the process more explicit, and to develop indicators relations of the system. 26 references.
(from journal abstract).
BARRAS, R. and BROADBENT, T. A.
MARUYAMA, MAGOROH An activity-commodity formalism for socio-economic
Human futuristics and urban planning. Journal of the
systems. Centre fir Envirormenta~ Studies, Research
American Institute of’Planners, 39 (5), 346-358 (September Paper No. 15, (1975), 41 pp.
1973). Argues that it is essential to distinguish human social and
Urban planning is a field in which the community needs economic activity from the objects of that activity and
the professionals. It is a field in which science, ethics illustrates the fundamental distinction between activities
and aesthetics must fuse. It is also a field where the hard- and commodities. Socio-economic systems are charac-
ware of engineering must be based on the software terized as systems of production and basic set theoretic
such as culture and philosophies, which not only are constructions are derived showing some of their
‘soft’ and defy mechanistic control but are heterogenous properties and the meaning of concepts such as input,
as compared to the physical universe of homogenous output and state. Finally derives a version of the linear
generalizability. activity-commodity model. 34 references (from report
abstract).

WALDING, PETER BERRY, BRIAN J. L.

Planning and social change. Long Range Planning, pp. Cities as systems within systems of cities. Papers orln Pro-
51-57 (October 1974). ceedings of the Rcgionnl Science Association, 13, 147-163
This article explores an approach to environmental (1964).
appraisal which might make businesses and government Reprinted in Urban Ecorzonlics. Tlleory, Dcvelopnmt nnd
agencies more responsive to the needs of a changing Plannirzg. Edited by William H. Leaky, etc. pp. 157-176.
society. . Free Press (1970).

WEBBER, MELVIN et al. BERRY, BRIAN J. L.

Explorations into Urban Strtrcture. University of Comparative urbanization strategies. Ekistics, 42 (249),
Pennsylvania Press (1964). 130-135 (August 1976).
Authors: Melvin M. Wcbbcr, John W. Dyckman, Cultural diffcrcnccs have produced divcrgcnt goals,
Donald L. Foley, Albert Z. Guttcnbcrg, William L. G. divcrgcnt planning method, divcrgcnt plans and now
Whcaton and Catherine Bauer Wurstcr. divcrgcnt paths for urban dcvclopment.
Drawing upon the accumulating theory of economics,
sociology political scene, geography and city planning B~URNE, L. S.
thcsc authors attempt to see the urban system as a L~h7~2 Systc,rrrs-Str~7t(:Ci~‘sjir Rqu/dor7. Clarendon
complex network of functional iutcrdcpcndenccs that Press (1974). 264 pp.
arc rcflcctcd in the intricate proccsscs of communi- Comparative rcvicw of recciit national urban policy in
cations, intcrgovcrnmcnt competition and market four countries-Britain, Sweden, Australia and Canada.
decision. The theoretical background is the concept of an intc-
grated system of cities-a system which encompasses all
of a nation’s territory, and is increasingly the dominant
influence in shaping national pflttcrns of economic and
social dcvelopmciit. l’rovidcs a basis for assessing
I 3. I Systems Approach existing policies and for suggesting future objectives.

AI.EXANDER, CIWISTOPIIER CIJADWICK, G.

This is the best book so f:u on a systems approach to

planning. Gcncral systems tllcory. cybernetics, entropy,
The author argues that the city is not a decision ‘tree’ information theory :uid siiiiulation modclling arc all
and has a morphologicnl structure. dcnlt with in a clear manner.
 Urban and Regional Planning-A Systems View 77

DUNN, D. R. and PHILLIPS,L. A. are shown to be, under certain conditions, subject to
Synergetic programming-or 2 plus 2 equals 5. Parks perverse changes in city size and rapid movements to
and Recreation, 10 (3), 24-26, 37 (March 1975). substantially higher or lower size equilibria. These
The lack of co-operation between the different depart- results arc shown to be robust with respect to the choice
ments and organizations involved has long been a of both objective and reaction functions. Although no
criticism of recreation planning in the U.S.A. This attempt is made to derive a full predictive-explanatory
article surveys those authorities which do employ co- model of city population changes, the models are thought
operative methods, as expressed in synergetic pro- to provide insight into some of the processes and prob-
gramming, and discusses the bcncfits of such an approach. lems that may characterize urban growth. Comparisons
6 references. are made with growth of other living systems.

