Edexcel International GCSE (9–1)

PHYSICS

Ian Horsewell

446755_FM_MRN_EDX_GCSE_Phy_i-vi.indd 1 03/08/18 9:39 AM

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ISBN 9781510446755

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 Get the most from this book
Everyone has to decide his or her own revision
My revision planner
strategy, but it is essential to review your work, 1 Forces and motion 5 Solids, liquids and gases

learn it and test your understanding. These Revision

01 How fast do things move? 78 Density
02 Acceleration 80 Pressure
04 Observing and calculating motion 80 Pressure in liquids and gases
05 Introducing forces 82 Solid, liquid and gaseous states
06 Forces, acceleration and Newton’s laws of motion 85 Specific heat capacity

Notes will help you to do that in a planned way, 8 Applying forces

10 Forces and stretching
12 Momentum
14 Collisions and explosions
6
87 Ideal gas molecules
Magnetism and electromagnetism
92 Magnets
94 Magnetising

topic by topic. Use this book as the cornerstone of

16 Turning moments
95 Currents and magnetism
17 Balancing forces
97 The motor effect
2 Electricity 100 Electric motors
21 Introducing electricity
102 Electromagnetic induction

your revision and don’t hesitate to write in it —

22 Mains electricity
103 Generators
25 Electrical power
105 Transformers
27 Electrical circuits
29 Calculating resistance 7 Radioactivity and particles
32 Current, charge and voltage 111 Atomic structure

personalise your notes and check your progress by

34 Current and voltage rules 113 Radioactivity
36 Circuit calculations 114 The nature of alpha, beta and gamma radiation
37 Electrostatics 116 Radioactive decay
39 Electrostatics at work 118 Uses of radioactive materials

ticking off each section as you revise.

3 Waves 119 The hazards of radiation
43 Introducing waves 120 Nuclear fission
45 Ripple tanks 123 Nuclear fusion
48 Electromagnetic waves 8 Astrophysics
50 Reflection 126 Earth’s place in the Universe
51 Refraction 126 Orbits
54 Total internal reflection 128 Stellar evolution
56 Sound waves 130 Brightness of stars and absolute magnitude
58 Loudness and pitch

Tick to track your progress

132 The evolution of the Universe
4 Energy resources and energy transfer 133 The evidence for the Big Bang Theory
63 Energy
65 Conduction and convection Now test yourself answers
67 Radiation
68 What is work? Exam practice answers online at
70 Calculating energy www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotesdownloads

Use the revision planner on pages iv and v to plan

72 Energy resources and electricity generation

iv Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotesdownloads Edexcel International GCSE Physics v

your revision, topic by topic. Tick each box when 446755_FM_MRN_EDX_GCSE_Phy_i-vi.indd 4-5

The average speed can be worked out using the total distance travelled 1000
acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2 Exam tip
6/25/18 1:50 PM

1 Forces and motion

1 Forces and motion

divided by the total time taken. A straight line represents motion at a

Distance in metres
800
constant speed and if the line is horizontal, the object has stopped moving If you use symbols rather
final velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s

you have:
(described as being stationary or ‘at rest’). 600 than words, make sure they
initial velocity, u, in metres per second, m/s are correct: a, v and t for
400
If the line bends, this means the speed of the object is changing. It might acceleration, velocity and
be increasing (an upward curve) or decreasing (a downward curve). 200 time, t, in seconds, s time, not A (which means
area), V (volume) or T
Distance–time graphs are often plotted from simple measurements. The 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 (temperature). Capitalisation
position of an object at set times is recorded. Unlike most scientific graphs, Example

l revised and understood a topic

Time in seconds is important!
these are often plotted by joining the dots instead of drawing a best-fit line. Figure 1.1 A distance–time In the 100 m race an athlete is running at 8.5 m/s after 4 seconds; 7 seconds
graph for a car travelling along after starting, her velocity is 9.7 m/s. What was her acceleration?
Exam tip a straight road Typical mistake
When describing the motion represented by a distance–time graph, Answer
Make sure you use the
refer to each part of the line in turn. For example, ‘between 40 and change in velocity difference between the
acceleration =
70 seconds the car was stationary’ followed by ‘between 70 and

l tested yourself
time taken velocity values and divide by
100 seconds the car was moving forwards’. the time between them when
(9.7 – 8.5)
acceleration = working out acceleration. A
3 common mistake is to use
Required practical acceleration = 0.4 m/s2 an absolute value where the
change in either velocity or
Investigate the motion of everyday objects such as toy cars or tennis balls The term deceleration can be used when velocity is decreasing (slowing time should have been used

l practised the exam questions and gone online to

down) rather than increasing (speeding up). This can also be described as instead.
Method
1 Two light gates were set up, 0.5 m apart.
a negative acceleration.
2 A tennis ball was selected, and the diameter of the ball was
measured and recorded. Velocity–time graphs
3 The ball was rolled through both gates. The time that the ball took to pass through each gate was recorded.
Just like distance–time graphs, changing velocity can be plotted. In a

check your answers and complete the quick quizzes.

4 The time taken for the ball to travel from one gate to the other gate was also recorded.
velocity–time graph, time is along the horizontal or x-axis, and the
Analysis velocity is along the vertical or y-axis. The gradient of the graph is equal 10
The speed of the ball as it passed each gate was calculated. The ball’s acceleration as it passed from to the acceleration at that point in the journey, so a steeper line means
the first gate to the second gate was also calculated. The results showed that the ball had accelerated in a greater acceleration. A straight line represents motion with a constant 8
speed between the two gates. acceleration. A downward line means the velocity is decreasing.

Velocity in m/s
6
Finding the area under a velocity–time graph lets you work out the
Now test yourself distance travelled in that time. Counting squares is a quick way to 4
estimate this. When calculating the area under a graph, it is usually

You can also keep track of your revision by ticking

1 Calculate the speed of the car in Figure 1.1 between 70 and 100 seconds.
helpful to divide it into rectangular and triangular sections so that each 2
2 Calculate the average speed for the car in Figure 1.1.
area can be calculated individually.
3 Why are the values for Question 1 and Question 2 different? 0
4 A runner aims to complete a 10 km event in an hour. How fast (in m/s) will they need to run to achieve this? Typical mistake 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time in s
Answers on page 000 On a velocity–time graph, a horizontal line does not mean the object has
Figure 1.2 A velocity–time
stopped, only that the velocity is constant (and so the acceleration is zero).

off each topic heading in the book. You may find it

Only when the line is on the x-axis is the object ‘at rest’ or stationary. This graph for an athlete

Acceleration is different to a distance–time graph where a flat line does represent a

stationary period.

Speeding up and slowing down

Now test yourself

helpful to add your own notes as you work through

No increase or decrease in velocity can happen immediately.
Acceleration (a) in metres per second squared (m/s2) is calculated by Acceleration: The rate of 5 A car accelerates from rest to 15 m/s in 3 seconds.
finding the change in velocity in metres per second, divided by the time change of velocity. It uses (a) What is the acceleration?
taken for that change in seconds. The change in velocity (sometimes the unit metres per second (b) If it then takes 6 seconds to slow to 3 m/s, what is the deceleration?
written Δv) is found by final velocity v, minus the initial velocity u. squared (m/s2). 6 Sketch a velocity–time graph of the car in Question 5, with the inclusion of a steady speed of 15 m/s for
10 seconds in between the two events described.
change in velocity 7 Assuming the deceleration continues at the same speed, how much longer will it take the car to

each topic.
acceleration = completely stop?
time taken

a=
v–u Answers on page 000
t

2 Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotesdownloads Edexcel International GCSE Physics 3

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Features to help you succeed

Exam tips Revision activities
Expert tips are given throughout the book to These activities will help you to understand each
help you polish your exam technique in order to topic in an interactive way.
maximise your chances in the exam.
Exam practice
Typical mistakes Practice exam questions are provided for each topic.
The author identifies the typical mistakes candidates Use them to consolidate your revision and practise
make and explains how you can avoid them. your exam skills. Answers are online.

Now test yourself Summaries

These short, knowledge-based questions provide the The summaries provide a quick-check bullet list for
first step in testing your learning. Answers are at the each topic.
back of the book.
Online
Definitions and key words Go online to check your answers to the exam
Clear, concise definitions of essential key terms are questions and try out the extra quick quizzes at
provided where they first appear. www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotes
downloads
Key words from the specification are highlighted in
bold throughout the book.

Edexcel International GCSE (9–1) Physics iii

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 My revision planner
1 Forces and motion
1 How fast do things move?
2 Acceleration
4 Observing and calculating motion
5 Introducing forces
6 Forces, acceleration and Newton’s laws of motion
8 Applying forces
10 Forces and stretching
12 Momentum
14 Collisions and explosions
16 Turning moments
17 Balancing forces
2 Electricity
21 Introducing electricity
22 Mains electricity
25 Electrical power
27 Electrical circuits
29 Calculating resistance
32 Current, charge and voltage
34 Current and voltage rules
36 Circuit calculations
37 Electrostatics
38 Electrostatics at work
3 Waves
42 Introducing waves
44 Ripple tanks
47 Electromagnetic waves
49 Reflection
50 Refraction
53 Total internal reflection
55 Sound waves
57 Loudness and pitch
4 Energy resources and energy transfer
61 Energy
63 Conduction and convection
65 Radiation
66 What is work?
68 Calculating energy
70 Energy resources and electricity generation

iv Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotesdownloads

446755_FM_MRN_EDX_GCSE_Phy_i-vi.indd 4 03/08/18 9:39 AM

 5 Solids, liquids and gases
75 Density
77 Pressure
77 Pressure in liquids and gases
79 Solid, liquid and gaseous states
82 Specific heat capacity
83 Ideal gas molecules
6 Magnetism and electromagnetism
88 Magnets
90 Magnetising
91 Currents and magnetism
93 The motor effect
96 Electric motors
98 Electromagnetic induction
99 Generators
101 Transformers
7 Radioactivity and particles
106 Atomic structure
108 Radioactivity
109 The nature of alpha, beta and gamma radiation
111 Radioactive decay
113 Uses of radioactive materials
114 The hazards of radiation
115 Nuclear fission
118 Nuclear fusion
8 Astrophysics
121 Earth’s place in the Universe
121 Orbits
123 Stellar evolution
125 Brightness of stars and absolute magnitude
127 The evolution of the Universe
128 The evidence for the Big Bang Theory

Now test yourself answers

Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at

www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotesdownloads

Edexcel International GCSE (9–1) Physics v

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 Countdown to my exams
6–8 weeks to go One week to go
l Start by looking at the specification — make l Try to fit in at least one more timed practice of
sure you know exactly what material you need an entire past paper and seek feedback from
to revise and the style of the examination. your teacher, comparing your work closely with
Use the revision planner on pages iv and v to the mark scheme.
familiarise yourself with the topics. l Check the revision planner to make sure you
l Organise your notes, making sure you have haven’t missed out any topics. Brush up on any
covered everything on the specification. The areas of difficulty by talking them over with a
revision planner will help you to group your friend or getting help from your teacher.
notes into topics. l Attend any revision classes put on by your
l Work out a realistic revision plan that will teacher. Remember, he or she is an expert at
allow you time for relaxation. Set aside days preparing people for examinations.
and times for all the subjects that you need to
study, and stick to your timetable.
l Set yourself sensible targets. Break your
revision down into focused sessions of around The day before the examination
40 minutes, divided by breaks. These Revision l Flick through these Revision Notes for useful
Notes organise the basic facts into short, reminders, for example the exam tips, exam
memorable sections to make revising easier. summaries, typical mistakes and key terms.
l Check the time and place of your examination.
l Make sure you have everything you need —
2–6 weeks to go extra pens and pencils, tissues, a watch,
bottled water, sweets.
l Read through the relevant sections of this book
l Allow some time to relax and have an early
and refer to the exam tips, summaries, typical
night to ensure you are fresh and alert for the
mistakes and key terms. Tick off the topics as
examinations.
you feel confident about them. Highlight those
topics you find difficult and look at them again
in detail.
l Test your understanding of each topic by My exams
working through the ‘Now test yourself’
questions in the book. Look up the answers at Edexcel International GCSE (9–1) Physics Paper 1
the back of the book. Date:..........................................................................
l Make a note of any problem areas as you
Time:.........................................................................
revise, and ask your teacher to go over these in
class. Location:...................................................................
l Look at past papers. They are one of the best
ways to revise and practise your exam skills. Edexcel International GCSE (9–1) Physics Paper 2
Write or prepare planned answers to the exam Date:..........................................................................
practice questions provided in this book. Check
Time:.........................................................................
your answers online and try out the extra
quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/ Location:...................................................................
myrevisionnotesdownloads
l Use the revision activities to try out different
revision methods. For example, you can make
notes using mind maps, spider diagrams or
flash cards.
l Track your progress using the revision planner
and give yourself a reward when you have
achieved your target.

446755_FM_MRN_EDX_GCSE_Phy_i-vi.indd 6 03/08/18 9:39 AM

 1 Forces and motion

How fast do things move?

Average speed
Two measurements must be made to find the average speed: the total
distance travelled must be divided by the time taken. In science, we tend
to use metres (m) for distance and seconds (s) for time: this gives a speed
in metres per second (m/s). In everyday life, kilometres per hour (km/h)
and miles per hour (mph) are often used instead. speed, v, in metres per second,
m/s
total distance travelled
average speed = distance, d, in metres, m
time taken
d time, t, in seconds, s
v=
t

Example Exam tip

A runner moves a distance of 500 metres in 200 seconds. Find the Converting values you are
average speed in m/s. given into standard units,
such as metres and seconds,
Answer will stop you making mistakes
total distance travelled when doing calculations in
average speed = your exam.
time taken
500
average speed =
200
average speed = 2.5 m/s

The runner might have been moving faster at some points and slower at
others. This is why the answer is an average speed. Even short journeys
involve starting and stopping; your journey to school each morning is an
everyday example.

Speed and velocity

Scientists make a distinction between speed (which can be motion in any
direction or combination of directions) and velocity (which is motion in Speed: Distance travelled
a particular direction). In everyday life the two are often mixed up, but per unit of time
direction matters in scientific measurements; 20 m/s is a speed, but 20 m/s Velocity: Speed in a defined
due North is a velocity. direction
The same symbol (usually v) is used for both speed and velocity and the
value may not change; it is the presence or absence of a direction that tells
you which is meant.

