MC-VPAA-FN-0008-

[March 15, 2024 ]

Name of Subject:
Elementary Statistics
Module No. 3

BACHELOR OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

CHARLES JOVIN D. ARAÑEZ

PARTTIME
s
s
Instructional Course Module No. 3 Instructor:
CHARLES JOVIN D. ARAÑEZ

Subject Code : SCPA 2

Descriptive Title : ELEMENTARY STATISTICS

I. Course Description:
This course is designed to equip students the necessary skills to analyze
research projects and a thorough and comprehensive introduction to
understanding, critically evaluating, conducting, and writing about analysis for
most studies in social sciences-related disciplines. Some topics covers reviews on
some introductory topics about statistics, descriptive and inferential statistics,
sampling and sampling techniques, hypothesis testing, student’s t-test, correlation
and ANOVA, regression, and nonparametric procedures. Applications on conducting
research study will be included in the course.

II. Objectives:
At the end of this module, students are expected to
1. Explain descriptive statistics;
2. Compute the appropriate descriptive statistics; and
3. Demonstrate understanding and application of knowledge of descriptive
statistics in real-life situations.

III. Learning Outcomes: Student Outcomes:

1. Demonstrate their knowledge of the basics descriptive and inferential

statistics by practical application of quantitative reasoning and data
visualization and by making valid generalizations from sample data
2. Exhibit moral, ethical and social responsibilities as a professional and as a
Filipino citizen
3. Can work both independently and with a group
4. Communicate effectively in oral and written form
5. Use Excel and other statistical software to conduct statistical analysis
6. Perform hypothesis testing using statistical methods.
7. Solve linear regression and correlation problems.
8. Greater appreciation for the importance of statistical literacy in today’s data
rich world

Course Outcomes:
At the end of the course, students must be able to develop the following skills:
1. Extract information from data;
2. Contribute or take part in the generation, interpretation, and
communication of data pertaining to problems they encounter in their
professional life; and
 3. Perform data analysis using statistical.

IV. Pre-Test Evaluation (Assessment):

Direction: Consider the aptitude test scores of ten children below:

95, 78, 69, 91, 82, 76, 76, 86, 88, 80.
Find the mean, median, and mode.

Discussions:
The field of statistics can be divided into two related areas: descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics.
1. Descriptive statistics consists of numerical and graphical procedures that allow
for the organization of information (data) and the extraction of key characteristics
from the data. It is a branch of statistics that concerned with describing the
characteristics and properties of a group of persons, places or things. It organizes
the presentation, description, and interpretation of data gathered without trying
to infer anything that goes beyond the data.

2. Inferential statistics consist of techniques designed to use sample statistics to

make estimates of and decisions about population parameters. Probability is
used to measure the error rates and/or level of confidence associated with
statistical
decisions.
Descriptive Statistics
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY FOR UNGROUPED DATA
Measures of average are called measures of central tendency and include the
mean, median, and mode. It is a single value that attempts to describe a set of data
by identifying the central position within that set of data. As such, measures of
central tendency are sometimes called measures of central location. They are also
classed as summary statistics. The mean (often called the average) is most likely the
measure of central tendency that you are most familiar with, but there are others,
such as the median and the mode.
The mean, median and mode are all valid measures of central tendency, but
under different conditions, some measures of central tendency become more
appropriate to use than others.
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR UNGROUPED DATA
Ungrouped data are raw data. These are data that you gathered from a survey
or questionnaires, not yet sorted or classified into groups.

1. Arithmetic Mean
The mean (or average) is the most popular and well-known measure of central
tendency. It can be used with both discrete and continuous data, although its use
is most often with continuous data. The mean is equal to the sum of all the values
in the data set divided by the number of values in the data set.
So, if we have n values in a data set and they have values x 1,x2, …,xn, we use
the Greek letter µ (“mu”) to represent the population mean and the letter x with a
“bar” over it to represent the sample mean (𝑥̅). The mean is also referred to as the
expected value, which is denoted as E(X) where X represents the characteristic
being measured. How the mean is computed is dependent on the nature of the data.

∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
(population mean) 𝜇=
𝑁

∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
(sample mean) 𝑥̅̅ =
𝑛

where
𝜇 is the population
𝑥̅ is the sample mean
𝑛 is the number of sample or sample size
𝑁 is the population size
∑ (upper case sigma) is the summation symbol which mean to add them up

An important property of the mean is that it includes every value in your data
set as part of the calculation. In addition, the mean is the only measure of central
tendency where the sum of the deviations of each value from the mean is always
zero.
The mean has one main disadvantage: it is particularly susceptible to the
influence of outliers (extreme values). These are values that are unusual compared
to the rest of the data set by being especially small or large in numerical value.
Rounding rule for the mean: The mean should be rounded to one more
decimal place than occurs in the raw data.
Example.

1. During a semester, a student took five exams. The population scores are 78, 83,
92, 68, and 85. Find the mean.

Solution:
Since it mentioned population score, we will use the population mean formula.

∑𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 78 + 83 + 92 + 68 + 85
𝜇= = = 81.2
𝑁 5

Note:

1. 𝑁 = 5 because there are 5 scores.

2. Since the scores are whole numbers, we used one decimal point for the mean
(81.2) (one number after the decimal point).

2. Weighted Mean is the mean of a data set whose entries have varying weights.

∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 𝑥𝑖
W=
∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖
where
w is the weighted mean
𝒘𝒊 is the weight for 𝒙𝒊
𝒙𝒊 is the data values
𝑛 is the number of terms to be averaged
∑ Is the summation symbol which mean to add them up

To use the formula:

1. Multiply the numbers in your data set by the weights.

2. Add the numbers in Step 1 up.
3. Add up all of the weights.
4. Divide the numbers you found in Step 2 by the number you found in Step 3.

Example.
1. Samuel wants to buy a new camera, and decides on the following rating system:
Image quality -50% (0.5), Battery life 30%, and Zoom range 20%.

The Sonu camera gets 8 (out of 10) for Image Quality, 6 for Battery Life and 7
for Zoom Range while the Conan camera gets 9 for Image Quality, 4 for Battery Life
and 6 for Zoom Range. Which camera is best?

To solve we will use the weighted mean to determine which is the best among the
two based on the Samuel’s rating system. In this problem, the weights are 0.5. 03,
and 0.2 while the data are 8, 6, and 7 for Sonu and 9, 4, and 6 for Conan.

∑𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 𝑥𝑖 (0.5)(8)+(0.3)(6)+(0.2)(7)
Sonu: W =
∑𝑛
= W=
∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖
= = 4+1.8+1.4
= 7.2
𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 0.5+0.3+0.2 1

∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖 𝑥𝑖 (0.5)(9)+(0.3)(4)+(0.2)(6) 4.5+1.2+1.2

Conan: W =
∑3𝑖=1 𝑤𝑖
= = 1
= 6.90
0.5+0.3+0.2

Based on the computation Sonu has the highest mean compared to conan.
Thus, Samuel decides to buy the Sonu.

2. Dominic usually eats lunch 7 times a week, but some weeks only get 1, 2, or 5
lunches.

Dominic had lunch:

• on 2 weeks: only one lunch for the whole week

• on 14 weeks: 2 lunches each week
• on 8 weeks: 5 lunches each week
• on 32 weeks: 7 lunches each week

What is the mean number of lunches Dominic has each week?

 Solution:
Use weeks as the weights and the number of lunches as the observations.