FALUDI, ANDREAS MCDOUGALL, GLEN

The ‘Systems’ view and planning theory. Socio-Economic The systems approach to planning: a critique. Socio-
Planning Science, 7, 67-77 (February 1973). Economic Planning Science, 7, 79-90 (February 1973).
This paper evaluates the British ‘systems view’ of This paper attempts to examine the value for planning
planning in terms of its success in providing a basis for of the systems approach (particularly as expressed by
planning theory. It is argued that it falls short of ful- Chadwick and McLaughlin) to (a) the phenomena with
filling all the criteria of a satisfactory base for planning which plamiing is concerned and (b) the planning pro-
theory, i.e. it does not provide a rationale for physical cess. It is maintained that the assumption of systemness
planning. Instead of making full use of the potential for by Chadwick and McLaughlin is unwarranted and that
criticising their practice inherent to its concept, the the assumption has not produced any interesting sub-
systems view merely rationalises what physical planners stantive propositions. It concludes that planning theory
do anyway. In an attempt to investigate what the must begin by recognizing the ideological and political
rationale of physical planning might be, the author nature of the planning act and that it is to the social
then suggests one should conceive physical development sciences that planning must look for theory con-
plans as resource budgets which act mainly as constraints struction.
on, rather than as guides for, action.
MCLOUGHLIN,J. BRIAN
Urban and Regional Planning: A Systems Approach. Faber
FORDER,A.
(1970) 332 pp.
Social work and system theory. British ]ournal of Social
Brian McLaughlin worked with Chadwick and they
Work, 6 (l), 2342 (March 1976).
intended to issue a joint work. Although it does make
Describes the contribution of system theory to generic
some useful points this work is not as helpful as Chad-
social work and its implications on four levels; the
wick’s approach. He gives a better account of the
philosophical, the contribution to the perspective of
systems view in Chapter 8 of Control atld Urban Planning,
social workers, the contribution of practice in pro-
Faber (1973).
viding a model of the structure of systems as a guide to
appraisal and intervention, and finally the contribution
to the understanding of social work processes. Con- POGACNIK,ANDREY B.
cludes that its practical contribution is what justifies the A systems approach to urban design. The case of the
expenditure of effort in absorbing the theory. city of Ljubljana, Yugoslavia. Toton Planning, 48 (2),
187-192 (April 1977).
The methodology for a systems approach to urban
HERRMANN,CYRIL C. design was to set up a data bank for the use of a multi-
Systems approach to city planning. Harvard Business discipline team. As well as checking the information in
Ret&w, 11 (5)71-80(October 1966). the data bank before making decisions the use of
A description of the application of the systems approach photographs was also built into the procedure.
applied to management techniques for urban re-
development in San Francisco.
SAGASTI,FRANISCOR.
A conceptual ‘systems’ framework for the study of
HUANG, C. C., M~JELLER,C. and VERTINSKY,I. planning theory. Technological Forecasting and Social
Urban system dynamics : a comparative static analysis of Change, 5, 379-393 (1973).
system size with policy implications. Behaviorrral S&me, This paper suggests a conceptual framework and a
21 (3)263-273 (July 1976). language for the study of planning theory. It uses the
This paper develops a simple model of population change approach developed by the Churchman-Ackoff school
in a system at the organizational level of an urban of thought in systems theory and builds a network of
community. It assumes that some activities are c!:arac- interrelated concepts leading to a general definition of
terized by decreasing returns to scale (crowding and planning, to a description of its main characteristics, and
congestion problems), others by increasing returns to to an analysis of planning theories. The second and third
scale (positive externalities). The interaction of these sections establish a basis of structural and functional con-
two forces on population movements can make cepts to be used in the fourth section in a definition of
possible the existence of multiple equilibria of city planning and an examination of other concepts closely
sizes. Policies intended to expand or contract city size related to it. Section five interprets the work of a few
78 Long Range Planning Vol. 13 April 1980

planning theoreticians using the framework and language STONE, M.