Distance–time graphs
If an object or person is moving in a straight line, a distance–time graph
can be drawn. Time is along the horizontal or x-axis and distance is
along the vertical or y-axis. The gradient of the graph is equal to the
speed at that point in the journey, so a steeper line means a greater speed.

Edexcel International GCSE (9–1) Physics 1

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 The average speed can be worked out using the total distance travelled 1000
1 Forces and motion

divided by the total time taken. A straight line represents motion at a 800

distance in m
constant speed and if the line is horizontal, the object has stopped moving
600
(described as being stationary or ‘at rest’).
400
If the line bends, this means the speed of the object is changing. It might
be increasing (an upward curve) or decreasing (a downward curve). 200

Distance–time graphs are often plotted from simple measurements. The 0

0 20 40 60 80 100 120
position of an object at set times is recorded. Unlike most scientific graphs, time in s
these are often plotted by joining the dots instead of drawing a best-fit line. Figure 1.1 A distance–time
graph for a car travelling along
Exam tip a straight road
When describing the motion represented by a distance–time graph,
refer to each part of the line in turn. For example, ‘between 40 and
70 seconds the car was stationary’ followed by ‘between 70 and
100 seconds the car was moving forwards’.

Required practical
Investigate the motion of everyday objects such as toy cars or tennis balls
Method
1 Two light gates were set up, 0.5 m apart.
2 A tennis ball was selected, and the diameter of the ball was
measured and recorded.
3 The ball was rolled through both gates. The time that the ball took to pass through each gate was recorded.
4 The time taken for the ball to travel from one gate to the other gate was also recorded.
Analysis
The speed of the ball as it passed each gate was calculated. The ball’s acceleration as it passed from
the first gate to the second gate was also calculated. The results showed that the ball had accelerated in
speed between the two gates.

Now test yourself

1 Calculate the speed of the car in Figure 1.1 between 70 and 100 seconds.
2 Calculate the average speed for the car in Figure 1.1.
3 Why are the values for Question 1 and Question 2 different?
4 A runner aims to complete a 10 km event in an hour. How fast (in m/s) will they need to run to achieve this?

Answers on page 131

Acceleration
Speeding up and slowing down
No increase or decrease in velocity can happen immediately.
Acceleration (a) in metres per second squared (m/s2) is calculated by Acceleration: The rate of
finding the change in velocity in metres per second, divided by the time change of velocity. It uses
taken for that change in seconds. The change in velocity (sometimes the unit metres per second
written Δv) is found by final velocity v, minus the initial velocity u. squared (m/s2).

change in velocity
acceleration =
time taken
v–u
a=
t

2 Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotesdownloads

446755_01_MRN_EDX_GCSE_Phy_001-020.indd 2 03/08/18 12:42 PM

 acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2 Exam tip

1 Forces and motion

If you use symbols rather
final velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s
than words, make sure they
initial velocity, u, in metres per second, m/s are correct: a, v and t for
acceleration, velocity and
time, t, in seconds, s time, not A (which means
area), V (volume) or T
(temperature). Capitalisation
Example
is important!
In the 100 m race an athlete is running at 8.5 m/s after 4 seconds; 7 seconds
after starting, her velocity is 9.7 m/s. What was her acceleration?
Typical mistake
Answer
Make sure you use the
change in velocity difference between the
acceleration =
time taken velocity values and divide by
(9.7 – 8.5) the time between them when
acceleration = working out acceleration. A
3 common mistake is to use
acceleration = 0.4 m/s2 an absolute value where the
change in either velocity or
The term deceleration can be used when velocity is decreasing (slowing time should have been used
down) rather than increasing (speeding up). This can also be described as instead.
a negative acceleration.

Velocity–time graphs
Just like distance–time graphs, changing velocity can be plotted. In a
velocity–time graph, time is along the horizontal or x-axis, and the
velocity is along the vertical or y-axis. The gradient of the graph is equal 10
to the acceleration at that point in the journey, so a steeper line means
a greater acceleration. A straight line represents motion with a constant 8
acceleration. A downward line means the velocity is decreasing.
velocity in m/s

6
Finding the area under a velocity–time graph lets you work out the
distance travelled in that time. Counting squares is a quick way to 4
estimate this. When calculating the area under a graph, it is usually
helpful to divide it into rectangular and triangular sections so that each 2
area can be calculated individually.
0
Typical mistake 0 2 4 6 8 10
time in s
On a velocity–time graph, a horizontal line does not mean the object has
stopped, only that the velocity is constant (and so the acceleration is zero). Figure 1.2 A velocity–time
Only when the line is on the x-axis is the object ‘at rest’ or stationary. This graph for an athlete
is different to a distance–time graph where a flat line does represent a
stationary period.

Now test yourself

5 A car accelerates from rest to 15 m/s in 3 seconds.
(a) What is the acceleration?
(b) If it then takes 6 seconds to slow to 3 m/s, what is the deceleration?
6 Sketch a velocity–time graph of the car in Question 5, with the inclusion of a steady speed of 15 m/s for
10 seconds in between the two events described.
7 Assuming the deceleration continues at the same speed, how much longer will it take the car to
completely stop?

Answers on page 131

Edexcel International GCSE (9–1) Physics 3

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 Observing and calculating motion
1 Forces and motion

Light gates and ticker timers

No matter what equipment is used to investigate speed (including frames of a
video recorded with a camera), the important equation to consider is the same:
distance
speed = time interrupt card
light gate
glider
For a light gate, the time is measured for the object with a known length to
pass through. For a ticker timer, the time change between each mark is the
same, for example 0.02 s, and the distance can be measured with a ruler.

Exam tip
Figure 1.3 Light gate
For any measurements or diagrams of a moving object, it should be
possible to work out values for distance and time, so speed and/or
acceleration can be calculated. Look for clues and add your thoughts,
either to the diagram or as bullet points in your notes. These notes
can gain partial credit even if you do not get the final answer right.

Equations of motion
An important equation links initial and final speed, acceleration and
distance travelled. This is a useful equation because it does not include any final velocity, v, in metres
value for the time taken, which is often hard to measure. If three values are per second, m/s
known, the fourth value can be worked out. If an object starts or finishes
‘at rest’ (stationary) then the relationship becomes much simpler. initial velocity, u, in metres
per second, m/s
v 2 = u2 + (2 × a × s)
acceleration, a, in metres per
Example second squared, m/s2
A car accelerates at 5 m/s2 for a distance of 30 m. What is the final distance travelled, s, in
velocity if the initial velocity was 3 m/s? metres, m

Answer
v2 = u2 + (2 × a × s) Typical mistake

v2 = 32 + (2 × 5 × 30) Note that s, the symbol for

distance, is easily confused
v2 = 9 + 300 with s, the abbreviation for
the SI unit of time (seconds).
v2 = 309 Some students accidentally
use it to represent speed
v = √309 rather than the accepted
abbreviation v. Make
v = 17.6 m/s (to 1 d.p.) sure you are using and
interpreting your symbols
properly.
Revision activity
Describe your movement between two points using correct terms.
Any straight-line journey could be shown using a distance–time or
velocity–time sketch. Describe what is happening at different points
on the graph. Try sketching a motion graph and then describe it to
a partner; can they sketch a similar graph from your description,
without seeing the original? All of these activities will improve your
fluency in describing motion in words, which makes it much easier to
choose the correct values for calculations.

4 Exam practice answers and quick quizzes at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/myrevisionnotesdownloads

446755_01_MRN_EDX_GCSE_Phy_001-020.indd 4 03/08/18 12:42 PM

 Now test yourself

1 Forces and motion

8Rearrange or simplify the formula v2 = u2 + (2 × a × s)
(a) to find the distance travelled given the other values
(b) if the initial velocity is zero.
9 Calculate the final velocity of a cyclist who accelerates from rest at 2 m/s2 along a 100 m track.
10 A trolley of length 10 cm rolls through two light gates on a flat table. The first reading is 0.1 s and
the second is 0.2 s.
(a) Work out the speed at each point.
(b) Why is it not possible to work out the acceleration of the trolley?

Answers on page 131

Introducing forces
Definitions and examples
Forces have three possible effects on an object:
l changing its shape (temporarily or permanently) Force: A push or a pull
l changing its speed (acceleration)
l changing its direction of motion.
We divide forces into those which require contact and those that don’t.
l Contact forces involve particles that push against or collide with each
other. Tension is a force acting through a stretched object. Friction
resists movement between surfaces that are touching.
l Non-contact forces such as gravitational, electrical and magnetic forces
are associated with fields (see page 89 for more information). Gravitational
forces can only be attractive but magnetic and electrical forces can be
attractive (pulling together) or repulsive (pushing apart). The attraction
towards the Earth is called weight and is the gravitational force.
The SI unit of force is the newton (N). Large forces can be measured in
kilonewtons (kN) instead. If something cannot be measured in newtons,
it is not a force.

Vectors and scalars

Force is a vector quantity because it has a specific direction, while
a scalar quantity has only size or magnitude, but no direction. The
direction in a vector quantity might be expressed as left or right, forwards
or backwards, or by using a compass direction such as ‘due East’.

Vector quantity: A quantity like velocity that has a specified direction

as well as size or magnitude
Scalar quantity: A quantity like speed that has size or magnitude

Drawing, adding and subtracting forces

Arrows are drawn to show forces. The length of the arrow represents
the size or magnitude, so a longer arrow means a larger force. In most
diagrams the arrow will start where the force is caused, for example this friction, thrust,
will be at the centre of an object for weight. If one object pushes against 400 N 400 N
another the force should be shown where they meet. An object which
has a motor, or something similar which causes motion, may have a force Figure 1.4 Thrust
labelled ‘thrust’ or ‘driving force’.

Edexcel International GCSE (9–1) Physics 5

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 If forces are in exactly the same direction, they can be added together.
1 Forces and motion

If they are in exactly opposite directions, it is the difference between

them that is important. If they are of equal magnitude but in opposite
directions, we say they are balanced.
If an overall or resultant force is acting on an object, it will accelerate in
the direction of that force. If a resultant force acts on a moving object, it Resultant force: The
will speed up or slow down depending on the direction of the force. combination of two or more
forces in a line. Like other
The opposite is also true. In other words, if an object is not accelerating, forces, it will have both
there cannot be a resultant force acting on it. For example, the weight of magnitude and direction. It
a table acts on it down towards the f loor. The table does not accelerate, so may be zero.
there must be an equal force acting up from the f loor. This is called the
normal contact force.
If two or more forces act on an object, but are balanced, then there may
be a change of shape even though there is no acceleration. See page 7 for
more detail.

Now test yourself

11 Add the missing description and value for the forces in the diagram, given that the resultant force
is zero.
700 N
thrust
200 N, friction

Figure 1.5
12 A rubber ball is at rest until pushed so it rolls along the floor and bounces off the wall. Explain the
three possible effects of forces that can be observed.

Answers on page 131

Forces, acceleration and

Newton’s laws of motion
Balanced forces
If the forces are of equal magnitude and in opposite directions, they are
said to be balanced. This means the resultant force is zero.
W = 750 N
Forces can be balanced for a stationary or moving object. For stationary
objects, if the force is balanced, it stays stationary. For moving objects,
R = 750 N
if the force is balanced, it will keep moving in the same direction at the
(a) stationary;
same speed. forces balance
Newton’s first law is often stated as ‘When the resultant force on an driving
forces
object is zero, the forces are balanced and the object does not accelerate.’ drag forces

Remember that forces like friction oppose motion and, therefore, may
balance the force pushing an object forwards. The weight of an object (b) moving at steady speed;
may be balanced by tension (if suspended) or by the normal contact force forces balance

from the f loor, sometimes called the reaction force. Figure 1.6 Balanced forces

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 Unbalanced forces

1 Forces and motion

If forces are not balanced, there will be acceleration in the same direction
as the resultant force. If the object is stationary, it will start to move. If it
is already moving, the effect will depend on whether the resultant force
is in the same direction as the existing motion or if it is in the opposing
direction.
Friction and drag on a moving object, if unbalanced by thrust, will make
it decelerate and eventually stop.

Force, mass and acceleration

The acceleration a depends on two variables: the magnitude of the
resultant force, F, in
resultant force F and the mass m of the object. Newton’s second law states
newtons, N
that ‘Acceleration is proportional to the resultant force.’
resultant force = mass × acceleration mass, m, in kilograms, kg
F=m×a
acceleration, a, in metres per
second squared, m/s2
Example
A car of mass 1500 kg must accelerate from rest at 2 m/s2. What
resultant force must be exerted?

Answer

F=m×a

F = 1500 × 2

F = 3000 N or 3 kN

Now test yourself

13 Work out the resultant force in each case and state the effect (if any) on the motion.

800 N 500 N W = 750 N

6000 N 8000 N
N = 750 N forward force drag force

Figure 1.7 What is the overall force in each case?

14 Use Newton’s laws to explain why a moving car slows down if the engine cuts out, even if the brakes
are not used.
15 An engine exerts a forwards force of 40 kN on a train of mass 200 000 kg. What is the acceleration?

Answers on page 131

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 Applying forces
1 Forces and motion

Weight and mass

Weight is a force that acts on objects with mass. It acts towards the Earth
weight, W, in newtons, N
because of gravity and it is proportional to the mass. The strength of the
Earth’s gravitational field, g, is 10 N/kg. This means that a force of 10 N mass, m, in kilograms, kg
acts on each kilogram.
weight = mass × gravitational field strength gravitational field strength, g,
W=m×g is 10 newtons per kilogram,
N/kg (on Earth)
Example
A student with a mass of 45 kg is on Earth. What is their weight?

Answer

W=m×g

W = 45 × 10

W = 450 N

In other places in the solar system, g will have a different value. On Mars
it is approximately 4 N/kg, so an object will have a smaller weight there
than on Earth even though the mass is the same.

