DESIGN

LOADS
CE 011: THEORY OF STRUCTURES
MODULE 2

PREPARED BY: ENGR. MARC DANIEL LAURINA

 01
Building and
Design Codes
Code

• A code is a set of technical specifications and standards that control major details of
analysis, design, and construction of buildings, equipment, and bridges.
• The purpose of codes is to produce safe, economical structures so that the public
will be protected from poor or inadequate design and construction.

• Two types of codes

1. Structural Code
2. Building Code

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

 Structural Code
• It is written by engineer and other specialists who are concerned with
the design of a particular class of structure (e.g., buildings, highway
bridges, or nuclear power plants) or who are interested in the proper
use of a specific material (steel, reinforced concrete, aluminum, or
wood).
• Typically, structural codes specify design loads, allowable stresses for
various types of members, design assumptions, and requirements for
materials.
• Examples of structural codes frequently used by structural engineers
include the following:
1. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) covers the design and analysis of highway bridges.
2. Manual of Steel Construction by the American Institute of Steel
Construction CAISC) covers the analysis and design of steel
structures.
3. National Structural Code of the Philippines
STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Building Code
• The second type of code, called a building code, is
established to cover construction in a given region (often a
city or a state).
• A building code contains provisions pertaining to
architectural, structural, mechanical, and electrical
requirements.
• The objective of a building code is also to protect the public,
by accounting for the influence of local conditions on
construction.

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

 02

Design Loads
Design Loads

• The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that will be able to

withstand all the loads to which it is subjected while serving its intended purpose
throughout its intended life span.
• In designing a structure, an engineer must, therefore, consider all the loads that can
realistically be expected to act on the structure during its planned life span
• The loads that act on common civil engineering structures can be grouped according
to their nature and source into three classes:
1. Dead loads due to the weight of the structural system itself and any other
material permanently attached to it;
2. Live loads, which are movable or moving loads due to the use of the structure;
and
3. Environmental loads, which are caused by environmental effects, such as wind,
snow, and earthquakes

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Design Loads

• In addition to estimating the magnitudes of the design loads, an engineer must also
consider the possibility that some of these loads might act simultaneously on the
structure.
• The structure is finally designed so that it will be able to withstand the most
unfavorable combination of loads that is likely to occur in its lifetime.
• The minimum design loads and the load combinations for which the structures
must be designed are usually specified in codes.

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Type of Loads

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

10
 3
TYPES OF FAILURE
AND LIMIT STATES
Limit States
Acceptable Performance
 is a comparison between actual and expected behavior not an absolute level of
performance.
• In both scenarios, the actual performance of the two structures was the same, but
the acceptability of that performance was different in each case
• Not all failures have the same impact for building owners or occupants.
• Therefore, we categorize failures by defining two broad limit states
Two Broad Limit States
1. Ultimate Limit State (ULS)
2. Serviceability Limit State (SLS)
STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Ultimate Limit State

• It encompasses failure modes that involve fracture

of structural materials, and thus result in serious
structural damage or collapse.
• Such failures can cause substantial property damage,
as well as possible serious injuries or loss of life.
• Clearly, engineers and owners should expend
significant resources to avoid such failures.
Ultimate Limit State
Serviceability Limit State
• It encompasses failures that adversely affect the functionality of the
structure, but do not threaten the basic structural integrity and do not
pose a significant risk of serious injury or loss of life.
• Exceeding the serviceability limit state causes a decrease in
functionality or value of a structure beyond that expected.
• However, this is not to say the failure to meet serviceability limits is not
costly— it may be very costly indeed, but the cost of such failures is
orders of magnitude less than the costs associated with exceeding
ultimate limit states.
• Observation is that building codes provide significant guidance in
defining performance requirements for ultimate limit states but little
guidance for serviceability limit states. STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Serviceability Limit State

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

17
 4

ULTIMATE
LIMIT STATES
Ultimate Limit State

• This limit state is concerned with preventing catastrophic failure of structures.

• One of the primary goals of building codes is to assure adequate safety against
exceeding ultimate limit states.

• Two Different Approaches to Evaluating Ultimate Limit States

1. Allowable stress design (ASD)
2. Ultimate strength design (USD)

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
• It is the older of the two methods.
• ASD is distinguished by three key characteristics.
1. It compares expected working loads on a structure with the nominal capacity of the structural
elements. For this reason, ASD is also called the working stress design method.
2. It uses a single factor of safety to determine the adequacy of a design. The fundamental design
equation for ASD is

3. Acceptable factors of safety in the ASD method are based on empirical and informal
evaluations of satisfactory and unsatisfactory behavior of structures. They are primarily the
result of experience and engineering judgment rather than formal reliability studies.
Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
Ultimate Strength Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design

• Characteristics of USD/LRFD
1. Rather than comparing expected working stresses to yield strength, this method compares the
highest reasonably likely loads to the ultimate strength.
2. Rather than using a single factor of safety as ASD, USD uses multiple partial factors of safety, and
thus provides a better framework for evaluating the various sources of uncertainty. Some of these
partial factors of safety are applied to the loads through the use of load factors, 𝜸, most of which are
greater than one, to the nominal loads to obtain the factored load, U, in the following fashion:

Factored load, U
 represents the highest likely load a
structural element might reasonably
experience during the life of the structure.