∑𝒏
𝒊=𝟏 𝒘𝒊 𝒙𝒊
(𝟐)(𝟏) + (𝟏𝟒)(𝟐) + (𝟖)(𝟓) + (𝟑𝟐)(𝟕)
W=
∑𝒏
= = 5.3
𝒊=𝟏 𝒘𝒊 𝟐 + 𝟏𝟒 + 𝟖 + 𝟑𝟐

Median
The median is the middle score for a set of data that has been arranged in
order of magnitude. The median is less affected by outliers and skewed data. In order
to calculate the median, suppose we have the data below:
65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45 92
Here, we have 11 observations. Thus, n=11.
Step 1. Arrange the data either from lowest to highest or from highest to lowest.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
14 35 45 55 55 56 56 65 87 89 92
Step 2. Locate the middle value.
If the number of observations is odd, locate the middle value. In this case, the
𝒏+𝟏
location of median is .
𝟐

For this example, the location of

𝒏+𝟏 𝟏𝟏+𝟏 𝟏𝟐
the median is = = = 6th
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
place.

Hence, the median is 56.

Another case when the number of observations is even. Consider the 10

observations below. First step, arrange from lowest to highest or highest to lowest.

14 35 45 55 55 56 56 65 87 89

If the number of observations is even, you need to get two middle locations.
𝒏 𝒏
In this case, the locations to be considered for the median are 𝟐 and 𝟐 + 𝟏. For this
example,
𝒏 𝟏𝟎 𝒏
= = 5th place and + 𝟏 = 6th place.
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

Thus, we need the observation in the 5th place which is 55 and the 6th place
which is 56. Using these two, the 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = = = 55.5

Mode
The mode is the most frequent score in our data set. On a histogram it
represents the highest bar in a bar chart or histogram. You can, therefore,
sometimes consider the mode as being the most popular option. Normally, the mode
is used for categorical data where we wish to know which is the most common
category.
 However, one of the problems with the mode is that it is not unique, so it
leaves us with problems when we have two or more values that share the highest
frequency. Another problem with the mode is that it will not provide us with a very
good measure of central tendency when the most common mark is far away from
the rest of the data in the data set.
Example. Determine the mode of the following set of data.
1.
14 35 45 55 55 56 56 65 87 89 92
For this example, 55 and 56 have the highest number of appearances in the
data set. Hence, the mode are 55 and 56.

2.

14 35 45 55 56 58 59 65 68 89
For this example, all observations appear only once or have the same
number of appearances. This case has no mode.

Summary of Mean, Median, and Mode

Type of Variable Best measure of central tendency

Nominal Mode
Ordinal Median
Interval/Ratio (not skewed) Mean
Interval/Ratio (skewed) Median

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY FOR UNGROUPED DATA

Statistical measures of variation are numerical values that indicate the

variability inherent in a set of data measurements. Measures of central tendency
provide only a partial description of a quantitative data set. The description is
incomplete without a measure of the variability, or spread, of the data set. The most
common measures of variation are the range, variance and standard distribution.

RANGE (R)

The range of a set of observations is the absolute value of the difference

between the largest and smallest values in the set. It measures the size of the
smallest contiguous interval of real numbers that encompasses all the data values.
Example.
Given the following sorted data: 1.2, 1.5, 1.9, 2.4, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 3.0, 3.5, 3.8

Range = R = highest value minus lowest value = 3.8 − 1.2 = 2.6 Example.
Determine the range of the data below.
 50 60 70 80 90 100

50 73 74 76 77 100

70 73 74 76 77 80

Solution:
Range = Highest value – lowest value = 100 − 50 = 50.

Note: Although the range is easy to compute, it is sensitive to outliers.

Variance

The variance of a set of data is a cumulative measure of the squares of the

difference of all the data values from the mean. The more spread the data, the larger
the variance is in relation to the mean. It can also be defined in terms of how close
the scores in the distribution are to the middle of the distribution.

The population and sample variance are calculated as follows:

Given the set of data values x1, x2, .... xN from a finite population of size N, the
population variance is calculated as

(Population Variance) 𝜎 𝑁

(Sample Variance) S n-1

where

𝜎2 is the population variance 𝑠2 is the sample variance

𝒙 is the observation or data
𝜇 is the population mean 𝑥̅ is the sample mean
𝑁 is the population size 𝑛 is the sample size

With samples, we use n – 1 in the formula because using n would give us a

biased estimate that consistently underestimates variability. The sample variance
would tend to be lower than the real variance of the population.