developed in th e paper. The last section offers some The systems revolution. Forma, 3 (3), 164-166(September
suggestions for further research. 1975).
Discusses the value of systems theory and operational
SILVESTER,MICHAEL S. research in dealing with planning problems. 4 references.
The contribution of the systems approach to planning.
Socio-Economic Planning Science 7, 91-113 (February STONE,P. A.
1973). Buildirzg Econonly-Design, Prodrction and Organization,
This paper attempts a three-part review and critique of A Synoptic Viero, 2nd ed. Pergamon (1976). 293 pp.
the state of the application of systems theory to. planning. Aims to describe and assess the forms of construction
The first part is a critique of McLoughlm’s thesis used today, the methods of production and the way the
expounded in his book Urban and Regional Planning. construction industry is organized, and to consider the
The critique emphasizes the mechanistic bias and impact which new methods materials and forms of
passivity assumed in McLaughlin’s exposition and organizations and contractural relationships might have
suggests directions in which the systems approach may on the industry.
be widened and strengthened to include in particular the
political process and to include dynamic profiles of
variables in the systems being analyzed. The second I 3.2 Systems Approach-Models
part considers how far Chadwick in his book A
Systerlls View of Plannirzg has developed the approach, There are many books, articles and reports on systems
and comes to the conclusion that while the dynamics of simulation, mathematical modelling and the use of
the model are more rigorously treated the philosophical computers. Those listed below are examples only of this
and social science assumptions, though hinted at, are not approach.
pursued to significantly greater lengths than by
McLaughlin. The third part argues that while it is BATTY, 1M.
necessary to pursue the assumptions of the model, it is Computer models and structure planning. Tou~rl and
still permissible to continue model-building before the Country Planning, 42 (lo), 453157 (October 1974).
assumptions are finally tested and agreed as accurate, so A short history of modelling in urban planning is given
long as accurate prediction on the basis of hypothetical together with brief details of comprchensivc model
assumptions is not taken in itself to constitute the proof building projects currently in progress in Britain.
of the accuracy of the assumptions. Suggests that the real value of such exercises lies in their
educational and explorative benefits rather than any
SIMMONS, HARVEY ability to prodclce definitive forecasts. 6 references.
System dynamics and technocracy. Fzrtures, pp. 212-
228 (April 1973). BURNS, J. R. and MALOWE, D. W.
The similarities and differences between the 1930s tcch- Computational techniques for analysis of system
nocracy movement in the U.S.A. and the approach of dynamic models of social systems. Socio-Economic
Professors Forrester and Meldows are examined. The Planning Sciufces, 8 (4), 215-223 (August 1974).
values and assumptions implicit in the MIT applications Presents a methodology of computational algorithms
of system dynamics arc identified, as are those of the which enhance an understanding of model bchaviour
Club of Rome. Some possible explanations of the huge and contribute to considerations of model validity. The
impact of the MIT work are put forward. work uses Forrcstcr’s analysis as a basis. 15 references.

HAMILTON, W. F. and MOSES, M. A.

