UNIT I INTRODUCTION TO ACOUSTICS (12 hours) Characteristics of sound reflection, transmission, diffraction, absorption coefficient, reverberation time, geometric

c acoustics, free field, octave band, Sabines formula, reverberation time calculation Sound Absorption: acoustic materials & their properties, variable sound absorbers, prefabricated sound absorbing panels, suspended sound absorbers UNIT II ACOUSTICS (12 hours)

Outdoor noise built form, orientation, earth berms, sound shadow region Indoor noise- measures to prevent sound transmission, leak, impact noise, false ceiling integrated systems & sound isolation UNIT III DESIGN OF PERFORMING SPACES (12 hours)

Design of auditoriums: placing auditorium floors and balcony, stage house details, rear wall treatment, orchestra pit, acoustical defects, sound amplifying systems. Design of Concert halls, open air theatre and Broadcasting studios UNIT III ELEVATORS & ESCALATORS Types of Lifts Basic dimension, Traffic analysis, Round trip time, lift pit, machine room, types, lift operation, arrangement of lifts, quality & quantity of service. Escalators basic dimension, Characteristics, arrangement and disposition. Conveyors and Walkways.

UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO ACOUSTICS

Characteristics of sound: Sound is a mechanical wave that is an oscillation of pressure transmitted through a solid, liquid, or gas, composed of frequencies within the range of hearing and of a level sufficiently strong to be heard, or the sensation stimulated in organs of hearing by such vibrations. Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called compression waves. Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as both longitudinal waves and transverse waves. Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions of compression and rarefaction, while transverse waves (in solids) are waves of alternating shear stress at right angle to the direction of propagation. Matter in the medium is periodically displaced by a sound wave, and thus oscillates. The energy carried by the sound wave converts back and forth between the potential energy of the extra compression (in case of longitudinal waves) or lateral displacement strain (in case of transverse waves) of the matter and the kinetic energy of the oscillations of the medium. Sound waves are often simplified to a description in terms of sinusoidal plane waves, which are characterized by these generic properties:

Frequency, or its inverse, the period

Wavelength Wavenumber Amplitude Sound pressure Sound intensity Speed of sound Direction

Characteristics of Sound

A sound can be characterized by the following three quantities: (i) Pitch. (ii) Quality. (iii) Loudness. Pitch is the frequency of a sound as perceived by human ear. A high frequency gives rise to a high pitch note and a low frequency produces a low pitch note. Figure 2 shows the frequencies of same common sounds. A pure tone is the sound of only one frequency, such as that given by a tuning fork or electronic signal generator. The fundamental note has the greatest amplitude and is heard predominantly because it has a larger intensity. The other frequencies such as 2fo, 3fo, 4fo, ............. are called overtones or harmonics and they determine the quality of the sound. Loudness is a physiological sensation. It depends mainly on sound pressure but also on the spectrum of the harmonics and the physical duration.

reflection, transmission, diffraction, absorption coefficient, Reflection of sound waves off of surfaces can lead to one of two phenomena - an echo or a reverberation. A reverberation often occurs in a small room with height, width, and length dimensions of approximately 17 meters or less. In auditoriums and concert halls, reverberations occasionally occur and lead to the displeasing garbling of a sound. But reflection of sound waves in auditoriums and concert halls do not always lead to displeasing results, especially if the reflections are designed right. Smooth walls have a tendency to direct sound waves in a specific direction. Subsequently the use of smooth walls in an auditorium will cause spectators to receive a large amount of sound from one location along the wall; there would be only one possible path by which sound waves could travel from the speakers to the listener. The auditorium would not seem to be as lively and full of sound. Rough walls tend to diffuse sound, reflecting it in a variety of directions. This allows a spectator to perceive sounds from every part of the room, making it seem lively and full. For this reason, auditorium and concert hall designers prefer construction materials that are rough rather than smooth.