Falling and parachuting

If there is no air resistance, all objects fall at the same rate. Near the
Earth, a falling object with no air resistance would accelerate at 10 m/s2. Air resistance: The force
that opposes motion for an
An object accelerates as it falls until the force of air resistance opposing its
object travelling through a
motion is equal to the weight. Objects that have a small weight or a large gas. It is larger for objects
area are most affected. that have a large area or a
A skydiver has a constant mass, so their weight does not change. high speed.
Speed and air resistance increase as they fall, until the forces pushing
up and pushing down balance, and the velocity becomes constant. If
the parachute opens, the air resistance is suddenly much higher, so the
skydiver will decelerate until the forces balance again.
60

parachute
50 B C opens
terminal
velocity
40
speed in m/s

30 rapid
deceleration

20 A

large parachutist
10 acceleration hits the ground
D terminal velocity E

0
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 30
time in s

Figure 1.8 Speed–time graph for a skydiver

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 The skydiver has balanced forces for two parts of the graph; once when

1 Forces and motion

travelling quickly with a small surface area, and the second time when
they had a larger surface area and a lower speed. Falling at a constant
speed as a result of balanced forces is called terminal velocity.

Terminal velocity: The speed for a falling object at which the force
down (weight) and force up (air resistance or drag) are balanced. The
actual value depends on the weight and area of the object, and the
properties of the air.

Driving safely
Stopping distances
For a moving vehicle like a car, it takes longer to stop (in time and distance) at
higher speeds. The total distance travelled while slowing from a certain speed
is called the stopping distance and there are two parts you need to consider:
stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance

60
velocity in m/s

40
Stopping distance: The total
distance travelled while
20 slowing from a certain
speed.
0 Thinking distance: The
0 2 4 6 8 10
distance travelled by the car
time in s
while the driver is reacting
Figure 1.9 Velocity-time graph for a car that is stopping to the hazard.

Anything that increases the driver’s reaction time (distractions such as Braking distance: The
mobile phones, tiredness and the effect of alcohol or other drugs) will distance travelled between
the time the car starts to
increase the thinking distance, so the overall stopping distance will be
decelerate and the time it
greater. Higher speed also means a greater thinking distance, because the comes to a complete stop.
vehicle travels further in the same time.
thinking distance = speed × reaction time

Example
An alert driver travelling at 10 m/s reacts in 0.6 seconds. How far does
Exam tip
the car travel before braking starts?
Most questions on stopping
Answer distance will ask you to
analyse provided data
thinking distance = speed × reaction time
or suggest the effects of
possible factors. Be sure
thinking distance = 10 × 0.6
you state clearly what is
increased or decreased
thinking distance = 6 m
and why. For example, ‘wet
roads increase the braking
The car cannot stop instantly and if it decelerates less effectively the distance because there
braking distance will be more, so the overall stopping distance will be is less friction’ is a better
greater. Most factors increasing the braking distance are to do with the answer than ‘wet roads
car, such as having a heavy load, poorly maintained brakes, or less friction make braking distance
between the tyres and the road because of ice, water, mud or worn tyre longer’.
treads. Higher speeds also mean greater braking distances.

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 Now test yourself
1 Forces and motion

16 A Martian rover design has a mass of 900 kg on Earth. Mars has a gravitational field strength of
4 N/kg. What is the:
(a) weight on Earth
(b) mass on Mars
(c) weight on Mars?
17 Which has the lowest terminal velocity; a skydiver falling at a flat angle, one falling headfirst or one
with an open parachute? What difference does this make to the skydiver?
18 A driver is travelling at 20 m/s and is distracted by the sound of a notification on their phone, so their
reaction time is 0.9 s. How far does their car travel before they start to brake in an emergency?
19 What effect does ice on the road have on stopping distance and why?

Answers on page 132

Forces and stretching

Elastic deformation
If more than one force is applied to an object then the shape can be
changed. If there are two forces in opposite directions, the object will be
either stretched or compressed depending on whether they are directed
away from or towards each other. Elastic deformation: A
If there are three balanced forces on an object, it can be made to bend at temporary change in shape;
when the force is removed
the point where the middle force is applied.
the object will return to the
Changes in shape can either be temporary (called elastic deformation) or original size and shape.
permanent (called inelastic or plastic deformation). Inelastic or plastic
Many objects will be deformed elastically by small forces but become deformation: A permanent
permanently deformed (and damaged) by large forces. A table tennis ball change in shape
is a good example of this.

Typical mistake
In physics, elastic describes the behaviour of a material, not the
material it is made of. (Although it is true that a rubber band shows
elastic behaviour under some conditions!)

Stretching a helical spring

Although almost everything can be stretched or compressed by forces,
springs are useful for experiments because they are easy to measure. The Spring constant: Describes
stiffer an object is, the harder it is to stretch (or compress). This is how large a force in newtons
is needed to increase the
described by the spring constant, k. A spring with a spring constant of
length of an object by one
70 N/m will need a force of 70 N to increase the length by 1 m. metre. It describes the
specific object, not the
Exam tip material.
Make sure that the extension, not length, is used in the equation, and
that values are measured in metres, m. A spring that has stretched
from 8 to 14 cm has an extension of 0.06 m. It would be wrong to say its
extension is 14 cm (which is the length), or that the extension is 6 cm
(which is the wrong unit to use).

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 force = spring constant × extension
force, F, measured in

1 Forces and motion

F=k×e newtons, N
spring constant, k, measured
Example in newtons per metre, N/m
A spring stretches by 24 cm when a force of 6 N is applied. What is the extension, e, measured in
spring constant, k, for this spring? metres, m
Answer (sometimes Δx rather than e
F is used for extension)
k=
e
6
k=
0.24
k = 25  N/m

Revision activity
From memory, describe briefly how you could investigate the
relationship between force and spring extension. For each variable
in your method, specify the device used for making measurements
and include the units. What hazards were identified and how were
these controlled? Compare the method you remembered with the one
provided in your lessons and add any missing details. Repeat in a week
to improve your recall and clarity.

Limit of proportionality
For many materials including springs, the extension is doubled every time
the force applied is doubled, until the spring starts to break. This is a Hooke’s law: This states that
extension of a spring will be
directly proportional relationship and is described by Hooke’s law.
proportional to the load up
To find out if a material obeys the law, increase the force acting on an to a maximum force.
object, for example a spring, and measure the extension. The results can
then be plotted on a graph. Hooke’s law applies until the line on the
graph is no longer straight.
Sometimes the force is plotted on the vertical axis and extension along
the horizontal axis. Although this is not the normal approach for
choosing axes, it means that the spring constant can be calculated by
finding the gradient for the straight-line section of the graph.
The limit of proportionality is where the line stops being straight and
the increase in length is no longer proportional to applied force. It is
sometimes called the elastic limit.

Required practical
Investigate how extension varies with applied force for helical springs
Method
1 A retort stand was set up and a ruler was clamped vertically in place.
2 At the top of the stand a helical spring was attached.
3 The position of the bottom of the spring was measured on the metre rule to give l0 .
4 A weight of 1 N was placed on the bottom of the spring.
5 The new position of the bottom of the spring was measured on the ruler to give l1.
6 The extension of the spring was calculated by working out: l1 – l0.

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 1 Forces and motion

7 The experiment was continued by adding further plastic deformation

8
weights and measuring each new position of the
7 B
bottom of the spring.
6
Results

force in N
5 limit of
The measurements were recorded and plotted on 4 proportionality
a graph. The graph showed that for each 1 N weight 3
added, the spring extended a similar amount. At a
2
certain point, the limit of proportionality was reached,
and the spring’s extension increased beyond the 1
A
expected proportion. 0
extension in cm
Metal wires show similar behaviour to springs, but
the value for the maximum force before the limit is Figure 1.10 The spring obeys Hooke’s law
reached will be different in each case. Because any until point B.
stretching after the limit of proportionality is no longer elastic, wires and springs may not return to their
original length when the force is removed. This is inelastic or plastic deformation.
Rubber bands show a different pattern and become stiffer as they get near maximum extension. This is
because of the changing alignment of the molecules in the rubber.

Now test yourself

20 A 5 cm spring extends to 7 cm with a force of 4 N. What will the extension be for a force of 8 N,
assuming the limit of proportionality has not been reached?
21 (a) Find the spring constant k for the spring in Question 20.
(b) What is the predicted extension for a force of 1000 N?
(c) Explain why this may not occur in practice.
22 Explain the difference between elastic and plastic deformation.

Answers on page 132

Momentum
Forces and change of momentum
A property that helps us understand the movement of an object is momentum.
The more momentum something has, the harder it will be to stop it moving. momentum, p, in kilogram
metres per second, kg m/s
momentum = mass × velocity
mass, m, in kilograms, kg
p=m×v
velocity, v, in metres per
Example
second, m/s
A hockey player, mass 55 kg, is running forwards at 5 m/s. What is her
momentum?
Answer
p=m×v Exam tip

p = 55 × 5 A stationary object has

a momentum of zero, no
p = 275 kg m/s forwards matter what mass it has.

A single value for momentum seems abstract. Being able to compare the
momentum of two objects means we can predict how they affect each
other. Momentum has a direction, so like velocity it is a vector quantity.
Often one direction is described as positive, and the other direction is said
to be negative to make comparisons easier.

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 When a resultant force acts on an object, it causes acceleration. This
force, F, in newtons, N

1 Forces and motion

means that there is a change of momentum too. The definition of
momentum can be combined with Newton’s second law (see page 7 for a change of momentum,
reminder) to link force with a change of momentum. Δmv = mv – mu, in kilogram
change of momentum metres per second, kg m/s
force =
time time, t, in seconds, s
mv – mu
F= Example
t
also written as The hockey player above
Δmv comes to a sudden stop. It
F= t takes half a second for this
to happen. What force acts
If the object starts or stops moving, all of the momentum is either gained on her?
or lost. If it is a moving object that is speeding up or slowing down, it is Answer
important to use the relative change (Δmv) not the absolute value at the
Δmv
start (mu) or end (mv) in the calculation. F= t
If an object is slowing down or speeding up, this form of the equation
275
is used to find the force the object experiences. At other times there is F=
0.5
a known force applied to an object for a specific amount of time; this
means the change in momentum can be calculated. F = 550 N

Momentum and safety

A moving object that stops, whether gradually or suddenly, will have
the same change of momentum. However, the maximum force applied Typical mistake
will be greater if the same momentum change occurs in less time. To
Marks are often lost by
reduce damage and injury, the change in momentum can be spread out
saying that soft materials
over a longer period of time, which means a smaller deceleration. This, are used for slowing down
in turn, means that although the force acts for longer, it has a smaller because the ‘impact is
magnitude. Passengers in a car that brakes gradually experience a smaller spread out more’. However,
force and less harm than those in a sudden stop or crash, so the force will a better explanation is that
potentially hurt less for anyone affected by the force. ‘the change of momentum
takes place over a longer
Anything that makes a change in momentum less sudden will reduce the
time, so the force is less’.
maximum force which acts. This can be achieved by part of the object
bending or sliding to reduce the velocity more gradually. It can also help to
use a material which crushes or compresses gradually, so the time is increased.

Driving safely 2 (crumple zones and seat belts)

Cars provide several examples where the time taken for the change in
momentum is made greater, so the deceleration and force both decrease. Crumple zones: The parts
Crumple zones and seat belts mean less damage to the passengers if a of a car designed to buckle,
collision happens. which takes extra time
crumple zone crumple zone compared to a rigid frame
on impact. While this is
happening, the areas where
the people are sitting are
decelerating more slowly and
so the force on them is less.

passenger cell

Figure 1.11 Crumple zones and seat belts in a car increase the time for
momentum changes.

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 Seat belts are designed to let the wearer move a little during an impact,
1 Forces and motion

but slower than if unsecured. Again, this means the deceleration is

reduced and the force is less, so damage is less likely. There was a clear
drop in injury rates when seat belts were made compulsory in the UK
in 1983.

Now test yourself

23 What is the momentum of a tennis ball of mass 60 g, moving at 20 m/s?
24 Is momentum a vector or scalar quantity? What does this mean?
25 (a) An athlete of mass 65 kg accelerates from 4 to 7 m/s. What is their increase in momentum?
(b) Why is it not possible to calculate the force needed for this increase in velocity?
26 In a crash at 25 m/s, crumple zones and seat belts in a test car increase the time taken for the driver
to come to a stop to 0.4 seconds. Calculate the force acting on a 80 kg driver.

Answers on page 132

Collisions and explosions

Conservation of momentum
For a single object, momentum can be increased or decreased when a Exam tip
force acts. In collisions or explosions, the total momentum is conserved
unless a force acts to plastically deform one or more of the objects. This Describing these situations
as ‘balanced’ rather than
means that, unless told otherwise, momentum before a collision is equal
‘cancelling out’ will show
to momentum after, as long as all of the objects involved are considered.
that you understand how
momentum before = momentum after (unless an external force is acting) vector quantities work.

Example
At the funfair, two bumper cars, each of mass 400 kg, collide as 1.5 m/s 1 m/s
shown in the diagram below. What is the new velocity of the
second car?
at rest ?
Answer

momentum before = m1v1 + m2v2

Figure 1.12 Bumper cars before
momentum before = 400 × 1.5 + 400 × 1 and after colliding

momentum before = 1000 kg m/s

momentum after must be the same so:

momentum after = 1000 kg m/s

m1v1 + m2v2 = 1000

0 + m2v2 = 1000

1000
v2 =
m2
1000
v2 =
400
v2 = 2.5 m/s

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 Because momentum is a vector, it is possible for two colliding objects to

1 Forces and motion

have a total momentum of zero. This is similar to the idea that equal and
opposite forces on an object give a resultant force of zero.

Example
Two canoes are moored together in the middle of a calm lake. The
canoeists push apart and the first, with a mass of 150 kg, moves at
a velocity of 2 m/s towards the North. The second has a velocity of at rest
2.4 m/s towards the South. What is the mass of the second canoeist?

Answer
Before, the total momentum was zero. So the total afterwards must
be zero too. To understand the equation, one direction must be defined
as positive and the other must be defined as negative. Taking North as 2 m/s
positive:
2.4 m/s
m1v1 + m2v2= 0

(150 × 2) + (m2 × –2.4) = 0 Figure 1.13 Canoes before

and after being pushed apart
300 = 2.4 × m2

300
m2 = = 125 kg
2.4

Another common situation involves two objects sticking together or

splitting apart. Calculations will still be based around the fact that
momentum before is the same as momentum after, but remember
to add the masses when treating them as one combined
object.