Reducing the sample n to n – 1 makes the variance artificially large, giving you
an unbiased estimate of variability: it is better to overestimate rather than
underestimate variability in samples.

Variance matters for two main reasons:

• Parametric statistical tests are sensitive to variance.

• Comparing the variance of samples helps you assess group differences.
 Variance is important to consider before performing parametric tests. These tests
require equal or similar variances, also called homogeneity of variance or
homoscedasticity, when comparing different samples.

Uneven variances between samples result in biased and skewed test results.
If you have uneven variances across samples, non-parametric tests are more
appropriate.

Example.
During a semester, a student took five exams. The population scores are 78,
83, 92, 68, and 85. Find the variance.

Solution:
From the previous example, the mean of this data is 81.2.
𝜎

Example.
Find the variance of the data below.
65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45 92

Solution:
We first solve for the mean.

𝑥̅ = = = 59

Then solve for the sample variance using 𝑠 n-1 . We will use table
to clearly understand the computation

x 𝑥̅ − 𝑥̅ (𝑥̅ − 𝑥̅)2
65 65 − 59 = 6 (6)2 = 36
55 55 − 59 = −4 (−4)2 = 16 𝑠
89 89 − 59 = 30 (30)2 = 900 The variance is
56 56 − 59 = −3 (−3)2 = 9
35 35 − 59 = −24 (−24)2 = 576
14 14 − 59 = −45 (−45)2 = 2025 𝟓𝟔𝟓𝟔
56 56 − 59 = −3 (−3)2 = 9
𝑺𝟐 = = 565.6
𝟏𝟎
55 55 − 59 = −4 (−4)2 = 16
87 87 − 59 = 28 (28)2 = 784
45 45 − 59 = −14 (−14)2 = 196
92 92 − 59 = 33 (33)2 = 1089
Total 5656

STANDARD DEVIATION
 The standard deviation is derived from variance and tells you, on average, how
far each value lies from the mean. It’s the square root of variance.

Both measures reflect variability in a distribution, but their units differ:

• Standard deviation is expressed in the same units as the original values (e.g.,
meters).
• Variance is expressed in much larger units (e.g., meters squared)

Since the units of variance are much larger than those of a typical value of a
data set, it’s harder to interpret the variance number intuitively. That’s why
standard deviation is often preferred as a main measure of variability.

However, the variance is more informative about variability than the standard
deviation, and it’s used in making statistical inferences.
Formula for Standard Deviation

(Population Standard Deviation) 𝜎

(Sample Standard Deviation) 𝑠 where

𝜎2 is the population variance 𝑠2 is the sample variance

𝜎 is the population standard deviation 𝑠 is the sample standard deviation

Example.
During a semester, a student took five exams. The population scores are 78, 83, 92,
68, and 85. Find the standard deviation.
Solution:
From the previous example, the variance of the data is 318.80. Hence, the
population standard deviation is

𝜎
Example.
Find the standard deviation of the data below.
65 55 89 56 35 14 56 55 87 45 92

From the previous example, the variance is 565.6 Thus, the sample standard
deviation is 𝒔 . 𝟕𝟖

DATA PRESENTATION

1. Tabular - using tables, for clear presentation and comparison of large numbers
of data items.
a. Frequency distribution table (fdt) – shows the data arranged into different
classes, and the numbers of cases which fall into each class are tabulated.
b. Frequency or Percentage Table – composed of columns for frequency and
percentage only
c. Contingency tables – cross classification of categorical variables in which
rows (typically) represent categories of explanatory variable and columns
represent categories of response
2. Graphical Presentation -
a. bar graphs and histogram
b. line graphs
c. pie charts
d. stem- and - leaf plot
e. box and whisker plot
3. Textual – data are presented in paragraph or in sentences
Findings – results of an investigation
Conclusion – an opinion based on findings; generalization on population based
on the result of the investigation on samples.
Inference – educated guess or meaningful prediction based on findings and
conclusions.