Reflection of sound waves also leads to echoes. Echoes are different than reverberations. Echoes occur when a reflected sound wave reaches the ear more than 0.1 seconds after the original sound wave was heard. If the elapsed time between the arrivals of the two sound waves is more than 0.1 seconds, then the sensation of the first sound will have died out. In this case, the arrival of the second sound wave will be perceived as a second sound rather than the prolonging of the first sound. There will be an echo instead of a reverberation. Reflection of sound waves off of surfaces is also affected by the shape of the surface. Reflection of sound waves off of curved surfaces leads to a more interesting phenomenon. Curved surfaces with a parabolic shape have the habit of focusing sound waves to a point. Sound waves reflecting off of parabolic surfaces concentrate all their energy to a single point in space; at that point, the sound is amplified. Perhaps you have seen a museum exhibit that utilizes a parabolic-shaped disk to collect a large amount of sound and focus it at a focal point Diffraction of Sound Waves Diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening or around a barrier in their path. The diffraction of water waves was discussed in Unit 10 of The Physics Classroom Tutorial. In that unit, we saw that water waves have the ability to travel around corners, around obstacles and through openings. The amount of diffraction (the sharpness of the bending) increases with increasing wavelength and decreases with decreasing wavelength. In fact, when the wavelength of the wave is smaller than the obstacle or opening, no noticeable diffraction occurs. Diffraction of sound waves is commonly observed; we notice sound diffracting around corners or through door openings, allowing us to hear others who are speaking to us from adjacent rooms. Many forest-dwelling birds take advantage of the diffractive ability of long-wavelength sound waves. Owls for instance are able to communicate across long distances due to the fact that their long-wavelength hoots are able to diffract around forest trees and carry farther than the short-wavelength tweets of songbirds. Lowpitched (long wavelength) sounds always carry further than high-pitched (short wavelength) sounds.

Acoustic transmission in building design refers to a number of processes by which sound can be transferred from one part of a building to another. Typically these are: 1. Airborne transmission - a noise source in one room sends air pressure waves which induce vibration to one side of a wall or element of structure setting it moving such that the other face of the wall vibrates in an adjacent room. Structural isolation therefore becomes an important consideration in the acoustic design of buildings. Highly sensitive areas of buildings, for example recording studios, may be almost entirely isolated from the rest of a structure by constructing the studios as effective boxes supported by springs. Air tightness also becomes an important control technique. A tightly sealed door might have reasonable sound reduction properties, but if it is left open only a few millimetres its effectiveness is reduced to practically nothing. The most important acoustic control method is adding mass into the structure, such as a heavy dividing wall, which will usually reduce airborne sound transmission better than a light one. 2. Impact transmission - a noise source in one room results from an impact of an object onto a separating surface, such as a floor and transmits the sound to an adjacent room. A typical example would be the sound of footsteps in a room being heard in a room below. Acoustic control measures usually include attempts to isolate the source of the impact, or cushioning it. For example carpets will perform significantly better than hard floors. 3. Flanking transmission - a more complex form of noise transmission, where the resultant vibrations from a noise source are transmitted to other rooms of the building usually by elements of structure within the building. For example, in a steel framed building, once the frame itself is set into motion the effective transmission can be pronounced. The sound absorption coefficient indicates how much of the sound is absorbed in the actual material. The absorption coefficient can be expressed as: = Ia / Ii where Ia = sound intensity absorbed (W/m2) Ii = incident sound intensity (W/m2) Absorption coefficient - - for some common materials can be found in the table below: Sound Absorption Coefficient -0.01 - 0.03 0.02 - 0.05 0.01 - 0.02 0.01 - 0.02

Material Plaster walls Unpainted brickwork Painted brickwork 3 mm plywood panel

6 mm cork sheet 6 mm porous rubber sheet 12 mm fiberboard on battens 25 mm wood wool cement on battens 50 mm slag wool or glass silk 12 mm acoustic belt Hardwood 25 mm sprayed asbestos 100 mm mineral wool Persons, each Acoustic tiles