SMITH, PETER F.
A computer-based corporate planning system. Manage-
City as organism. E/&tics, 35 (209), 238-239 (April 1973).
went SciLwcc, 21 (2), 148-159 (October 1974).
The basic ancient principles of town design are:
Dcscribcs a system which combines the analytical power
(1) Integration into a wider system of being.
of optimization with simulation capabilities and more
(2) Social cohesion.
specialized planning models as elcmcnts of an inter-
(3) Reconciliation of all opposites; and the transcen-
active managcmcnt system. It is dcsigncd to aid both
dence of unity of diversity.
periodic and ad hoc planning decisions in a large multi-
(4) Elegance.
national firm and can bc implcmcnted in a wide variety
It follows that a city will bc infinitely more satisfying
of corporate contexts. 9 rcfcrcnccs (from journal
to cxpcricncc if, in its basic form, it rcflccts the principles
abstract).
of holon and hierarchy.
LEE, DOUGLASS B.
STEARNS, FORREST W. and MONTAG, TOM, (cds). Rcquicm for large-scale models. Jownal of the Anrerican’
The Urban Ecosystcjnl: A Holistic Appronch. Wiley and Institute of‘P/mrwrs, 39 (3), 163-178 (May 1973).
Sons (1375), 217 pp, A9.75. The task’in this paper is to cvaluatc, in some detail, the
fundamental flaws in attempts to construct and use large
STEISS, A. W. models and to cxaminc the planning context in which
i/r/Jan Systcws Dynnrrzics. Lexington Books, D. C. the models, like dinosaurs, collapsed rather than evolved.
Heath Ltd. Farnborough (1975), Ac18.55. The conclusions can bc summarized iu three points:
 Urban and Regional Planning-A Systems View 79

(1) In general, none of the goals held out for large-scale used in industry. The result so far has been another
models have been achieved, and there is little reason to method for prc-fabricated buildings. There arc many
expect anything different in the future. (2) For each articles on this, not very helpful bccausc like their indus-
objective offered as a reason for building -a model, thcrc trial counterparts they ignore pcoplc and their behaviour.
is either a better way of achieving the objective (more This article reviews the current situation and the
information at less cost) or a better objective (a more reasons for the lack of SUCCESS in this approach. A way
socially useful question to ask). (3) Methods for long- forward would bc to combine this approach with the
range planning-whcthcr they arc called comprehensive work on form and images in order to improve the
planning, large-scale systems simulation, or something design of buildings. The work done on this is as follows.
else-riced to change drastically if planners expect to
have any influence in the long run. Form and Images
Many buildings have been designed with little thought
NAYLOR, THOMAS H. and MANSFIELD, M. JAMES concerning the people who will live in them. An
The design of computer based planning and modclling interesting approach which is developing in architecture
systems. Lorlg Rarzgc Plannirlg, 10,16-25 (February 1977). is on a theory of form. Examples of these are as follows:
In this paper the authors describe a collection of elements
which they believe to bc of critical importance in
designing a corporate planning model. That objective is ALEXANDER, CHRISTOPHER
to develop a set of criteria for not only designing a Notes on the Synthesis of Form. Harvard University
planning and modelling system, but a set of criteria Press (1964). 216 pp.
which can also be used to facilitate the evaluation and These notes arc about the process of design; the process
comparison of alternative planning and modclling of inventing physical things which display new physical
systems. order, organization, and form in response to function.

PACK, J. R. LYNCH, KELVIN and RODWIN, L.