Newton’s third law

Although we often only think about one force at a time, in reality there Typical mistake
are no single forces. When a student leans against a wall, applying a
force on it, then there must be an equal and opposite force acting on the It is easy to think that
student. This is Newton’s third law. because thrust and air
resistance for a car moving
at constant speed are
Now test yourself equal and opposite, this is
an example of Newton’s
27 A school lab trolley is loaded to have a mass of 2 kg, and is at rest. third law. However, the
A second trolley, mass 1 kg, collides with it at a velocity of 0.8 m/s forces must be acting on
and stops. What is the new velocity of the first trolley? different objects, so a better
28 A student, mass 45 kg, runs at 3 m/s, jumps and lands on a example would be that the
stationary skateboard, mass 5 kg. Assuming they don’t fall off, air resistance on a car has
what is their new (rolling) velocity? an equal and opposite (total)
29 A swimmer exerts a force of 60 N on the water with each stroke. force acting on the particles
What force acts on the swimmer? in the air it collides with.

Answers on page 132

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 Turning moments
1 Forces and motion

Turning moment: The

effect of a force which is
When a force causes something to turn rather than accelerate, both
exerted around a point.
the size and the position of the force are important. The greater the
Turning moments are vector
perpendicular distance from the fixed point or pivot, the larger the effect quantities, and the direction
of that force. This is called a turning moment. is usually described as being
clockwise or anti-clockwise.
turning moment = force applied × perpendicular distance of the line Moments are measured in
of force from the pivot newton metres (Nm).

perpendicular distance

pivot
force

Figure 1.14 Turning moment

Turning forces in action

Exam tip
Example
It often helps to draw a
What turning moment is applied to the door if the diagram for moments
force is 80 N? 70 cm questions if there isn’t one
Answer provided. Label the load and
effort, which will be forces
turning moment = force applied × perpendicular distance in newtons, as well as the
distance from each to the
turning moment = 80 × 0.7 pivot.
turning moment = 56 Nm
Figure 1.15 Typical mistake
Don’t mix up the units
for moments (newton
Exam tip metres, Nm) with those
Despite the similarity of the words, moments and momentum are not for pressure (newtons per
linked. Make sure you use the right word to get the mark. metre squared, N/m2) or
spring constant (newtons
per metre, N/m).

Lifting loads
Whenever a load is lifted, there is a turning moment on the object doing
the lifting. This is why it is much harder to lift an object at arms’ reach than
it is when it’s closer to your body. This distance is the working radius.
If a load is a long way from the object lifting it, the large moment may
cause the object to tip over.

Working radius: The perpendicular distance from the load of a crane

(which exerts a force equal to the weight) to the base of the arm, which
is the pivot. As the arm extends, the turning effect becomes greater
(because the perpendicular distance has increased). There will be a
maximum safe load for each possible length of arm.

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 Centre of gravity

1 Forces and motion

The mass of most objects is spread throughout their volume, but they
can be treated as if all the mass is at a single point, called the centre of Centre of gravity: The point
gravity. This means all the weight is treated as a single force in one place. through which an object’s
weight acts
Objects that are uniform, like a football or a steel cube, have a centre of
gravity near the centre of the object. If the object is made of a mixture of
materials, or is an irregular shape, the position of the centre of gravity is Revision activity
harder to predict.
List all the quantities
An object that is free to move will balance itself eventually because the mentioned so far in
turning moment of the object’s weight will cause rotation, until the centre this chapter. For each
of gravity is as low as it can be. If one part of the object is held up and it is one, record the symbol,
allowed to turn, the centre of gravity will always be directly beneath this part. measuring device, the units
and their abbreviation.
If the centre of gravity of an object is high up, such as in a vehicle or Check your notes to
building, the object may tip easily and so it is said to be unstable. complete the list then test
yourself each day until
Now test yourself you can remember all the
details. Leave it a week, and
30 A force of 300 N on the end of a lever has a turning moment of then repeat.
750 Nm. What is the perpendicular distance to the pivot?
31 For a working radius of 12 m, a crane has a maximum load of
65 tonnes. A manager suggests that at 24 m it can lift twice the
load. Are they correct or incorrect? Explain your reasons.

Answers on page 132

Balancing forces
The principle of moments
A clockwise turning moment will cause an object to turn clockwise. An
anti-clockwise turning moment will cause it to turn anti-clockwise. If the Equilibrium: The point
clockwise and anti-clockwise turning moments are the same, then there where the sum of the
will be no overall effect and the moments are said to be in equilibrium. clockwise moments is equal to
the sum of the anti-clockwise
A simple example is a playground see-saw; the further a person sits from moments. The forces also
the pivot, the larger the effect they have. A small child can balance a large balance.
adult if they sit at different distances from the pivot. Their weights are
in the same plane, parallel rather than opposite, and they have different
magnitudes. The turning effects of the two forces are equal in size and
opposite in direction.
In this example, the forces, along with the people, will also be balanced.
This is an example of Newton’s first law. It means that for a see-saw, we
can work out the force that is pushing upward from the pivot which is
balancing each of the weights.
Jaipal Mandy

1m 1.5 m

anti-clockwise clockwise

450 N 750 N 300 N

Figure 1.16 Force at a pivot

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 Moments in action
1 Forces and motion

The idea of equilibrium helps us work out how to move a load. The Exam tip
turning effect of the effort only needs to be slightly bigger than the
When describing a situation
turning effect of the load (in the opposite direction) to make a difference. at equilibrium, consider the
turning moment of each
Example force in turn, taking care to
separate clockwise and anti-
What force at the handles is needed to just lift the wheelbarrow in the
clockwise moments.
diagram?
F 225 cm

pivot

600 N
75 cm
Figure 1.17

Answer
At equilibrium:
clockwise moments = anti-clockwise moments
F1 d1 = F2 d2

F2 d2
F1 =
d1
600 × 0.75
F1 =
2.25
F1 = 200 N

To stop objects tipping over, a counterbalance can be used.

A counterbalance is often an extra force that causes a turning
moment to oppose the load, so the object is balanced. The magnitude
of the force and the distance from the pivot are chosen specifically so the
object is at least in equilibrium.

Forces on beams
The simplest possible model of a bridge or shelf is a light beam (a straight
line supported at each end). For any object placed on the beam, it is
possible to calculate the turning moment at either end to find how much
of the weight is supported by each end.

Example
A heavy vase, weight 30 N is placed on a 50 cm shelf that is fixed at
each end. If it is 10 cm from one end, what will the force exerted at the
other end be?

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 Answer

1 Forces and motion

If F2 is the upward force at the far end to counter F1 the weight of the vase.
F1 d1 = F2 d2
F1 d1
F2 =
d2
30 × 0.1
F2 =
0.5
F2 = 6 N

Now test yourself

32 What is the unit of a turning moment?
33 A crane with an arm of 12 m lifts a weight of 4000 N. What
counterbalance must be placed at 2 m on the opposite side of the
pivot to create equilibrium?
34 A bridge supports a car of weight 15 kN between two supports.
What force is exerted by each end of the bridge because of the car
in the centre?

Answers on page 132

Summary
total distance travelled Air resistance is a force that resists motion of
l average speed = l
time taken an object in atmosphere; it increases with both
l Speed is a scalar quantity (magnitude only) but speed and surface area.
velocity is a vector (magnitude and direction). l stopping distance = thinking distance + braking
l The gradient of a distance–time graph is equal distance
to the speed. l Thinking distance is increased if the driver has
l Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: a high reaction time, for example because of
change in velocity tiredness, distraction or some drugs including
acceleration =
time taken alcohol.
l The area under a velocity–time graph is equal l Braking distance is increased if the car tyres
to the distance travelled. or brakes are poorly maintained, if the road is
l Light gates and ticker timers are used to slippery, for example because of ice or snow,
measure speed; both use measurements of or if the vehicle is overloaded.
distance travelled and time taken to do this. l An object that stretches because of a force will
l Properties of an object travelling with constant obey Hooke’s law up to the elastic limit:
acceleration: force = spring constant × extension
v2 = u2 + (2 × a × s) l momentum = mass × velocity
l Forces cause objects to change shape, speed l The force acting in a collision can be reduced
or direction of motion. if the time taken can be increased, for example
l When more than one force acts, the overall or by seat belts or crumple zones:
resultant force is often useful. change of momentum
l Newton’s first law states that when the force =
time taken
resultant force on an object is zero, the object l Unless an external force acts, the momentum
remains at rest or moves with a constant speed before and after a collision will be the same.
in a straight line (there is no acceleration). l Newton’s third law states that whenever two
l Newton’s second law states that acceleration objects interact, the forces they exert on each
is proportional to resultant force: other are equal and opposite.
resultant force = mass × acceleration l turning moment = force applied × perpendicular
l Weight is a force on an object that acts towards distance of the line of force from the pivot
the Earth because of gravity: l When an object is in equilibrium, the clockwise
weight = mass × gravitational field strength and anti-clockwise moments are equal.

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 Exam practice
1 Forces and motion

1 (a) State the normal unit of speed. [1]

(b) A car travels 800 m in 15 seconds. Calculate how fast it is travelling. [3]
(c) Calculate whether this is faster or slower than one that travels 6 km in 2 minutes. [2]
2 (a) If a box is at rest on the floor and has a weight of 120 N, calculate the normal contact force
upwards. [1]
(b) Using a gravitational field strength of 10 N/kg, calculate the mass of the box. [3]
(c) On the Moon, the gravitational field strength is 1.7 N/kg. What would the weight of the box be
if it was placed on the Moon? [2]
3 The figure shows a velocity–time graph for a ball bearing, weight 0.5 N, which is falling from rest.

X Y
10
velocity in m/s

1.0 2.0 3.0

time in s
(a) Calculate the average acceleration in the first 1.2 seconds. [3]
(b) Calculate the distance travelled between the times marked X and Y on the graph. [3]
(c) State the magnitude of the air resistance acting on the ball bearing after 2.2 seconds. [1]
(d) Explain the shape of the graph. [4]
4 A children’s playground is designed with foam tiles underneath the apparatus. Explain how these will
reduce the chance of injury for falling children. [3]
5 A student is asked to investigate the effect of changing force on the extension of a steel spring.
(a) Identify the independent variable in the force, F
investigation shown in the figure on the right. [1]
(b) Define the limit of proportionality for a spring. [1]
(c) Until the spring is stretched beyond this point, the line of best fit is
straight. Explain how you would use the line to
find the value of the spring constant, k. [2]
(d) Not all the points lie exactly on the line of best fit. Explain how natural
you could change the method to improve this. [2] length, l
6 A child, weight 300 N, sits 1.8 m from the pivot of a balanced see-saw.
(a) Calculate the turning moment of the child. Give the unit
in your answer. [3]
(b) State the principle of moments. [1] extension, e
(c) An adult is sitting 60 cm from the pivot on the opposite side. Calculate
their weight given that the adult and child balance. [3]
force, F

Answers and quick quizzes online

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 2 Electricity

Introducing electricity
Electrical transfer of energy
An electrical circuit transfers energy between stores, for example from
the chemical store of a cell to the thermal store of a lamp filament (see
page 61 for more information on energy stores). There are different
models we can use to explain how electricity works. Observations and
measurements made in the school lab can only be explained properly by
considering what is happening in the components at a particle level.

Exam tip
It is best to use a specific quantity in answers to questions about
electrical circuits. For example, talking about one of the variables
with a symbol and a unit rather than just writing ‘electricity’, which
is a description of the whole process: ‘An extra cell in a circuit might
increase the voltage by 1.5 V’, instead of ‘An extra cell in a circuit might
provide more electricity’.

Voltage and current

In electrical circuits the electrical cell is what makes things happen.
It provides voltage which causes movement of tiny charged particles
through the wires. The rate of f low of charge is what we call current.
Current transfers energy from the chemical store of the cell to other
components that might be in a circuit. For example, it would increase the
thermal store of a heating element. The hot filament then transfers energy
to the thermal store of the room by several processes.
A larger voltage will cause a larger current and so energy is transferred
more quickly. In the example of a lamp, this will usually mean the bulb
will be brighter.

Electrical cell: A component that contains chemical compounds which

react to provide a voltage
Voltage, V, measured in volts (V): The cause of current in a circuit.
Different energy supplies provide different voltages. For example, a
new AA cell provides 1.5 V and the UK mains supply provides 230 V.
Exam tip
Current, I, measured in amperes or amps (A): The movement of
particles in the wire. These moving particles transfer energy around a If you see the unit mA,
complete circuit. remember that 1000 mA = 1 A.

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 Electrical hazards
2 Electricity

Electricity is a very useful way of transferring energy, but it can be

dangerous too. This is why electrical pylons and railway lines are marked
with ‘Danger: High Voltage’ signs. If an electrical current f lows through
a person instead of a wire, it can damage the heart or brain. Even getting
close to a high-voltage supply is dangerous because a spark might jump
from the supply to the person and complete the circuit.
Large currents can also cause a huge temperature increase and may start a
fire.

Now test yourself

1 (a) A bulb is dimly lit when in a circuit with a single 1.5 V AA cell. What voltage would be supplied by
three AA cells together?
(b) What effect would an increase in current have on a bulb in the circuit?
2 Why should you not get close to high-voltage supplies like pylons?
3 Which is the cause of electricity, voltage or current?
4 The current in a circuit is displayed as 250 mA. What is this value in amps?

Answers on page 132

Mains electricity
Alternating and direct current

d.c. supply
5V Direct current (d.c.): When
voltage and current are in
voltage in V

0 0.02
a constant direction around
the loop. It is very important
that cells and batteries are
correctly orientated in a
a.c. supply
circuit.
Alternating current (a.c.):
time in s
The voltage and current
Figure 2.1 Direct (d.c.) and alternating (a.c.) supply voltages change direction in a circuit
many times each second.
If the voltage supplied by a cell or power supply is always in the same
direction, so is the current caused by it. This is called a direct current.
Cells and batteries are a source of direct current. If the voltage changes
direction, an alternating current is produced.
The graph in Figure 2.1 shows how the voltage supplied changes over
time for a.c. but is constant for d.c. Both supply 5 V over time, but for a.c.
this is an average between high and low values during the cycle.