TABULAR PRESENTATION OF DATA

A statistical table has at least four major parts and some other minor parts.

(1) The Table Number

Each table must be given a number. Table number helps in distinguishing
one table from other tables. Usually, tables are numbered according to the
order of their appearance in a chapter. For example, the first table in the first
chapter of a book should be given number 1.1 and second table of the same
chapter be given 1.2 Table number should be given at its top or towards the
left of the table.
(2) The Title
The title is the main heading written in capitals shown at the top of the table.
It must explain the contents of the table and throw light on the table, as whole
different parts of the heading can be separated by commas. There are no full
stops in the little.
(3) The Box Head (column captions)
The vertical heading and subheading of the column are called columns
captions. The spaces where these column headings are written is called the
box head. Only the first letter of the box head is in capital letters and the
remaining words must be written in lowercase.
(4) The Stub (row captions)
The horizontal headings and sub heading of the row are called row captions
and the space where these rows headings are written is called the stub.
(5) The Body
This is the main part of the table which contains the numerical information
classified with respect to row and column captions.
(6) Prefatory Notes
A statement given below the title and enclosed in brackets usually
describes the units of measurement and is called the prefatory notes.
(7) Foot Notes
These appear immediately below the body of the table providing additional
explanation.
(8) Source Notes
 The source notes are given at the end of the table indicating the source the
information has been taken from. It includes the information about compiling
agency, publication, etc.

General Rules of Tabulation

1. A table should be simple and attractive. There should be no need of further
explanation (details).
2. Proper and clear headings for columns and rows are necessary.
3. Suitable approximation may be adopted and figures may be rounded off.
4. The unit of measurement should be well defined.
5. If the observations are large in numbers they can be broken into two or three
tables.
6. Thick lines should be used to separate the data under big classes and thin
lines to separate the sub classes of data.

The general sketch of table indicating its necessary parts is shown below:

—–THE TITLE—-
—-Prefatory Notes—-

—-Box Head—-

—-Row Captions—- ——Column Captions—–

—Stub Entries— —–The Body—–

Foot Notes…
Source Notes…

a. Frequency or Percentage Table

The term percentage means “per 100” for every hundred. The frequency (f) of a
particular observation is the number of times the observation occurs in the data.
Frequency and percentage statistics should be used to represent most personal
information variables. However, if participants reported their exact age, then the
mean and standard deviation should be calculated for the age variable.
Frequency statistics should be reported whenever the data is discrete, meaning
that there are separate categories that the participant can tick. For example,
marital status can have categories of single, married, divorced, widowed, and
separated. Educational qualifications can have categories of secondary school,
diploma, degree, post-graduate diploma, masters, and doctorate.
A frequency is simply the number of participants who indicated that
category. Percentage is calculated by taking the frequency in the category
divided by the total number of participants and multiplying by 100%

Below is an example of Frequency/ Percentage Table.

Table 1. The Distribution of Rescued Typhoon Victims.

Gender Frequency Percentage

Male 80 40%

Female 110 55%

Missing 10 5%

Total 200 100%

b. Contingency tables – cross classification of categorical variables in

which rows (typically) represent categories of explanatory variable and columns
represent categories of response
Table 2. The Distribution of Pet Preference of the Male and
Female Residence in Country Village.
Preference Male Female Total
Prefers Dogs 36 22 58
Prefers Cats 8 26 34
No Preference 2 6 8
Total 46 54 100

c. Frequency distribution table (FDT) – shows the data arranged into

different classes, and the numbers of cases which fall into each class are
tabulated.
Frequency Distributions
The job of a frequency distribution is to take a very large set of numbers and to
boil it down to a much smaller set of numbers – a collection of numbers that is
small enough for the pathetically limited human mind to keep track of at one
time. A good frequency distribution allows the consumer to extract the
necessary information about the scores in the data set while working within our
cognitive limitations.