The use of urban models-report on a survey of planning A theory of urban form. ]ournal of American Institute of
organizations. Journal oj’the American Institute of Planners, Planners, 24, 201-214 (1958).
41 (3) 191-199 (May 1975).
A survey of nearly 1500 American planning agencies LYNCH, KELVIN
shows that about 25 per cent of them are using or The Image of the City. MIT Press (1960).
developing such models and that about half of these arc After attempting to develop a theory of form Kelvin
using land use or transportation models, or both. Lynch attempts to see how we perceive images. His
However, those agencies currently developing models work has been very influential.
arc concentrating on a wider variety of issues and
appear to be using outside consultants rather than
relying on in-house development. More than half the RAPOPORT, AMOS
model users rated their models as ‘very useful’, par- Human Aspects of Urban Forms: Towards a Man-
ticularly if they related to transportation or population Environment Approach to Urban Form and Design.
projection, and fewer than 1 per cent rated them as Pcrgamon Press (1976) 419 pp.
‘not useful’. 5 references (from journal abstract). Rapoport’s work is mainly a highly comprehensive
review of the literature in three basic approaches to an
ROBERTS, E. understanding of man-environment relations : per-
On modclling. Terhnicnl Forecasting and Social Change, 9 ception, cognition and evaluation.
(l-2) 231-238 (1976).
A review of the modeiling literature which concludes
that few new developments have been made in the
technology of building models, methods for choosing
14. Urban and World Dynamics
among alternative modc!ling approaches, techniques Jay Forrester has developed mathematical models for
for tesdng models and checking their validity, or industrial, urban and world dynamics.
insights into implementing model results. Indicates
the priority need for strengthened research into all Publications
aspects of modelling, in contrast with more mere Industrial Dynamics. MIT (1369).
applications. Urhrz Dynamics. MIT (1969).
World Dynamics. Wright Allen (1972).
Principles oj‘Systems. Wright Allen (1972).
Collected Pupers. Wright Allen (1975).
I 3.3 Systems Approach-Architecture One of the results of this work was the concept of the
RABNECK, ANDREW end of the growth economy. This was expressed in the
Whatever happened to the systems approach? Architec- following publication by people working with Forrester.
tural Design, 46 , 267, 298-303 (May 1976).
The application of the systems approach to architecture MEADOWS, DONELLA H. and DENNIS L., JORGEN,
and building was based on the technical systems RANDERS and BEHRENS, III, WILLIAM W.
approach derived from the work of NASA and widely The Limit to Growth. A Report j& the ChtG of Rome’s
80 Long Range Planning Vol. 13 April 1980

Project on the Predicament of Mankind. Earth Island Ltd. Forrester Model. Reading University (August 1973). 49 pp
(1972). (Reading Geographical Papers 21).
Sussex University research workers challenged the Describes the development of the model and how the
model for these predictions but it is clear now that we structure differs from the more popular models of urban
have limited resources in spaceship earth. development. A second. section reviews the recent
literature on urban dynamics, and finally the operation
COLE, H. S. D., FREEMAN,CHRISTOPHER,JAHODA, MAME of the model on an Eliot 4130 computer at Reading
and PAVITT, K. L. R., (eds). University is discussed with comments on the model’s
Thinking About the Future. A Critique of ‘The Limit to usefulness as a tool for urban policy decision making.
Growth’. Sussex University Press (1973), 218 pp.
There is a good review in the Times Literary Supple- GOTTMAN,J.
ment (14 September 1973). The dynamics of large cities. Geogrnphical/oumal, 140,
Part 2, 154-261 (June 1974).
MEADOWS, DENNISL. and MEADOWS,DONELLAH., (ed,) In discussing contemporary dynamics of urban areas
Towards Global Equilibrium: Collected Papers. several aspects are highlighted as particularly influencing
Wright Allen (1973). the form of urban growth. These include location of
Presents detailed analysis of important global problems industry, the rise of white-collar occupations, and the
such as pollution, waste disposal and the use of natural attraction large cities hold for visitors of all types.
resources. 17 references.

Reviews of Forresters Work LIVINGSTON,DENNIS

World dynamics. Nuttrre, pp. 488-492 (24 August 1973). Global equilibrium and the decentralized community.
Ekirtics (250), 173-176 (September 1976).
Limits to growth. Technological Forecasting, 4, 323-334
The author considers the cultural, economic, technical
(1973).
Collected papers-a review. Technological Forecasting, and political system in relation to the task of designing
10 (4), 415419 (1977). a steady state society.
Forrester claims that it is not possible to think of all
aspects of the total system so that mathematics, and LUCY, W. H.
computer modelling have to be used. He may be Metropolitan dynamics: a cross national framework for
analyzing public policy effects in metropolitan areas.
proved correct in this approach but it is easy to think in
Urbnn AfJirs Quarter/y, 11(2), 155-185(December 1975).
terms of fitting people to the system and not the
Develops a multi-disciplinary framework based on 10
system to the people with this approach. The following
propositions about the effects of structures and policies
guidelines of Doxiadis are essential if a technical
on individual behaviour as reflected in patterns of
systems approach is used.
spatial inequalities. The underlying theme of the analysis
is that metropolitan dynamics is a process whereby
DOXIADIS, C. A.
mobility and territorial protection strategies are used to
Ekistics and mathematics. Ekirtics. 37 (222), 305-308
increase security. The pattern of structurtts and policies
(May 1974):
in the society will determine how far these strategies
Doxiadis advises using mathematical modclling with
result in inequalities and separation between public
caution. HC concludes his article with the following
needs and public resources. References.
guidelines :