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 Mains supply

2 Electricity
Mains electricity is always a.c. Each complete cycle, with voltage
1
changing direction and back again (as shown in Figure 2.1), takes of a
50
second for the UK mains supply. We say the frequency is 50 hertz (Hz).
The voltage is 230 V.

Frequency: The number of complete cycles each second, measured in

hertz. This idea is also used to describe waves (see page 43 for more
detail).
Hertz (Hz): The unit of frequency, describing the number of complete
cycles per second

Electrical heating
Whenever current f lows in a material it causes an increase in temperature.
Materials with a higher resistance heat up more as the charges move Resistance, R: A measure
through them. To change how a circuit works – for example to change the of how hard it is for current
brightness of a lamp – a resistor with a specific value can be included. A to flow through a material
resistor will reduce the current f lowing in a circuit. Usually a resistor gets or component. The unit is
warm as energy is transferred to its thermal store and some are burning hot ohms, Ω.
to the touch. The higher the resistance in the circuit, the harder it is for
charges to be pushed through it and so the lower the current. Exam tip
In the home, many devices involve electrical heating. A resistor heats up You may see kilo-ohms
when the current f lows, and this is used to heat air or water. The element (kΩ) used in questions.
in a kettle or boiler is basically a large value resistor. Remember that 1000 Ω = 1 kΩ

Electricity at home
Electricity is very useful in the home or workplace because it can transfer
energy to many different components that can convert this energy into
all sorts of different forms. However, as electricity is dangerous, several
devices may be included in the circuit to make it safer.

Fuses
Fuses are included in circuits to prevent currents getting dangerously high. Live wire: Wire in a
Fuses are designed so that the wire inside melts if the heating produced by circuit with a high voltage
a high current is too great. When the wire melts, or the fuse ‘blows’, the compared to the other wires
circuit is broken so no further current can flow and the electricity transfer Neutral wire: Wire that
will stop. Plugs include a fuse, and they are labelled with the highest current completes the circuit; the
that can flow before breaking or ‘blowing’. The fuse is always part of the voltage is always compared
live wire in the circuit or plug, and never the neutral one. These two wires to this wire
make a complete circuit between the power supply and the components.
230 V a.c.
Exam tip
When answering questions
on this topic, remember
neutral that the fuse value should
fuse
wire always be above the normal
current in the circuit. When
choosing a fuse, calculate
live wire R
the expected current and
then select a fuse that is
heater
rated slightly higher.
Figure 2.2 A fuse in a circuit

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 Circuit breakers earth
2 Electricity

Like a fuse, a circuit breaker prevents a high current from f lowing. pin

Instead of melting, circuit breakers are designed so that a high current

causes an electromagnetic switch to open. This works because of the neutral
fuse
motor effect (see page 93 for information), with a force acting due to the pin live
current. Unlike fuses, circuit breakers are easy to reset once the problem pin
cord
is solved and the current is back to a safe level. Circuit breakers can be set grip
to any value, not just common ones such as a 13 A fuse.

Earthing and insulation Figure 2.3 UK plugs have several

safety features.
If a person touches a live wire the current will f low through their body
and could hurt or kill them. This can also occur if a device has metal parts
Earth wire: Wire in a circuit
on the outside and a live wire is touching the metal part from the inside.
that prevents electrical
To prevent this current from f lowing out of the device, an earth wire is shock. These are only needed
included in UK sockets, which safely carries the current to the ground. We in devices with metal cases.
call this earthing because the connection is to the planet Earth itself.
Typical mistake
It is easy to be vague and say that protective devices and features
‘make the current safe’. Make sure you can actually explain the
differences between them in detail. Fuses and circuit breakers both
limit current, but in different ways. Earthing is used so that if a live
wire touches metal parts of a device, the current flows to earth
instead of through a person.

Electrical current cannot easily f low through plastic, which is an insulator.

Devices are often made with a plastic case to prevent current flowing to the
outside, which means they don’t need an earth connection. This is called
double insulation, because there are two layers of insulating material.

Residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB) Insulators: Materials that

do not allow a current to
In some cases a damaged live wire could touch the outer metal case of an flow, for example plastic
appliance, and a small current would f low to earth without preventing or rubber. Materials which
the device from working. Because the current is small, a fuse would do allow a current to flow,
not melt. When the device is switched off, the small current could then like metals, are called
f low to a person touching the case instead of to the earth. To stop this, a conductors. Some materials
residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB) is sometimes installed. A RCCB do not clearly fit into either
detects the current in the live and neutral wires. If the two values are of these categories.
different because there is a small current going to earth, the circuit is Double insulation: A
disconnected. protection method which
avoids the need for an
Revision activity earth wire. Two layers of
For each variable, practise linking the word, definition, symbol, unit insulating material, usually
and abbreviation. A good way to do this is to create a flash card for rubber and plastic, are used.
each one. Free mobile apps are also available although index cards
are fast and easy to produce.

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 Now test yourself

2 Electricity
5 List three safety features that can be found in an electrical plug.
6 Would a 60 Hz a.c. supply have greater or fewer numbers of complete voltage cycles compared to
a UK mains supply at 50 Hz?
7 Give two advantages for a circuit breaker compared to a fuse.
8 The symbol for current is I. What is the unit for current and how is it abbreviated?

Answers on page 132

Electrical power
Calculating the power
As we know, electrical circuits transfer energy. The amount of energy
supplied or transferred per second is called the power. For example, a Power, P: The energy
2.2 kW room heater transfers 2200 J to the thermal store of a room each supplied or transferred each
second. second. It is measured in
joules per second (J/s) or
watts (W).
Typical mistake
Students often mix up the ideas of power, current and voltage. Power,
current and voltage are connected as both the voltage causing the flow
and the current flow itself affect the overall power of the electrical Exam tip
circuit. Large power values are
often expressed in kilowatts
(kW) or megawatts (MW).
You can calculate power in a circuit using the following equation: l 1 kW = 1000 W
power = current × voltage l 1 MW = 1000 000 W

P=I×V
Typical mistake
If you confuse symbols when
power, P, measured in watts (W)
giving an equation as part
current, I, measured in amps (A) of an answer, marks may be
deducted. For example,
voltage, V, measured in volts (V) P = C × V would not be
accepted as the equation for
electrical power. If in doubt,
Example
write out the words rather
What is the power of a mobile phone charger that provides a current of than use incorrect symbols.
1.8 A at a voltage of 5 V?

Answer

P=I×V

P = 1.8 × 5

P = 9W

Choosing a fuse
The current in a device can be found by a rearrangement of the power
equation. This value is needed to choose the correct fuse rating which

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 must be above the usual current, but not so high that the current reaches
2 Electricity

a dangerous level.
P
I=
V

Example
A kitchen mixer has a power rating of 575 W and is supplied by the UK
mains at 230 V. What is the current of this device and should a fuse of
rating 3 A or 13 A be used?

Answer Exam tip

P
I= V If a question specifies that
a device uses the UK mains
575
I= supply and no other voltage
230
is given, you are expected to
I = 2.5 A     (so a 3 A fuse should be used). remember that this is 230 V.

Paying for energy

An electricity bill is based on the amount of energy that has been
transferred through the devices in a building. To work out how much power, P, measured in
energy this is, the power rating and the length of time are both needed: watts (W)
energy = power × time energy, E, measured in
E=P×t joules ( J)
current, I, measured in
This equation can be combined with P = I × V for power, giving amps (A)
energy = (current × voltage) × time voltage, V, measured in
volts (V)
   
E=I×V×t
time, t, measured in
Example seconds (s)
A student’s circuit, with a power supply of 4.5 V and a current of 0.3 A,
is left running for 10 minutes. How much energy is transferred?
Answer

E=I×V×t
E = 0.3 × 4.5 × 600
E = 810 J

Typical mistake
Now test yourself For this and other electrical
equations, it is easy to
9 A charger has a voltage of 12 V and a current of 0.5 A. accidentally use values for
(a) What is the power? time in minutes or hours
(b) How much energy is transferred in 5 minutes? rather than seconds. One
10 A circuit transfers 400 J in a minute. What is the power? way to avoid this is to get in
11 A toaster has a power of 1.8 kW. What current flows in the toaster? the habit of converting all
values given in a question to
Answers on pages 132–3 standard units.

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 Electrical circuits

2 Electricity
Continuous circuit (series)
A circuit diagram is drawn with straight wires and symbols to show the
Circuit diagram: A
position of each component. If there is a single loop, with the current
simplified layout of the
f lowing through each component in turn, it is called a series circuit. components in a circuit
Often the value of the voltage being provided is recorded next to the using symbols instead of
supply, as in Figure 2.4. The current measured by ammeters will be the pictures or words. All wires
same everywhere in the loop. are drawn as straight lines,
so the connections are clear.
3V Series circuit: A circuit with
components in one loop and
no separate branches
Figure 2.4 Both ammeters will have the
A A
same reading in a series circuit. Exam tip
An ammeter measures
If nothing seems to be happening in a circuit, this is often a sign of a current (I) in amperes or
break in the loop. Current cannot f low if the circuit is incomplete, for amps (A) and, if included in a
example because of a broken wire. circuit, is always part of the
loop.

Controlling the current

If the voltage supplied to a circuit is increased (for example by adding more
cells) the current will increase. If the resistance of the circuit is increased
(for example by adding more components), the current will be reduced.
Most components work in the same way no matter which way current flows
through them. A diode is different and only allows current to flow in one
direction, from the positive terminal of the cell to the negative. Some diodes
emit light when current flows and are called light-emitting diodes or LEDs.
They are useful because they only need a small current to light up.

Circuit symbols
Table 2.1 Circuit symbols

Description Symbol
Conductors crossing with no
connection

Junction of conductors

Open switch
Cell

Battery of cells

Power supply (d.c.) + –

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 Description Symbol
2 Electricity

Power supply (a.c.)

Transformer

Ammeter
A

Voltmeter
V

Fixed resistor
Variable resistor

Heater
Thermistor

Light-dependent resistor (LDR)

Diode

Light-emitting diode (LED)

Lamp

Loudspeaker

Microphone

Electric bell

Earth or ground Revision activity

Learning the symbols in
Motor Table 2.1 is a necessary part
M of preparing for electricity
questions in the exams.
As well as testing yourself
Generator with flashcards, improve
G
your recall by labelling each
component whenever you
have a practice question that
Fuse/circuit breaker includes a circuit diagram.

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 Now test yourself

2 Electricity
12 What component do each of these symbols represent?
(a) (b)
A

(c) (d)

Figure 2.5
13 Will the current increase or decrease in each of the following situations?
(a) The number of cells is halved.
(b) A resistor is added to the circuit.
(c) The number of cells is doubled and the setting on the variable resistor is reduced at the same time.
14 One of the lamps in the circuit shown in Figure 2.4 breaks (see page 27). What happens to the other lamp?

Answers on page 133

Calculating resistance
Ammeters and voltmeters
Ammeters measure the current passing through the circuit, so they must
be part of the loop. They are connected in series.
Parallel circuit: Has more
Voltmeters measure the difference in voltage between two points, so are
than one loop. The current in
connected to an existing loop. The two connections are made either side different parts of the circuit
of the component (or combination of components) being tested. This is will not be the same.
called a parallel connection or a parallel circuit.

Exam tip
A voltmeter measures
A voltage (V) in volts (V) and
is always connected in
parallel. If a voltmeter is
connected in series the
circuit will stop working.
V

Figure 2.6 Measuring the voltage across and the current through a lamp.

Resistance
The amount of current flowing in a circuit depends on both the voltage
resistance, R, measured in
applied and the resistance of the components. The resistance of a component
ohms (Ω)
can be worked out by using values from a voltmeter and ammeter.
voltage voltage, V, measured in
resistance = volts (V)
current
V current, I, measured in
R=
I amperes or amps (A)

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 Example Exam tip
2 Electricity

4.5 V is measured across the bulb in Figure 2.6. The ammeter reads In most circuits we build
225 mA. What is the resistance? in the classroom, currents
will be small and measured
Answer in milliamps (mA); 1 A =
V 1000 mA.
R=
I Resistances may be large
4.5 and may be measured in
R=
0.225 kilo-ohms (kΩ); 1 kΩ =
1000 Ω. Remember to
R = 20 Ω
convert to SI units before
substituting into the
If two resistors are in series, the overall resistance is simply the total of the equation.
two values.

Ohm’s law
The resistance of any component in specific conditions can always be 0.30
calculated with the measurements from a voltmeter and an ammeter. By
increasing the voltage across a component, different readings of current 0.25
can be recorded and a current–voltage graph (otherwise known as an

current in A
0.20
I–V graph) can be drawn. The shape of the graph is different for different
0.15
components.
0.10
If the graph is a straight line through the origin, the current is directly
proportional to the voltage. This means the component has a fixed 0.05
resistance in those conditions and is said to obey Ohm’s law, or to be 0
ohmic. The steeper the line, the lower the resistance. 0 2.0 4.0 6.0
voltage in V
Current–voltage graph: A graph that is plotted with voltage along the
horizontal or x-axis and current on the vertical or y-axis, and that shows Figure 2.7 A current–voltage or
the relationship between the two values. These graphs are sometimes I–V graph
called I–V graphs.
Typical mistake
Ohm’s law: This states that for some components, at constant
temperature, the current through the component is proportional to the It is easy to think that a
voltage across it. Such a component is said to be ohmic. steep line would mean a
high resistance, but it is
the opposite; a shallow line
Ohm’s law is often expressed as if it is being used to find the voltage: means a high voltage causes
V=I×R only a small current to flow.

This arrangement is not particularly useful, but the equation can be

rearranged depending on the data provided. voltage, V, measured in
volts (V)
Example current, I, measured in
Using the graph in Figure 2.7, the resistor has a current of 0.2 A amperes or amps (A)
through it when the voltage across it is 4 V. What is the resistance? resistance, R, measured in
ohms (Ω)
Answer
V
R=
I
4
R=
0.2
R = 20 Ω

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 Many components are not ohmic. Each different component has a

2 Electricity
different line on a current–voltage graph. A similar circuit can be used
repeatedly, changing the component each time, to collect a set of data.