Example. The daily expenses in Pesos of 30 Junior High School students are 37,
41, 39, 34, 71, 26, 56, 61, 58, 79, 83, 72, 64, 39, 75, 39, 37, 59, 57, 37, 53, 38,
49, 45, 70, 82, 44, 37, 79, 76. Construct the FDT of these values.
We will arrange the data from lowest to highest.
26, 34,37, 37, 37, 37, 38, 39, 39, 39, 41, 44, 45, 49, 53, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61,
64, 70, 71,72, 75, 76, 79, 79, 82, 83

Steps in Constructing the FDT.

1. Calculate the Range. R = highest value – lowest value = 83 – 26 = 57

2. Calculate the number of class interval 𝒌 = 𝟏 + 𝟑. 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝟏𝟎 𝒏
𝑘 = 1 + 3.222 log10 𝑛 = 1 + 3.222 log10 30 = 1 + 4.76 = 5.76 ≈ 6 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑠
(estimate to the next higher integer)

Note: If the estimated class interval will not include all values in the data, then
add another class interval. Make sure that all values in the data set must be
contained in the interval. For this example, the 6th class interval 76 – 85 contained
the highest value. Hence, all values in the data are contained in the six class
intervals.

5. Determine the frequencies of each class interval. Count the number

of values that is contained in every class interval.
For this example, count the number of values in the data that is from 26 to 35.
The following values in the data set are from 26 to 35: 26 and 34. Thus, the
frequency of the first class interval is 2.

Make sure that the total frequency is n. For this example n = 30. Hence, total
frequency is also 30.
7. Determine the class boundaries, the upper- and lower-class boundaries.
In this part, we will use the unit of accuracy. The unit of accuracy will depend
on the nature of the data considered.
If the data are all whole numbers, then the unit of accuracy is 0.5.
If the data has at least one value with one decimal place, then the unit of
accuracy is 0.05.
If the data has at least one value with two decimal places, then the unit of
accuracy is 0.005.
I hope you have noticed the pattern of the unit of accuracy with respect to the
nature of the values in the data set considered.
For this example, the unit of accuracy is 0.5 because all the values in the data
set are whole numbers.
To calculate the first lower class boundary, subtract the unit of accuracy 0.5
from the first lower limit, i.e., 26 – 0.5 = 25.5.
Do the same for the second lower class boundary: 36 – 0.5 = 35.5 or you can add
the class width 𝑐 = 10 from the previous lower class boundary. Do the same until
the 6th lower class boundary 75.5.

Class Interval Frequency (f) Class Marks Class

(x) Boundaries
26 - 35 2 30.5 25.5 – 35.5
36 - 45 11 40.5 35.5 – 45.5
46 - 55 2 50.5 45.5 – 55.5
56 - 65 6 60.5 55.5 – 65.5
66 - 75 4 70.5 65.5 – 75.5
76 - 85 5 80.5 75.5 – 85.5
Total 30
To calculate the first upper class boundary, add the unit of accuracy 0.5 from
the first upper limit, i.e., 35+ 0.5 = 35.5.
Do the same for the second upper class boundary: 45 + 0.5 = 45.5 or you can add
the class width 𝑐 = 10 from the previous upper class boundary, i.e., 35.5 + 10 =
45.5 . Do the same until the 6th lower class boundary 85.5.