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Ultimate Strength Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design

• Characteristics of USD/LRFD
2. Partial factors of safety are applied to the capacity side of the equation. These are called resistance factors
or strength reduction factors, ∅, and are applied to the nominal load capacity of a given structural
element. In this method, the design must satisfy the following criterion:

3. USD/LRFD are based on reliability analysis in addition to the past experience and empiricism used in the
ASD method. By using multiple partial factors of safety and calibrating them using reliability analysis, LRFD
is able to develop designs which provide a more consistent reliability over the different failure modes. This
characteristic, along with the use of ultimate loads and resistances, makes LRFD designs more economical
while providing the same or higher reliability than the older ASD method.
STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Ultimate Strength Design or Load and Resistance Factor Design

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

 05

COMBINATIONS
OF LOADS
Combination of Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Combination of Loads

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina Source: NSCP 2015
LRFD Load Combination

Source: NSCP 2015

ASD Load Combination

Source: NSCP 2015

Seismic Load Combination

Source: NSCP 2015

 “Success is no accident. It is hard work,
perseverance, learning, studying, sacrifice
and most of all, love of what you are
going or learning to do.”
Edson Arantes do Nascimento – Pelé

31
32
 6

Dead Loads
Dead Loads
• Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act permanently on the
structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the structural system itself and of all other material and
equipment permanently attached to the structural system

Source: NSCP 2015

Dead Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Dead Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Dead Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Dead Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Dead Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

 7.1
Distribution of Dead Load
to Framed Floor Systems
Distribution of Dead Load to Framed Floor Systems

• Many floor systems consist of a reinforced concrete slab supported on a rectangular grid
of beams.
• The supporting beams reduce the span of the slab and permit the designer to reduce
the depth and weight of the floor system.
• The distribution of load to a floor beam depends on the geometric configuration of the
beams forming the grid. To develop an insight into how load from a particular region of
a slab is transferred to supporting beams, we will examine the three cases.
Distribution of Dead Load to Framed Floor Systems
Tributary Area
Two-Way Slab: Square Slab
One Way Slab: Rectangular Slab
Two Way Slab: Rectangular Slab
47
Example 1
 8

Live Loads
Live Loads

• Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of the
structure.
• Sometimes, the term live loads is used to refer to all loads on the structure that are
not dead loads, including environmental loads, such as snow loads or wind loads

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Live Loads

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

 8.1

Building Live Loads

Live Loads for Building Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Live Loads for Building Loads
Live Loads for Building Loads
Live Loads for Building Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Live Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Live Loads for Building

Source: NSCP 2015

 8.2

Bridge Live Loads

Highway Bridge Live Loads

• The primary live loads on bridge spans are those due to traffic, and the heaviest
vehicle loading encountered is that caused by a series of trucks. Specifications for
truck loadings on highway bridges are reported in the LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications of the American Association of State and Highway Transportation
Officials (AASHTO).

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

 8.3

Impact Loads
Impact Loads

• When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they cause larger stresses than
those that would be produced if the same loads would have been applied gradually.
• The dynamic effect of the load that causes this increase in stress in the structure is
referred to as impact.
• To account for the increase in stress due to impact, the live loads expected to cause
such a dynamic effect on structures are increased by certain impact percentages, or
impact factors.
• For highway bridges, the AASHTO Specification gives the expression for the impact
factor as

• in which L is the length in meters of the portion of the span loaded to cause the
maximum stress in the member under consideration.
STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
63
 “Success is no accident. It is hard work,
perseverance, learning, studying, sacrifice
and most of all, love of what you are
going or learning to do.”
Edson Arantes do Nascimento – Pelé

64
 8.4

Wind Loads
Wind Load

• Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around

the structure.
• The magnitudes of wind loads that may act on a
structure depend on the geographical location of the
structure, obstructions in its surrounding terrain,
such as nearby buildings, and the geometry and the
vibrational characteristics of the structure itself

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Wind Load Parameters

Source: NSCP 2015

Steps to Determine Wind Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Occupancy Category

Source: NSCP 2015

Steps to Determine Wind Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Basic Wind Speed

Source: NSCP 2015

Source: NSCP 2010

Basic Wind Speed

Source: NSCP 2015

Basic Wind Speed

Source: NSCP 2015

Basic Wind Speed

Source: NSCP 2015

Steps to Determine Wind Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Wind Directionality Factor

Source: NSCP 2015

Steps to Determine Wind Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Exposure Categories

Source: NSCP 2015

Steps to Determine Wind Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Topographic Factor

Source: NSCP 2015

Steps to Determine Wind Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Gust Effect Factor

Source: NSCP 2015

Steps to Determine Wind Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Velocity Pressure Exposure Coeffiecient

Source: NSCP 2015

Terrain Exposure Constant

Source: NSCP 2015

Steps to Determine Wind Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Velocity Pressure