The filament lamp

At low voltages, when the temperature of the filament is low, so is the
resistance. This means the I–V line is steep, close to the origin and
the current increases quickly. As the voltage increases the I–V line
becomes f latter and the current reaches a maximum. It is the increasing
temperature that causes a higher resistance.

The diode
As its component symbol suggests, a diode only allows current to pass in one
direction. This means that if the voltage is positive, the resistance is very low
and the line is very steep. If the voltage is reversed, the resistance is so high
that no current flows at all. A light-emitting diode (LED) behaves the same
way, but also lights up to indicate when a current is flowing.
(a) (b) (c)
current

current
current

potential difference potential difference potential difference

Figure 2.8 Current–voltage graphs show how components behave

differently: (a) ohmic conductor, (b) filament lamp, (c) diode.

Exam tip
You should be able to recognise a component by the I–V graph
it produces and be able to explain how the shape relates to the
resistance. It’s worth learning the symbol and I–V graph for each
component as these often appear in exams.

Changing resistance
Some components vary in resistance depending on external conditions,
such as temperature and light intensity. A thermistor behaves in the
opposite way to most materials as it becomes a better conductor (has a
lower resistance) when it is warm. A light-dependent resistor (LDR) is
a poor conductor in the dark, but more current f lows as more light shines
on it – resistance decreases as light intensity increases.

Thermistor: Component with a high resistance in cool or cold

conditions and a low resistance when it is warmer. Different resistors
have different ranges but the pattern (and shape) of the graph for each
one is the same.
Light-dependent resistor (LDR): Component with a high resistance
in dark conditions and a low resistance when it is bright. Like
thermistors, they are often used as sensors.

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 (a) (b)
2 Electricity
resistance in Ω

resistance in Ω
temperature in °C light intensity

Figure 2.9 (a) Thermistors and (b) light-dependent resistors have changing
resistance depending on external conditions.

Now test yourself

15 Describe the difference in how an ammeter and a voltmeter
are connected.
16 Give the symbol, unit and abbreviation for resistance.
17 A voltage of 12 V is across a component, causing a current of
0.4 A through it. What is the resistance?
18 A filament lamp lights up when current flows.
(a) Draw the circuit symbol.
(b) Sketch the shape of the I–V graph (and label the axes) for
this component.
19 What is the overall resistance of the circuit in Figure 2.10?
4Ω 8Ω 6Ω

Answers on page 133 Figure 2.10 Three resistors in series

Current, charge and voltage

Current and charge
Current measures how much charge in coulombs passes a point in the
Coulomb (C): The SI unit
circuit each second. The moving charges are electrons that travel along
of charge. Many electrons
the wires from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. These are needed to make up one
electrons actually move quite slowly, but they all move at the same time coulomb.
so as soon as one electron leaves the cell another arrives.

To find out how much charge has moved past a point in the circuit we
can use the following equation:
charge f low = current × time

Q=I×t

charge, Q, measured in coulombs (C)

current, I, measured in amperes or amps (A)
time, t, measured in seconds (s)

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 Example Exam tip

2 Electricity
An ammeter in a circuit gives a reading of 300 mA. How much charge Arrows drawn from the
moves through the ammeter in 5 minutes? positive to the negative
terminal can be labelled as
Answer ‘conventional current’.
Q=I×t

Q = 0.3 × 300

Q = 90 C

Defining the volt

Voltage measures how much energy is transferred by charges moving
through a component in the circuit. energy, E, measured in
joules ( J)
energy
voltage = charge, Q, measured in
charge
coulombs (C)
A reading of one volt means that one joule is transferred by each coulomb
of charge. The most useful form of this equation is used to work out the voltage, V, measured in
energy transferred: volts (V)
energy transferred = charge × voltage

E=Q×V

In most situations the charge transferred (Q) won’t be given. This means Exam tip
the first step is often to find the charge using current f lowing and time.
Most of the circuits that
can be built with school
equipment have low current,
Example
so milliamps (mA) are often
A voltmeter connected across a resistor gives a reading of 0.8 V. A used.
current of 0.04 A flows for 10 minutes. How much energy is transferred?
1 A = 1000 mA
Answer
Q=I×t
Q = 0.04 × 600 Typical mistake

Q = 24 C Take care with the symbols

and units for current and
This means a charge of 24 coulombs is transferred in this time period. charge. If in doubt, write the
We can use this data to work out the energy as follows: words out in full.
E=Q×V
E = 24 × 0.8
E = 19.2 J
Typical mistake
Remember to convert all
Revision activity times to seconds before
substituting in any values.
Being able to recall these equation is vital. Complete a table with the
quantity in the first column, the variables needed in the second and the
formula in the third. Use the second column to provide hints at first, but
aim to recall the formulae from memory after practice.

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 Now test yourself
2 Electricity

20 (a) What is the unit of charge? Include the abbreviation.

(b) Define a volt in terms of energy and charge.
21 In a wire, what are the moving particles that transfer charge? Are they positively or negatively charged?
22 (a) A current of 43 mA flows for 2 minutes. How much charge was moved in this time?
(b) If the voltage which caused this current was 2.4 V, how much energy was transferred?
23 What current will be measured if 36 coulombs pass through an ammeter in one minute?

Answers on page 133

Current and voltage rules

Current paths
If there is more than one loop in a circuit they are described as parallel
to each other. The current before the junction is conserved, so that it is Junctions: Places in a circuit
equal to the total of the currents f lowing in each loop. where the current is divided
between two loops, or where
Current is a measure of how many charges move past a point each second. two loops join up again. A
There are the same number of moving charges before a junction (when series circuit is one with no
they are all together) and after (when they are on two or more loops); junctions and a single loop.
charges can’t appear or disappear. This means the total of moving charges
before and after the junction must be the same.
Exam tip
Example A voltmeter is always
connected in parallel with a
What is the current at I2 in Figure 2.11?
component.
12 V
+

10 A Short circuit: When a

1 connection is made but
7A
the current does not flow
through higher resistance
2 components. The current
I2 is often higher when this
happens and can cause
unexpected heating.
Figure 2.11 Two lamps connected in parallel.

Answer
The current before the junction is 10 A. This must be the same as the
total through the two lamps.
1A
I2 = 10 – 7 1A

I2 = 3 A
J K
1A copper wire

If a very low resistance path is connected as a parallel loop around other Figure 2.12 When the short-
components, the current through the high resistance path may be almost circuit wire is connected,
zero. This is called a short circuit and can happen when wires bend or the current through lamp J
break inside a device. decreases and the overall
current, including through lamp
K, increases.

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 Adding the voltage

2 Electricity
If components are connected to the power supply in parallel, they will
have the same voltage across each of them. In Figure 2.11, both lamps
have a voltage of 12 V across them.
If components are in series, the voltage across each of them will instead
add up to the total supply voltage.

Example Exam tip

What is V2 in Figure 2.13? In the lab, the numbers read
12 V from meters may not exactly
+ match to the last decimal
place. This is because of
errors in the meters and the
1 2 tiny voltage across the wires
in the circuit. However, for
any exam questions these
minor variations in the
V1 V2 numbers are removed.
9V
Figure 2.13 Two lamps connected in series.

Answer
The voltages across the two lamps must add up to the supply voltage
of 12 V.
V2 = 12 – 9
V2 = 3 V

Uses of circuits
Parallel circuits are used when:
● all components in the circuit (for example, car lamps) need the same
voltage to work properly
● components need to be controlled independently (for example domestic
lighting)
● measuring the voltage with a voltmeter.

Series circuits are used when:

● one component needs to be controlled or protected by another, for
example a switch, fuse or resistor
● each component needs a smaller voltage than can be easily supplied, for
example fairy lights
● measuring the current with an ammeter.

Cells and batteries

A battery is a term used for two or more cells in series. Each cell contains
chemical substances that react together to cause a voltage between the
terminals. All cells and batteries produce direct current.

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 If the cells are all connected the same way around (positive terminal
2 Electricity

to negative terminal) the voltages will add up. If they are reversed, the
voltage may be reduced or at zero. For example, a 9 V (square) battery
contains six cells, each of which provides 1.5 V.

Now test yourself

24 (a) Are the lights in a house connected in series or parallel?
(b) Why?
25 What is the overall current flowing in each circuit:
(a) two components with 3 A through each in series
(b) three components in parallel with 2 A through each
(c) two components in parallel, one with 2 A through it and the other with 1.5 A?
26 Calculate the missing voltage value in each case:
(a) (b)
12 V
+
V2

12 V

V1 4V 8V

Figure 2.14

Answers on page 133

Circuit calculations
A systematic approach to circuits is the only way to identify and calculate
missing values. Consider which rules about current and voltage can be applied
first, add in more numbers, and then think about what you can do next.

Resistance, voltage and current calculations

If any two values are identified, the third can be calculated. The three
arrangements of the equation are: Typical mistake
V V Under pressure it is easy to
R =     I =     V = I × R substitute the first values you
I R
see into the equation. Check
voltage, V, measured in volts (V) that you are using the values
current, I, measured in amperes or amps (A) for the correct part of the
circuit; you may wish to write
resistance, R, measured in ohms (Ω) on the circuit diagram to help.

Power calculations
If the voltage across a component and the current through it are known,
the power transferred is given by:
P=I ×V
As before, check that the values used apply to the component.

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 Now test yourself Revision activity

2 Electricity
All circuits provided in
27   3V
+ questions should follow
these rules. Go through a
worksheet, this guide or
A
your textbook and each
15 Ω
time check the rules
for current, voltage and
resistance. Where you start
will be different each time
but the aim is to get in the
0.25 A habit of checking if these
calculations are possible:
I
label each branch with the
voltage. Add the current
V
reading that would be shown
Figure 2.15 Missing values in a circuit can be worked out. by an ammeter. Where
possible, work out the
(a) If the cells are identical, what is the voltage of each? resistance.
(b) What is the voltage across the 15 Ω resistor?
(c) What is the current through the 15 Ω resistor?
(d) What is the resistance of the lamp?
(e) What is the reading on the ammeter?

Answers on page 133

Electrostatics
Electrical charge
Atoms are made of three particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.
Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus of the atom which has a
positive charge as a result (protons have a positive chare, neutrons have no Protons: Positively charged
charge). The negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus. The structure particles in the nucleus of
an atom
of the atom is covered in Chapter 7.
Neutrons: Uncharged
If an object gains more electrons than it had to begin with, it will become particles in the nucleus of
negatively charged. If it loses electrons, it will be positively charged. an atom
Friction between two insulating materials can lead both to become Electrons: Negatively
charged as one transfers electrons to the other. charged particles which
Objects with the same sort of charge repel each other and objects with orbit the atom and can be
transferred by friction
opposite charge attract each other. This is an example of a non-contact
force (see page 5 for a reminder). A charged object can often pick up small Nucleus: The centre of an
items such as dust or small pieces of paper. atom, containing almost all
the mass
If a material is made up of many parts and each part is given the same Friction: A force which
charge, the parts will move as far from each other as possible, such as resists the movement of two
charged droplets of liquid that spread out from each other and someone’s surfaces in contact
hairs separating out when they touch a Van de Graaff generator.

Conductors
In metal solids and other electrical conductors, many of the electrons are
free to move even though the atoms are fixed in place (see page 106 for
more information). The negatively charged electrons are attracted to the
positive terminal of a cell and are repelled by the negative terminal, so
there is a continuous f low which is called current.

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 Some materials, such as plastics, hold an electrostatic charge well because
2 Electricity

the electrons are not free to move. This is why they are electrical Insulators: Materials in
insulators. which there are no charged
particles like electrons
In some materials, the moving charges are positive or negative ions that are free to move. They
rather than electrons. These ions are atoms which have gained or lost have a very high resistance.
electrons, often during chemical reactions. For example, ionic solutions Commonly used insulators
conduct electricity. include rubber and plastic.
Positive ions: Atoms that
Required practical have lost electrons
Negative ions: Atoms that
Investigate how insulating materials can be have gained electrons
charged by friction
Method Typical mistake
1 A gold-leaf electroscope was charged using a high-voltage It is easy to get confused and
supply. A note was made of the charge (positive or negative) of the think that losing something
electroscope. makes a negative ion. In
2 A plastic rod was selected as an insulator and rubbed with a duster. fact, a negative ion gains
3 This insulator was held near the electroscope. negative electrons.
4 The gold leaf moved.
5 The results were recorded.
6 This experiment was repeated with different insulators and
dusters.
Now test yourself
28 (a) Electrons are
– transferred to an
– +
– +
insulator by friction.
+ What sign charge
(a) + + (b) + + + (c) will the insulator
+ + have?
(b) Two charged objects
repel each other.
+
+ + + What can you say
+ + + +
+ about the sign of
+
+ their charges?
29 (a) Copper atoms in
a wire are fixed in
place. Explain how
Figure 2.16 Gold-leaf electroscope charge moves when
current flows.
Analysis (b) The atoms in the
The electroscope had an initial positive charge. When some insulators plastic around
were held near the electroscope, the gold leaf fell, which showed that a cable have
these insulators were negatively charged. When other insulators were electrons. Why is the
held nearby, the leaf rose up; this showed that these insulators were plastic an insulator?
positively charged.
Answers on
page 133
Electrostatics at work
Spark hazards
Friction between insulators transfers electrons and builds charge up. If the
difference in charge is high enough, a brief electrical current will f low
which serves to balance the charges again. In air, this can be seen as a
spark. If there are f lammable materials present, such as petrol fumes when
refilling vehicles, the spark may cause a fire.

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 To avoid this problem, cables are used that ground or ‘earth’ potentially

2 Electricity
charged vehicles when friction is likely because of fuelling. That means
that any current will f low through the wire rather than the air and there
is no spark, preventing a fire.

Photocopying and printing

A photocopier works in several stages, as shown in Figure 2.17.
Typical mistake
The parts of the plate in contact with the dark parts of the image become positively charged. You can lose easy marks if
your written answers are
incomplete. Make sure you
Negatively charged toner powder is attracted to the plate.
link facts about opposite
charges to attraction, and
Positively charged paper is pressed against the plate and the powder is attracted to the paper. similar charges to repulsion.