Conceive the whole system of ekistics properly. SMIL, V. and Kuz, T.

Define the type of connections that have to be made Energy and the economy-a global and national
with mathematics very clearly. analysis. Long Range P~anrzirz~~, 9 (3) 6-I-74 (June 1976).
Hire mathematicians and put them to work on actual Argues that it is only fruitful to analyze cncrgy-GDP
projects for implementation (from the home to patterns over a long time on an individual country basis
large urban areas). This task must never be assigned and to do so by defining GDP in terms of national
to outside groups (in a city I know, they have given currency. Correlations obtained by this method are
out a contract of SSOO,OOOfor a model, but the uniformly and extrcmcly high enabling a planner who
result seems to have been zero as they do not dare can forecast the GDP lcvcls of a country with some
to publish it). confldcnce to derive cncrgy consumption from an
Once the mathematicians have understood what the appropriate regression equation with almost a pinpoint
real subject is, and the ckisticians have understood precision.
how mathematics can help them, WC can start using
mathematics, even in tcntativc ways, for very
specific cases in the frame of the total system of
IS. Future Trends
cbnncctions (point (2) above). They cannot’ yet bc
used for the whole. BELLINE,J.
Europe of regions in the 1980s-a critique of policies
Other Rcjrences for tomorrow. Futwes, 6 (3), 183-200 (JJne 1974).
CONSTABLE,D. Criticiscs tile existing theoretical and practical foun-
Urban Growth Processes-A Critica/ Asmsrrrcrlt of tl1e dations of West European integration arguing that they
 Urban and Regional Planning-A Systems View 81

are based on an outdated view of the economy. Suggests world community. Part 2 considers the best of the long-
that a dynamic approach to regional policy is hampered term international policies which, if achieved, could
by resistance from regional planners and by the political bring about a safer and more humane world. Part 3 looks
exigencies of nationalism. 13 references. at the ways in which people can work towards those
policies and so transform the values of international
BELL, DANIEL exchange.
The Coming of Post-Industrial Society. A Venture in Social
Forecasting. Penguin Books (1976). (First published 1973.) MCHALE, JOHN
Beyond the exponentials. Ekistics, (250), 162-164
DRUCKER,PETERF. (September 1976).
The Landmarks of Tomorrow. Heinemann (1959). Future problems in relation to growth, limited resources
The above two books give some of the best guidelines and the environment.
for the future for the planner.
MCHALE, JOHN and CORDELL,MAGDA
LASZLO,ERVIN Future Studies: An International Survey. Ekistics, 41
The Systems View of the world. Basil Blackwell (1975). (246) 300-307 (May 1976).
Ervin Laszlo is attempting to found a systems philosophy Summary of a survey covering 433 organizations and
approach and in this work he attempts to see this in 527 individuals in 50 countries.
relation to the world we inhabit. This author is attempt-
ing to widen and develop the use of general systems
theory.

AcknowlengerrrettlSome of the descriptions of these publications are

LASZLO,ERVIN (ed)
by the author or publisher or have been adapted from these descrip-
Goals for Mankind. A Report to the Church of Rome. tions. Others have been written by myself. The description of John
Hutchinson (1977). McHale’s Thr Changirtg Ittfirrrratior~ Environrrrertt, is from a review in
Part 1 surveys the current goals and aspirations of the Aslib Proceedings.