0.1 - 0.2 0.1 - 0.2 0.3 - 0.4 0.6 - 0.07 0.8 - 0.9 0.5 - 0.5 0.3 0.6 - 0.7 0.65 2.0 - 5.0 0.4 - 0.8

reverberation time, geometric acoustics, free field, octave band, Sabines formula, reverberation time calculation
In an enclosed environment sound can continue to reflect for a period of time after a source has stopped emitting sound. This prolongation of sound is called reverberation. Reverberation time (RT60) is defined as the time required, in seconds, for the average sound in a room to decrease by 60 decibels after a source stops generating sound. Reverberation time is the primary descriptor of an acoustic environment. A space with a long reverberation time is referred to as a "live" environment. When sound dies out quickly within a space it is referred to as being an acoustically "dead" environment. An optimum reverberation time depends highly on the use of the space. For example, speech is best understood within a "dead" environment. Music can be enhanced within a "live" environment as the notes blend together. Reverberation time is affected by the size of the space and the amount of reflective or absorptive surfaces within the space. A space with highly absorptive surfaces will absorb the sound and stop it from reflecting back into the space. This would yield a space with a short reverberation time. Reflective surfaces will reflect sound and will increase the reverberation time within a space. In general, larger spaces have longer reverberation times than smaller spaces. Therefore, a large space will require more absorption to achieve the same reverberation time as a smaller space. Reverberation time can be calculated in the preliminary design stage. This is very beneficial in determining how well a space will function for its intended use and if more or less absorption is needed within the space. There are several formulas for calculating reverberation time, the most common formula is the Sabine Formula, created by Wallace Clement Sabine. The formula is based on the volume of the space and the total amount of absorption within a space. The total amount of absorption within a space is referred to as sabins. It is important to note that the absorption and surface area must be considered for every material within a space in order to calculate sabins. Reverberation time can also be adjusted within an existing space. Tests can be performed in a space to determine the existing reverberation time. Absorptive materials can then be added to or removed from a space to achieve the desired reverberation time. Whenever possible it is highly advisable to consider reverberation time and other aspects of acoustics in the design stage. Making revisions to a space after the fact can be more costly and compromise aesthetics.

Spectrum and Octave Band Because most sound are complex, fluctuating in amplitude and frequency content, the relationships between sound energy level and frequency are required for meaningful analysis (data so plotted are called sound spectrum). For most engineering applications, the greatest interest lies in the frequency range from 20 to 20,000 Hz. Although it is possible to analyse a source on a frequency by frequency basis, this is both impractical and time-consuming. For this reason, a scale of octave bands and one-third octave bands has been developed. Each band covers a specific range of frequencies and excludes all others. The word "octave" is borrowed from musical nomenclature where it refers to a span of eight notes, i.e. octave is 2:1. to . The ratio of the frequency of the highest note to the lowest note in an

If fn is the lower cutoff frequency and fn+1 is the upper cutoff frequency, the ratio of band limits is given by :

where k = 1 for full octave bands and k =

for one-third octave bands.

An octave has a centre frequency that is times the lower cutoff frequency and has an upper cutoff frequency that is twice the lower cutoff frequency. Therefore,

where f1 = lower cutoff frequency

f2 = upper cutoff frequency fo = centre frequency bw = band width

Sabine's Reverberation Formula Wallace Clement Sabine was a pioneer in architectural acoustics. A century ago he started experiments in the Fogg lecture room at Harvard, to investigate the impact of absorption on the reverberation time. It was on the 29th of October 1898 that he discovered the type of relation between these quantities. Sabine derived an expression for the duration T of the residual sound to decay below the audible intensity, starting from a 1,000,000 times higher initial intensity: T = 0.161 V/A where V is the room volume in cubic meters, and A is the total absorption in square meters. Sabine's reverberation formula has been applied successfully for many years to determine material absorption coefficients by means of reverberation rooms. Keeping in mind some conditions with regard to the sound field diffusion and the value of A, Sabine's formula is still widely accepted as a very useful estimation method for the reverberation time in rooms. Sabin as Unit of Sound Absorption The unit of sound absorption is square meter, referring to the area of open window. This unit stems from the fact that sound energy travelling toward an open window in a room will not be reflected at all, but completely disappear in the open air outside. The effect would be the same if the open window would be replaced with 100 % absorbing material of the same dimensions

Therefore, 1 square meter of 100 % absorbing material has an absorption of 1 square meter of open
window. In honor of W.C. Sabine, the unit of absorption is also named sabin or metric sabin. However, these units are used not very often. One sabin is the absorption of one square foot of open window, and one metric sabin is the absorption of one square meter of open window.