Heat melts the powder, so it sticks to the paper in a copy of the original image. Revision activity

Figure 2.17 How a photocopier works These examples can be

explained with a diagram
and a few key words. For
(a)
+
each one draw a clear
+
+
diagram and add important
image
+ +
+ + document words as labels. Look back
+ +
++ +
to be copied at these to check that you
+
lens can use the key terms to
build an explanation. The
aim is to return to the
diagrams after a week,
+
and this time recall the
+
+
+ prompt words as well as the
++
diagram.

(b) Negatively charged toner (c) The image is (d) The final image
powder sticks to the image transferred to the paper is fixed by heating

Figure 2.18 Photocopying

A laser printer uses a process like that shown in Figure 2.17, which is why
the paper is warm after printing. An inkjet printer also uses electrostatic
charge, but in a different way. The ink droplets are charged, and then
directed to the right place on the paper by a charged plate in the printer.
This uses repulsion to change where the droplet goes.

Now test yourself

30 A refuelling vehicle is used to pump airplane fuel, which is an insulator, into a plane. A copper
conductor is used during the refuelling process. Explain why the copper conductor is needed.
31 In a device called an electrostatic precipitator, soot particles pass near wires with a large negative charge.
(a) What charge will the soot particles have now?
(b) The soot must be collected on large plates around the wires. How should the plates be charged
and why?

Answers on page 133

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 Summary
2 Electricity

l Voltage, V, measured in volts (V) causes l If a circuit’s voltage is increased or the resistance
charges to move. reduced, the current will be increased.
l In a complete circuit these moving charges l To find the resistance of a component, the current
make a current, I, measured in amperes or through it is measured with an ammeter. The
amps (A). Small currents may be measured in voltage across it is measured with a voltmeter.
milliamps (mA) with 1000 mA = 1 A. V
R=
l Energy is transferred when current flows. High I
current can cause heating and a high voltage l Ohm’s law states that for some components,
can cause a spark. Both high currents and at constant temperature, the current through
voltages can be dangerous. the component is proportional to the voltage
l In the UK, mains voltage is 230 V. This is an across it. Such a component is said to be ohmic
alternating current (a.c.) which changes and a graph of current against voltage will be
direction many times each second at a a straight line. Non-ohmic components such
frequency of 50 hertz or 50 Hz. as filament lamps and diodes have their own
l Cells and batteries provide a steady voltage which characteristic I–V graphs.
causes a direct current (d.c.) in one direction. l A thermistor has high resistance when cold,
l Fuses, circuit breakers, earth wires and which decreases with rising temperature; this
insulation are all safety devices that are used is the opposite to most materials.
to reduce electrical hazards. l A light dependent resistor (LDR) has high
l Resistance, R, measures how hard it is to make resistance in the dark and low resistance in
a current flow in a material. It is measured in bright light.
ohms (Ω). Often kilo-ohms (kΩ) are used, with l Charge, Q, is measured in coulombs (C). In
1000 Ω = 1 kΩ. wires the moving charges are electrons. The
l Power transferred by electricity, P, measured amount of charge passing a point in the circuit
in watts (W) is calculated by: each second is the current, I. So:
Q=I×t
P=I×V l The amount of energy, E, transferred by each
l To find the current flowing, if the power coulomb of charge, Q, depends on the voltage, V:
and voltage are known, this formula can be E=Q×V
rearranged to: l In a parallel circuit there will be more than

P one loop. Voltage across parallel loops will be

I= the same and the total of the current in loops
V
l The cost of electricity will depend on how much after a junction will be the same as the overall
energy, E, measured in joules (J) has been current before it.
transferred. This is calculated by: l Friction can transfer electrons between
touching surfaces. Objects that gain electrons
E=P×t
have a negative charge. Objects which lose
l Circuit diagrams are drawn with straight lines electrons have a positive charge.
and circuit symbols. l Objects with the opposite charge attract each
l In a series circuit all the components are in a other. Objects with the same charge repel each
single loop. Current is the same everywhere other.
in the circuit and the voltages across each l Objects that are highly charged can be
component add up to the overall voltage dangerous as they can cause a brief current to
supplied by the source. flow. If this causes a spark then a fire can start.

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 Exam practice

2 Electricity
1 In most countries, electricity is supplied as an alternating current with a fixed voltage.
(a) (i) What is the voltage supplied by UK mains?
A 12 V B 50 V C 120 V D 230 V [1]
(ii) State what current flows in a device which supplies 2.2 kW using the UK mains.
Give the unit in your answer. [4]
(b) Identify a safety feature in a plug which breaks the circuit if the current is too high. [1]
(c) State which safety feature in a plug prevents a person who touches a metal case from
receiving a shock. [1]
2 6V A student builds a circuit and measures the current and
voltage.
(a) Assuming the cells are identical in the series circuit in the
figure on the left, calculate the voltage supplied by each
A one. [1]
(b) The ammeter reads 30 mA. Calculate the total resistance
in the circuit. [3]
(c) The voltmeter reads 2 V. Calculate the voltage across the
other lamp. [2]
(d) The ammeter is now placed between the two lamps. State
V
what the current reading will be. [1]

3 A student is building a simple circuit that contains a diode.

(a) Sketch the I–V graph for a diode. [3]
(b) A student needs to collect data for a component to check it really is a diode. Describe the
method needed to collect the data to create a graph so it can be compared with a textbook. [3]
(c) Explain, with reference to your sketch, why the circuit symbol for a diode includes an arrow. [2]
4 Electrical power is measured in watts while energy is measured in joules.
(a) Calculate how much energy is transferred in 5 minutes by a laptop charger with a power
rating of 6 W. [3]
(b) (i) The current flowing in the laptop charger is 500 mA. Calculate this in amperes. [1]
(ii) Calculate the voltage supplied to the device. [3]
5 The circuit below is placed in a dark room. The current flowing is 0.06 A.

(a) (i) Identify component X. [1]

(ii) Explain what will happen to the reading on the ammeter
if the light in the room
A is turned on. [1]
(b) The voltage supplied to the component is 3 V. Calculate the
X resistance in the dark. [3]
(c) Give an example of how this component might be used in
everyday life. [1]
V

6 A student builds a simple circuit with a lamp and a cell.

(a) If a parallel loop is added with a resistor, explain what will happen to the brightness of the lamp. [1]
(b) A current of 0.3 A flows in that loop for 15 minutes. Calculate how much charge moves
through the resistor. [3]
(c) Calculate how much energy is transferred by the resistor if the voltage across it is 2.4 V. [3]
7 A gold-leaf electroscope is charged positively by connecting to the positive terminal of a
high-voltage supply.
(a) Identify whether the electroscope has gained or lost electrons. [1]
(b) A negatively charged rod is held near the cap. Explain why the gold leaf falls. [2]
(c) Explain what will happen to the gold leaf when a positively charged rod is held near the cap. [1]

Answers and quick quizzes online

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 3 Waves

Introducing waves
Waves in solids and liquids
Many effects in physics can be described as waves. Ripples in water are
examples of waves, as they transfer energy and information. The water
does not move along with the ripple, although there may be a temporary
change in vertical position. A f loating object will not move along, just up Wave: A disturbance that
and down. The exception to this is when an object, like a surf board, is can transfer energy and
tilted to slide down from the peak to the trough as the wave moves. information but not matter.

Transverse and longitudinal waves

In a transverse wave, the material or medium is displaced (moved)
and the wave travels at right angles (perpendicular) to the displacement. Transverse wave: This type
of wave causes the material
Energy is transferred with the wave motion.
or medium to temporarily
direction of energy transfer move at right angles to the
direction of energy transfer.
Light and ripples on water
are good examples of this
kind of wave.

movements of this end

hand from side is held still
to side
the tape moves
from side to side

Figure 3.1 A transverse wave transfers energy at right angles to the

displacement. Longitudinal wave: This
type of wave causes the
A slinky spring on a f lat surface can be used to demonstrate a transverse material or medium to move
wave, if one end is moved from side to side. None of the material is temporarily in the same
moved permanently, but energy is transferred from one end to the other. direction as the energy
A slinky spring can also be used to demonstrate a longitudinal wave. transfer. Sound is a good
Instead of a side-to-side movement, the end is pushed and pulled, towards example of this kind of wave.
the opposite end of the spring. Energy is also transferred with this wave
motion. Exam tip
direction of the vibration this end is held still Avoid using a ‘slinky’ as an
compression rarefaction example of a transverse or
longitudinal wave, because
these springs can be
examples of both types of
the coloured tape waves. Instead use water
direction of energy transfer moves backwards waves, which are always
and forwards transverse, and sound,
Figure 3.2 A longitudinal wave transfers energy in the same direction as which is always longitudinal.
the displacement.

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 Describing waves

3 Waves
Both kinds of wave involve a temporary movement or change in the
medium, sometimes called a displacement, and a permanent transfer Amplitude, A: The maximum
of energy. The maximum displacement is the amplitude, A, and this displacement of a material.
depends on the amount of energy being transferred. For waves like For a ripple on water, or a
sound and light, the amplitude is related to the loudness and brightness, transverse wave on a slinky,
respectively. it is the perpendicular height
of the wave pulse, measured
in metres (m), and is found
displacement by measuring how far the
medium is displaced by the
peak l peak wave.

distance
Typical mistake
l
amplitude
When asked to find the
trough trough amplitude, make sure you
measure the height from the
Figure 3.3 Water ripples as seen from the side zero or equilibrium position.
Students often measure
Each repeated motion causes one wave pulse; the distance between from peak to trough, which
two pulses is called the wavelength. When part of a wave is seen or is twice as far.
photographed, this can be measured. The easiest way is to measure
between two peaks or two troughs. For a longitudinal wave, the distance
is measured between two areas of compression or two areas of rarefaction. Wavelength, λ: The distance
The amount of time taken for one complete wave pulse to pass a point between two repeated
is called the time period, T, of that wave. The number of complete patterns, measured in
pulses that pass any point in one second is called the frequency. These metres (m)
two quantities are related; as the frequency increases, the time period
decreases. This is easy to show with a slinky, or ripples on water: if the
source of the wave moves more often, the time for each wave pulse is less.
frequency = 1
time period
1 frequency, f, measured in
f= hertz (Hz)
T
You can change the subject of this equation if you need to work out the time period, T, measured in
time period. seconds (s)

Example
A motor causes a string to vibrate at 20 Hz. What is the time period of
the wave?

Answer
1
T=
f
1
T=
20
T = 0.05 s

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 Wave speed and the wave equation
3 Waves

The wave speed, v, can be worked out like any speed: divide the distance
travelled by the time taken (see page 1 for more examples). But this value Wave speed, v: The speed
connects other important wave quantities as well, giving us the wave at which the wave moves
equation. through the medium. It
is measured in metres
wave speed = frequency × wavelength per second (m/s). For
electromagnetic waves in a
v=f×λ vacuum the value is always
the same, 3 × 108 m/s, and is
Example referred to as c.
Students measure water ripples on a pond caused by a model boat.
Four ripples arrive each second and the distance between each one is
0.02 m. Calculate the wave speed for these ripples.
wave speed, v, measured in
metres per second (m/s)
Answer
frequency, f, measured in
v=f×λ hertz (Hz)
wavelength, λ, measured in
v = 4 × 0.02
metres (m)
v = 0.08 m/s

Typical mistake
It is often easier to measure
Now test yourself wavelengths in centimetres,
but this must be converted
1 (a) What is the unit of frequency? to metres before calculating
(b) Calculate the frequency of a wave that has a time period of wave speed. Pause to check
0.02 seconds. the final answer makes
2 Is sound an example of a transverse or longitudinal wave? sense to avoid losing marks.
3 In air, a sound wave has a wave speed of 330 m/s. What is the
frequency if the wavelength is measured as 0.2 m?

Answers on pages 133–4 Wavefront: A line where

all the water affected by a
wave rises or falls together.
A straight beam vibrating
in water of uniform depth
Ripple tanks causes a straight wavefront.

Ripples on water are good examples of transverse waves. The water

rises and falls as the wave transfers energy along the surface of the water. wave peak wave generator

To make them easier to see, a ripple tank is set up so that the peaks and
troughs cast shadows. When the vibrating source is a long beam that
is dipped in and out of the water, each pulse forms a long line called a
wavefront.
The lines of each wavefront are perpendicular to the movement of
the wave. The gap between them is the wavelength. When the wave 28 cm
meets a barrier, or a boundary between materials, the angle at which
the wave meets the barrier changes what happens next. A ripple
tank can be used to investigate what happens for both barriers and
boundaries.

Figure 3.4 The wave generator

causes a series of ripples,
each with a visible peak.

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 Reflection

3 Waves
If a rigid barrier is placed in the path of a wavefront, reflection happens.
To make it easier to see the difference in waves before and after Reflection: A change in the
ref lection, the barrier in a wave tank should be placed at an angle. direction of a wave because
of a barrier. The angle
before reflection after reflection of incidence (before the
barrier) always equals the
angle of reflection (after the
normal barrier).

direction i r
of travel

during reflection
metal plate

Figure 3.5 The angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of reflection r,

measured from the normal.
The angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are always measured
Angle of incidence, i: The
from the normal, an imaginary line which is perpendicular to the angle between the incident
surface. The angle of incidence, i, is the angle between the arriving ray and the normal. It is
wave and the normal. The angle of ref lection, r, is the angle between the usually measured with a
ref lected wave (moving away from the surface) and the normal. These protractor.
angles are equal to each other, which can be expressed as:
Angle of reflection, r: The
i =r angle between the reflected
ray and the normal
Typical mistake
Normal: A line placed at
When describing a method to investigate the direction of travel, make
right angles to a surface or
sure you specify that angles are measured from the normal. Students
boundary
lose marks if they state or imply that the angles are measured
between the surface and the wave.

Like all waves, light and sound can be ref lected too (and a ref lected sound
is called an echo).

Refraction
If the wave meets a boundary between different materials instead of a
barrier, there may be refraction as well as ref lection. This is where the Refraction: A change in the
direction of the wave motion changes as it crosses the boundary. This is direction of a wave when it
seen in a ripple tank when the depth changes. crosses a boundary between
materials. The amount of
refraction depends on the
difference in properties of
the two materials and the
angle of incidence.

deep water shallow water

Figure 3.6 The wave changes direction at the boundary between deep
and shallow water.
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 Refraction happens because the speed of the wave is different before
3 Waves

and after the boundary. This can be seen by comparing the wavelength
of ripples in deep and shallow water where the frequency does not
change. This change in speed is easiest to see if the incident wave meets
the boundary along the normal, as there is no refraction to confuse the
observations. All waves are refracted when they meet a boundary at an
angle, although the effects may sometimes be small.