8. Calculate the less than cumulative frequency (< 𝒄𝒇) and the greater than
cumulative frequency (> 𝒄𝒇).
To compute the less than cumulative frequency, the first <cf is the frequency of
the lowest class interval (26 – 35) which is 2.
The second <cf is the sum of the previous <cf (2) and the frequency (𝑓 = 11) of
the second lower class interval (36 - 45), i.e., 2 + 11 = 13 (the second <cf). The
third <cf is the second <cf and the f of the third class interval (46 – 55), i.e.,
13+2 = 15 (the third <cf).
The fourth < 𝑐𝑓 = 15 + 6 = 21.
The fifth < 𝑐𝑓 = 21 + 4 = 25.
The sixth < 𝑐𝑓 = 25 + 5 = 30. The last < 𝑐𝑓 must be equal to the total frequency.
 Class Interval Frequency (f) Class Marks Class < 𝒄𝒇 > 𝒄𝒇
(x) Boundaries
26 - 35 2 30.5 25.5 – 35.5 2 30
36 - 45 11 40.5 35.5 – 45.5 13 28
46 - 55 2 50.5 45.5 – 55.5 15 17
56 - 65 6 60.5 55.5 – 65.5 21 15
66 - 75 4 70.5 65.5 – 75.5 25 9
76 - 85 5 80.5 75.5 – 85.5 30 5
Total 30

To compute the greater than cumulative frequency, the first >cf is the frequency
of the highest class interval (76 – 85) which is 5.
The second >cf is the sum of the previous >cf (2) and the frequency (𝑓 = 11) of
the second higher class interval (66 - 75), i.e., 5 + 4 = 9 (the second >cf). The
third >cf is the second >cf and the f of the third class higher interval (56 – 65),
i.e., 9+6 = 15 (the third >cf).
The fourth > 𝑐𝑓 = 15 + 2 = 17.
The fifth >𝑐𝑓 = 17 + 11 = 28.
The sixth > 𝑐𝑓 = 28 + 2 = 30. The last > 𝑐𝑓 must be equal to the total frequency.

9. Compute the relative frequency (𝒓𝒇). The relative frequency is the

quotient of the frequency of the class interval and the total frequency.
𝑓
For the class interval 26 – 35, the relative frequency is = 30
2 = 0.07.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝑓 11
For the class interval 36 – 45, the relative frequency is = 30 = 0.37
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝑓 2
For the class interval 46 – 55, the relative frequency is = = 0.07
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 30
𝑓
For the class interval 56 – 65, the relative frequency is = 30
6 = 0.20
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

For the class interval 66 – 75, the relative frequency is 𝑓

= 30
4 = 0.13
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝑓 5
For the class interval 76 – 85, the relative frequency is = = 0.17
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 30

The total relative frequency must be equal to 1. Adjust the relative frequency if
necessary. For this example, 0.07 + 0.37 + 0.07 + 0.20 + 0.13 + 0.17 = 1.01. Adjust the
relative frequency. You can adjust 0.37 or 0.17 (since these were rounded off) by
subtracting 0.01 to only one of the relative frequency (0.37 and 0.17).
Relative
Class Marks Class
Class Interval Frequency (f) < 𝒄𝒇 > 𝒄𝒇 frequency
(x) Boundaries
𝒓𝒇
26 - 35 2 30.5 25.5 – 35.5 2 30 0.07
36 - 45 11 40.5 35.5 – 45.5 13 28 0.37 or 0.36
46 - 55 2 50.5 45.5 – 55.5 15 17 0.07
56 - 65 6 60.5 55.5 – 65.5 21 15 0.20
66 - 75 4 70.5 65.5 – 75.5 25 9 0.13
76 - 85 5 80.5 75.5 – 85.5 30 5 0.17 or 0.16
Total 30 1
Now, we are done! We can now discuss the descriptive statistics for grouped data.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR GROUPED DATA

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

 Mode

VII. Post-Test Evaluation Activity (Assessment): I. Perform as

indicated.
1. Consider the following set of unorganized data.
180 195 194 197 188 176 205 178 200 214 215
227 162 221 190 198 174 185 200 204 196 216
195 181 188 195 209 198 210 202 215 172 186
a. Summarize the data in the form of a frequency distribution table
b. Determine the mean, median and mode for this grouped data.
2. What is the range of 2, 4, 6, and 8?
3. The table below shows Cardo’s 1st semester course grades.
Use the weighted mean formula to find Cardo’s GPA for the 1st semester. (10pts)