Calculation of the reverberation time after Sabine RT 60 decay In 1898, Wallace C. Sabine (Sabin) (1868 - 1919) came up with the reverb time formula, but the article "Collected Papers on Acoustics" appeared in print 1922: Don't be shocked by this early date from 1898. His formula is still unchanged very much in use. Reverberation time RT60 = k V / A with the factor k = (24 ln 10) / c20 = 0.049 (feet) and with k = (24 ln 10) / c20 = 0.161 (meter) V = room volume in m3 A = S = equivalent absorption surface or area in m2 = Absorption coefficient or attenuation coefficient RT60 = reverberation time in s S = absorbing surface in m2 A = 1 S1 + 2 S2 + 3 S3 + ... c20 = Speed of sound is 343 m/s or 1126 ft/s at 20C

Geometric Acoustics
If one assumes that the dimensions of a room are large compared to the wavelength, then sound waves may be considered in much the same way as light rays are treated in optics. This situation frequently occurs in architectural acoustics, especially in large auditoria. To continue the light analogy, sound rays are reflected from hard planar walls in accordance with the laws of reflection, ie: the incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface all lie on the same plane and the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.. In the same way, sound rays incident on a curved surface will be either focussed (for concave) or dispersed (for convex) [cf: Diagram 1 and 2]. The concept of a sound ray and the geometrical study of sound ray paths play an important role in the design of large rooms and auditorium, enabling troublesome echoes and flutter effects to be detected and dealt with at the design stage. A limitation of the geometrical approach is that usually only primary and possible secondary reflections can be studied before the sound ray being followed becomes 'lost' in the reverberant sound field and, in most enclosures, it is restricted to frequencies of 500 Hz and above.

Using Geometric Acoustics

Statistical methods are useful at the earliest stages of design, however, as more and more geometric information becomes available, why not use it. As architects, we need to be able to determine not only how much absorber to use, but what type of absorber and where to best put it. This is where the consideration of reflected sound rays can be quite useful. [Discuss a bit of early research...]

Faults Attributable to Geometry

Statistical methods are quite limited in their capacity to predict acoustic faults within an enclosure. This is because most faults result from the geometry of the enclosure. A simple geometric analysis done on the drawing board can easily correct most of these at the design stage. The following are a few of the more common faults attributable to room geometry. Spurious echoes: Occur when a strong reflection of the original signal can be clearly discerned by the listener. This is simply a matter of looking at the internal envelope of the enclosure and checking for possible sound paths which reflect off a sequence of large, highly reflective surfaces. Picket fence echo: This results from evenly spaced reflection paths, such as the rows of raised seating in amphitheatres and the evenly spaced curves of compressed fibre fencing. Depending on the number of steps and the path difference, such surfaces can produce a definite pinging sound when stuck by an impulsive sound source. If d is the distance between successive steps, then the frequency of this ping is given by Fpfe = (c / (2d)) where c is the speed of sound in air. Flutter echo: Occurs when both the source and receiver are between a pair of parallel, hard, surfaces. Some portion of the sound emitted by the source will get 'trapped' between the two reflective surfaces and will oscillate back and forth, being quite slow to decay. The listener will perceive this as a 'fluttering' noise. If the walls are a distance d apart, then the frequency of this flutter can be found in the same way as picket fence echo. Dead spots: These can occur at positions which are far from reflecting surfaces and which receive sound only after it has passed over an absorbent surface. For example, at the rear of a gently raked theatre or cinema where the sound must pass over the audience and ceiling reflections are blocked by a balcony.