Source: NSCP 2015

Steps to Determine Wind Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

External Pressure Coefficients, Cp

Source: NSCP 2015

External Pressure Coefficients, Cp

Source: NSCP 2015

External Pressure Coefficients, Cp

Source: NSCP 2015

External Pressure Coefficients, Cp

Source: NSCP 2015

Steps to Determine Wind Loads

Source: NSCP 2015

Wind Loads
Case Study: Typhoon Haiyan or Yolanda

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Case Study: Typhoon Haiyan or Yolanda

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Case Study: Typhoon Haiyan or Yolanda

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Case Study: Typhoon Haiyan or Yolanda

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmPrXJ4lCzk
STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Case Study: Typhoon Haiyan or Yolanda

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hSiLa_muuIA
STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Example 2

Determine the external wind pressures on the roof of the rigid gabled frame of a public
school building shown in the figure. The structure is located in Quezon City, Metro
Manila where flat terrain is representative of exposure B. The wind direction is normal
to the ridge of the frame shown. Use. NSCP 2015 Specifications.

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Example 3. CE Board Exam May 2016
For the gable frame shown, the design wind force
on structures is computed as the product of the
basic wind pressure, p, and the wind coefficient, C.
Wind force is a pressure if the coefficient if positive
and a suction if the coefficient is negative. Given
the following data:
 C1 = 0.80, C2 = -0.10, C3= -0.50, C+ = -0.40.
 p = 1.44 kPa, Li = 6 m, L2 = 6 m,
 H1 = 4 m, H2 = 2 m.
Consider 6 m design tributary width of the gable
frame. If the roller support at B was changed to a
hinge support, and the hinge is added at D,
calculate the following:
a. The vertical reaction (kN) at A. Solution will be discussed in Module 6
b. The horizontal reaction (kN) at B.
c. The horizontal reaction (kN) at A.
STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
 “Success is no accident. It is hard work,
perseverance, learning, studying, sacrifice
and most of all, love of what you are
going or learning to do.”
Edson Arantes do Nascimento – Pelé

102
 8.5

Earthquake Loads
Earthquake Loads

• An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of

the earth’s surface.
• Although the ground surface moves in both horizontal
and vertical directions during an earthquake, the
magnitude of the vertical component of ground
motion is usually small and does not have a significant
effect on most structures.
• It is the horizontal component of ground motion that
causes structural damage and that must be
considered in designs of structures located in
earthquake-prone areas.
• During an earthquake, as the foundation of the
structure moves with the ground, the above-ground
portion of the structure, because of the inertia of its
mass, resists the motion, thereby causing the
structure to vibrate in the horizontal direction

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Case Study: Luzon Earthquake (1990)

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Case Study: Luzon Earthquake (1990)

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

 9

Hydrostatic and
Soil Pressures
Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

 10

Load Path
Load Path

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Load Path

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Load Path

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Load Path

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

114
 11

Pattern Loading
Pattern Loading

• The critical loading condition for the strength of a simply supported beam
is when it supports the maximum design dead load and imposed load at
the ultimate limit state.

• The size of the beam can be determined from the bending moment and
the shear derived from this loading condition, and should be checked for
deflection at the serviceability limit state.

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Pattern Loading

• The arrangement of live loads considered in the analysis may be limited o

the following combinations
1. Where the nominal design imposed load does not exceed three
quarters of the nominal dead load, design imposed load and design
dead load on all spans
2. Where the nominal live load exceeds three quarters of the nominal
dead load:
a. design dead load on all spans with full design imposed load on
alternate spans
b. design dead load on all spans with full design imposed load on two
adjacent spans
c. design dead load plus design imposed load on all spans
• STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina
Pattern Loading

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Example 4. CE Board Exam

Refer to the figure shown.

• Given: L = 6 m
S1 = S2 = S3 = 2.6 m
• Factored loads in beam KLMNO:
Dead load = 15 kN/m
Live load = 19 kN/m
For maximum stresses, apply pattern loading for live load
Given in Figure 1-A are the possible load patterns and corresponding reactions, shears,
and moments.
1. Calculate the maximum factored moment (kN-in) at L in beam LM.
2. Calculate the maximum factored shear (kN) at span KLMNO.
3. Calculate the maximum factored reaction (kN) at span KLMNO.
Solution will be discussed in Module 5

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Example 4. CE Board Exam Nov 2017

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Example 4. CE Board Exam Nov 2017

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

Example 4. CE Board Exam Nov 2017

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

References

Hibbeler, R.C. Structural Analysis

Kassimali, Aslam. Structural Analysis 4th Edition
CE Reviewer books by Gillesania and Besavilla
National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2015)
Google Images
Youtube

STRUCTURAL THEORY LECTURES by Engr. Marc Daniel Laurina

 Get answers to your questions

GOOGLE CANVAS FACEBOOK GMAIL

[email protected] Marc Laurina [email protected]
 END OF SLIDE

TO GOD BE, THE GLORY

No part of this material may be reproduced, distributed or transmitted in any

form or by any means including photocopying or other means without prior
written permission of the owner except for personal academic use and
certain other non-commercial uses permitted by copyright law.
125