Liza’s Grade, 1st Semester

Course Course grade Course units
Physics 1 2.0 3
P.E. 1 1.0 2
History 1 1.5 3
Math 101 2.0 6
English 1 1.4 3
Elementary 1.8 5
Statistics

VIII. Terminology/Definition of Terms:

 Descriptive statistics is a branch of statistics that concerned with describing the
characteristics and properties of a group of persons, places or things.
Inferential statistics consist of techniques designed to use sample statistics to make
estimates of and decisions about population parameters.
Measure of central tendency is a single value that attempts to describe a set of data by
identifying the central position within that set of data.
Mean is equal to the sum of all the values in the data set divided by the number of
values in the data set.
Weighted Mean is the mean of a data set whose entries have varying weights.
Median is the middle score for a set of data that has been arranged in order of
magnitude.
The mode is the most frequent score in our data set. On a histogram it represents the
highest bar in a bar chart or histogram.
Range is the difference between the highest value and lowest value.
The variance of a set of data is a cumulative measure of the squares of the difference
of all the data values from the mean.
The standard deviation is derived from variance and tells you, on average, how far each
value lies from the mean. It’s the square root of variance.
The frequency (f) of a particular observation is the number of times the observation
occurs in the data.
Frequency distribution table (FDT) shows the data arranged into different classes, and
the numbers of cases which fall into each class are tabulated.

IX. Summary
Descriptive statistics organizes the presentation, description, and interpretation of
data gathered without trying to infer anything that goes beyond the data. Measures of
average are called measures of central tendency and include the mean, median, and mode.
The mean, median and mode are all valid measures of central tendency, but under
different conditions, some measures of central tendency become more appropriate to use
than others. The mean is equal to the sum of all the values in the data set divided by the
number of values in the data set. The median is the middle score for a set of data that has
been arranged in order of magnitude. The mode is the data that appears the most.
Type of Variable Best measure of central tendency
Nominal Mode
Ordinal Median
Interval/Ratio (not skewed) Mean
Interval/Ratio (skewed) Median
Measure of the variability determine how spread the values of the data set. The three
common measures of variability are the range, variance, and standard deviation.

• Standard deviation is expressed in the same units as the original values (e.g.,
meters).
• Variance is expressed in much larger units (e.g., meters squared)
A statistical table has at least four major parts and some other minor parts.

(9) The Table Number

(10) The Title
(11) The Box Head (column captions)
(12) The Stub (row captions)
(13) The Body
(14) Prefatory Notes
(15) Foot Notes
(16) Source Notes

XI. References

Alferez, M.S. & Duro, M.A. (2006). MSA Statistics and Probability. MSA Publishing
House. Reprinted 2016
Belecina, R. R.et.al. (2016). Statistics and Probability. First Edition. Rex Book Store,
Inc.
Berman, H. (2020). Retrieved May 27, 2020 from https://stattrek.com/hypothesis-
test/hypothesis-testing.aspx?testing.aspx?tutorial=AP
Department of Mathematics, MSU-IIT, (2007). Elementary Statistics. Revised

Edition
emathzone.com. Construction of Statistical Table. Retrieved February 21, 2021
from
https://www.emathzone.com/tutorials/basic-statistics/construction-of-
statistical-table.html#ixzz6n6JvzZ5o
Glen , Stephanie . "Fractile: Simple Definition" From StatisticsHowTo.com:
Elementary Statistics for the rest of us! Retrieved February 21, 2021 From:
https://www.statisticshowto.com/fractile-simple-definition/
Parreño, E. B. & Jimenez, R.O. (2014). Basic Statistics: A Worktext. Second Edition.
C & E Publishing, Inc.
Shantikumar, S. and Campbell, MJ. (2016). Measures of Location and Dispersion
and Their Appropraite Uses Retrieved February 21, 2021 from
https://www.healthknowledge.org.uk public-health-textboo
/researchmethods//1b-statistical-methods/mldap