Free field acoustics: In a free field , sound level decreases by 6 dB for each doubling of the distance. Inside rooms,

however, in which sound reflects from many surfaces, the sound level is greater than the freefield level. In analyzing the acoustics of an auditorium, attention should be given to the direct, early, and reverberant sounds. The ability of our ears to locate a source by analyzing the direct sound and virtually ignoring the early sound is called the precedence effect. Reverberant sound builds up and decays at a rate characterized by the reverberation time (RT), which depends on the room volume and the absorption of all the surfaces in it. Sound Absorption: acoustic materials & their properties, variable sound absorbers, prefabricated sound absorbing panels, suspended sound absorbers

SOUND ABSORPTION
All building materials have some acoustical properties in that they will all absorb, reflect or transmit sound striking them. Conventionally speaking, acoustical materials are those materials designed and used for the purpose of absorbing sound that might otherwise be reflected. Sound absorption is defined, as the incident sound that strikes a material that is not reflected back. An open window is an excellent absorber since the sounds passing through the open window are not reflected back but makes a poor sound barrier. Painted concrete block is a good sound barrier but will reflect about 97% if the incident sound striking it. When a sound wave strikes an acoustical material the sound wave causes the fibers or particle makeup of the absorbing material to vibrate. This vibration causes tiny amounts of heat due to the friction and thus sound absorption is accomplished by way of energy to heat conversion. The more fibrous a material is the better the absorption; conversely denser materials are less absorptive. The sound absorbing characteristics of acoustical materials vary significantly with frequency. In general low frequency sounds are very difficult to absorb because of their long wavelength. On the other hand, we are less susceptible to low frequency sounds, which can be to our benefit in many cases. For the vast majority of conventional acoustical materials, the material thickness has the greatest impact on the material's sound absorbing qualities. While the inherent composition of the acoustical material determines the material's acoustical performance, other factors can be brought to bear to improve or influence the acoustical performance. Incorporating an air space behind an acoustical ceiling or wall panel often serves to improve low frequency performance.

SUSPENDED SOUND ABSORBERS - ACOUSTIC SAILS Decorative suspended ceiling absorbers which can be shaped to form interesting and unusual design elements. Designed to reduce reverberant noise in large open areas. Manufactured from sound absorbing MelaTech foam totally enclosed in a high quality acoustically transparent fabric. Applications: Atria, call centres, open plan offices, leisure centres, nursery schools, galleries and foyers

Decorative ceiling absorbers bonded to a lightweight metal sub-frame and hung from the existing ceiling. Designed to provide an effective, economic alternative to installing a full suspended acoustic ceiling. When hung at differing heights they can enhance the interior aesthetics of a room by creating an unusual design feature. .

R3-B Acoustic Panels - Powerful Aesthetic

Made of composite fiber materials, R3-B Acoustic Panels are designed to provide effective and affordable acoustic treatment for rooms such as a home theater, studios, restaurants, nightclubs, halls, offices, conference rooms in fact any indoor or enclosed areas where reverberation and noise is an issue. Acoustic panels by CMF Acoustics are based upon years of research in Melbourne, Australia to provide exceptional sound absorption, decorative finishing and ease of use in mind. Panels are wall mounted, fabric covered timber frames with a fiber core. View the R3-B Acoustic Wall Panel specifications here.

Sound waves bounce off many walls and objects in a room creating echo / reverberation. The amount and the intensity of reverberation depends on how many or how few sound absorbing materials a room is made up of. For instance a typical home theater or cinema room is usually comprised of timber flooring or carpet, plaster and very little else in regards to sound absorbing. The theater room of course would need to maintain a professional and aesthetic look. Using Acoustic foam as treatment rather than sound panels isn't a smart option because whilst foam provides good sound absorption, it goes against aesthetics of room decor anddesign. Acoustic foam sound absorbers simply look unattractive and uncomplimentary in any interior other than a recording studio. R3-B Acoustic Panels are an affordable, decorative and effective acoustic treatment product..