Doppler effect
If the source of a wave and the observer are stationary in comparison
to each other, the detected frequency and wavelength are the same
as at the source. If they are moving in comparison to each other,
there will be a difference between measurements taken at the source
compared to measurements taken at the observer. This is called the
Doppler effect: Revision activity
l If the source is getting closer, the observed frequency will be higher Write the name of each
and the wavelength will be lower. variable used in this topic
l If the source is moving away, the observed frequency will be lower and on an index card. On the
the wavelength will be higher. back, write the symbol, unit
and definition. Choose one
The faster the source is moving, the bigger the change in frequency and to review and test yourself
wavelength. This effect will be familiar to most people when thinking of on each day. When you can
sound waves. For example, an approaching car will seem to have a higher recall each one separately,
pitch or frequency as it approaches, and it will seem to have a lower pitch start testing yourself on
once it is moving away. You can see page 57 for more information on the three randomly chosen
characteristics of sound waves. The Doppler effect is observed with all cards.
types of waves, although it is not always easy to measure.

Now test yourself

4 Explain why the normal line for a surface is important when
investigating waves.
5 What is the wavelength of the ripples in Figure 3.4?
6 As a motorbike approaches an observer standing on a pavement,
and then passes, the engine noise seems to get louder then quieter
again. What other change will the observer notice?
7

incident
wavefronts in
refracted deep water
wavefronts in
shallow water

  
Figure 3.7 Ripples changing direction as they pass from deep to
shallow water.

(a) How has the wavelength changed as the ripples pass into the
shallow water?
(b) What name is used for the change of direction?

Answers on page 133

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 Electromagnetic waves

3 Waves
The electromagnetic spectrum
Although they seem very different, radio waves and visible light
Electromagnetic waves:
are both electromagnetic waves. They behave differently because
Transverse waves which
they have different wavelengths and frequencies, but they make up a can travel through a vacuum
complete and continuous spectrum. All electromagnetic waves travel at as well as matter. Energy
the same speed in a vacuum. This is 3 × 10 8 m/s and is often called the is transferred by changing
‘speed of light’. electric and magnetic fields.

longest wavelength shortest wavelength

lowest frequency highest frequency
103m 1m 10–3m 10–6m 10–9m 10–12m

radiowaves microwaves infrared X-rays

ultraviolet gamma rays

visible light
Figure 3.8 Waves in the electromagnetic spectrum

Electric and magnetic fields

Instead of the temporary displacement of matter, electromagnetic waves
transfer energy because of changes in electric and magnetic fields. These
changes are at right angles to the direction in which the wave is travelling.

Wave speed
Electromagnetic waves all travel at 3 × 108 m/s in free space (in a
Exam tip
vacuum). Through other materials, including air, the speed is lower than
this. The wave equation applies to electromagnetic waves, but because the All waves, including
speed is always the same it is often given as c rather than v. electromagnetic ones like
light, obey the same wave
Example equation. A different symbol
is often used for the speed
An electromagnetic wave has a wavelength of 2 cm. What is the
of electromagnetic waves to
frequency?
remind us that the speed in
Answer a vacuum is the same for all
of them. In a vacuum c is a
c=f×λ constant, not a variable.
c
f=
λ
3 × 108
f=
0.02
f = 1.5 × 1010 Hz

Exam tip
In exam questions, the frequency of an electromagnetic wave might be
expressed in kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).
l 1 kHz = 1000 Hz
l 1 MHz = 1000 kHz = 1 000 000 Hz = 1 × 106 Hz
l 1 GHz = 1000 MHz or 1 000 000 000 Hz = 1 × 109 Hz

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 Bands of the electromagnetic spectrum
3 Waves

Although the basic characteristics of electromagnetic waves are the same, the
details vary as the frequency and wavelengths change. The electromagnetic
spectrum is continuous, but it is usually divided into seven convenient bands,
depending on how the characteristics vary from a scientific point of view.
In reality, the difference between a low-wavelength radio wave and a high-
wavelength microwave is actually very small.

Radio waves
The longest wavelength and lowest frequency electromagnetic
waves are called radio waves and these are used for broadcasting and
communications. Those with a lower wavelength have a shorter range.
When absorbed, for example by an aerial, they produce an alternating
current with the same frequency as the wave.

Microwaves
With a wavelength measured in centimetres or millimetres, microwaves
have several uses. As well as being used for shorter range communication
transmissions, for example between mobile phone masts and satellites,
they also cause heating when absorbed. This is how a microwave oven
works, as the waves penetrate food to cook the centre of it, instead of just
heating the surface. Metal shielding on microwave ovens prevents the
potential internal heating of our own body tissues.

Infrared waves
Any object that has a higher temperature than its environment, for
example a room heater, emits infrared waves. These waves are sometimes
described as thermal radiation and they can burn the skin. Humans can
detect infrared waves as warmth, for example from the Sun, but the
waves are not visible to our eyes. Infrared photography is used to measure
temperature and these images are often given false colours to show which
areas are hotter. Night-vision cameras can use this to distinguish warm
objects, such as animals, from a cold background at night.

Visible light waves

Often referred to simply as ‘light’, these are the waves which can be Exam tip
detected by the human eye. Different parts of the visible spectrum have Because of the scale being
different wavelengths, from 7 × 10 –7 m (which is seen as red light) to used, the wavelengths of
4 × 10 –7 m (which is seen as violet light). As well as photography, visible electromagnetic waves
light is used to send information along optical fibres. between infrared and
ultraviolet are often given in
Ultraviolet waves nanometres (nm). In these
With wavelengths less than violet light and as low as 10 –9 m (1 nm), units the visible spectrum
ranges from 700 nm for red
ultraviolet waves are not visible to humans but can damage the eyes
light to 400 nm for violet
or skin. Hot objects above 4000 °C, for example the Sun, can emit light. When you see these
ultraviolet waves. Damage to our surface cells (sunburn) is caused by the units in exam questions,
ultraviolet waves which are part of normal sunlight, even on a cold day. make sure you convert to
Prolonged exposure can cause skin cancer, which is why sunblock and standard units (metres).
protective clothing are recommended if people are spending long periods
of time outside. If eyes are affected, there is also a risk of blindness.
Some materials absorb ultraviolet waves and emit visible light. This is
called f luorescence, and is the basis for many lights. An electric current
produces ultraviolet light, which is absorbed by a special coating that

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 emits visible light instead. Dyes and inks that behave in this way are

3 Waves
sometimes used for security marking: the labels are invisible until an
ultraviolet source is directed at them.

X-rays
Electromagnetic waves with a wavelength of around 10 –10 m pass through
many soft materials, including human muscle and organs, but are stopped
by hard materials such as bone or metal. These waves can cause mutations
in living tissue, but are useful in medicine because they show damage to
bones or teeth inside the body. They are also used in industrial situations Revision activity
to look inside objects that cannot easily be taken apart.
This topic requires you to
be fluent with the maths
Gamma rays needed to link frequency
The shortest wavelength electromagnetic waves are emitted from the and wavelength for very
nuclei of atoms (see page 108 for more information). These waves are large or small numbers;
highly penetrating and can cause mutations in cells which may lead to it is easy to mix up the
cancer (even more so than X-rays and ultraviolet waves). Lead shielding is number of zeros involved.
used to protect those who regularly work with or near X-ray and gamma Start by practising the uses
of the equation in each
ray sources. Gamma rays are used to sterilise food and medical equipment
possible rearrangement
as they can kill micro-organisms.
(with speed, wavelength or
frequency as the subject).
Revision activity
Part of doing the maths
This topic includes a lot of facts which need to be memorised, but this well involves using your
will be easier if you can link them to everyday uses or implications. calculator correctly, so you
Aim to find these links and include them in your notes. To improve are confident with the use
recall, you could write seven sentences that make up a memorable of standard form and know
story, one for each wave band, and include a fact for each one. where brackets are needed.

Now test yourself

8 Which parts of the electromagnetic spectrum
(a) are used for communications
(b) cause mutations in living cells
(c) are located between microwaves and ultraviolet waves?
9 An ultraviolet wave has a wavelength of 350 nm.
(a) What is this in metres?
(b) What is the frequency?
10 From your knowledge of the visible spectrum, which has a higher frequency: orange or blue light?
You don’t need to give the values.
11 Explain how a person might get sunburnt while skiing on a very cold day.

Answers on page 134

Reflection
Reflection of light rays
The beams of light produced from a ray box show where the waves
Ray box: A box containing a
are travelling. Most ray boxes contain a bright filament lamp and so
bright lamp, with a narrow
they can become very hot in use. The position of each beam is shown
slit so that the light from the
on a diagram as a straight line, called a ray, with an arrow to show the lamp inside escapes as a
direction of travel. Ray diagrams are always drawn with a ruler. narrow beam.
If the beam from a light box meets a smooth, shiny surface it will be
ref lected. Light is ref lected from rough surfaces too, but because the
surface angles are all different, there is no clear image.

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 When investigating the ref lection of light, you need to know that the
3 Waves

incident ray strikes the mirror at the angle of incidence, i, measured Incident ray: The ray which
between the ray and the normal. This angle is always the same as the meets a surface or boundary
angle of ref lection, r, measured between the reflected ray and the Reflected ray: The ray that
normal. This relationship can be expressed as: i = r. travels away from a shiny
surface like a mirror
mirror

i r

incident ray normal reflected ray

Figure 3.9 Reflection of light by a mirror

The incident ray, the ref lected ray and the normal always lie in the same
plane. This means they can all be plotted on the same f lat surface.

Now test yourself

12 Draw a ray diagram for a beam with an angle of incidence of 30° which is reflected by a mirror.
13 What is the angle between the normal and the surface of a mirror called?
14 The angle between an incident ray and a mirror is 15°. What is the angle of reflection?

Answers on page 134

Refraction
Refraction of light rays
When a wave crosses a boundary between two materials it will change
speed. If it meets the boundary at an angle, this will cause the wave
Angle of refraction: The
to change direction. This change in direction is called refraction. The
angle between the refracted
angle of refraction where light crosses the boundary between materials ray and the normal
depends on the properties of the materials and the angle of incidence.

Required practical
Investigate the refraction of light, using
rectangular blocks, semi-circular blocks and
triangular prisms
An experiment was conducted to measure the angle of refraction for light
that crosses from air into a glass prism at different angles of incidence.

Method
1 The ray box was set up and adjusted to produce a narrow beam.
2 The block was positioned on the paper so the incident ray met the Prism: A shaped
surface. transparent object, usually
3 The incident ray and the position of the refracted ray leaving the far glass or plastic, which is
side of the block were both marked with a pencil and labelled. polished so light is refracted
4 The ray box was moved to change the angle of incidence. Six pairs and reflected by the
of incident and refracted rays were marked and labelled. surfaces

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 5 A protractor was used to measure the angle of incidence and angle

3 Waves
of refraction for each pair of rays.
6 Different students investigated the angle of refraction with other
shapes including a triangular prism and a semi-circular glass block.
angle of refraction in degrees

50
air/glass
40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
angle of incidence in degrees

Figure 3.10 Angle of refraction plotted against angle of incidence

for a rectangular block. Exam tip
If using a diagram to explain
Analysis or understand refraction,
The graph shows that as the angle of incidence increases, the angle draw a normal line for every
of refraction increases. The angle of refraction is always less than the point where light crosses
angle of incidence when the ray enters a denser material like glass. a boundary, whether it’s
The difference between the two angles increases as the angle of entering or leaving an
incidence approaches 90°. object. This makes it much
The results show that light is refracted towards the normal when it easier to apply the rules
goes into a glass block. It is refracted away from the normal when it about whether it is bending
leaves the glass. This is also true for the semi-circular blocks and towards or away from the
triangular prisms. normal.

Refractive index
As well as affecting the angle of incidence, the materials involved also
make a difference to the angle of refraction. We call this the refractive Refractive index: The ratio
of the speed of light in air
index, n, of the material.
to the speed of light in a
speed of light in air material. It has no units.
refractive index =
speed of light in the material
Exam tip
The speed of light is very high and cannot easily be measured. Because of
this, it is much easier to find the refractive index by calculating the values Check that you can use your
of the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction of a beam entering calculator to find the sine of
an angle. The answer will
the material.
always be between zero and
The relationship is not just between the angles. Instead, a mathematical one. To find the refractive
function is used that you will remember from work on triangles. The index, n, you may need to
sine of the angle of incidence, sin i, is divided by the sine of the angle of use brackets depending on
refraction, sin r: how your calculator works.
You should be confident with
sin i
n= this before you need to do it
sin r
in an exam.

refractive index, n, a ratio of speeds with no unit

angle of incidence, i, measured in degrees (°)
angle of refraction, r, measured in degrees (°)

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 Required practical
3 Waves

Investigate the refractive index of glass, using a glass block

The procedure outlined in the previous Required practical can be used to investigate the refractive index
of a glass block.

Method
1 Columns were added to the results table for sin i and sin r.
2 A graph was plotted of sin i on the y-axis against sin r on the x-axis.
3 The gradient of the line of best fit was measured.
1.0 +
Angle of Angle of +
incidence/° refraction/° sin i sin r sin i/sin r 0.8
+
0 0 0 0
0.6
23 15 0.39 0.26 1.50 +

sin i
34 22 0.56 0.37 1.51
0.4 +
48 30 0.74 0.50 1.48
59 35 0.86 0.57 1.51 0.2
80 41 0.98 0.66 1.48
0
Analysis 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
The graph shows that the refractive index of the glass of the rectangular sin r
block is approximately 1.5. This can be checked by choosing any pair of Figure 3.11 The gradient
values, as shown in the following example, and calculating n. The points of the graph is the
on the graph are close to the line of best fit, showing that the errors in refractive index of glass.
the results are small.

Example
Using the third line from the table, an angle of incidence of 34° causes
an angle of refraction of 22°.

Answer
We can use this information to calculate the refractive index of the
glass:
sin i
n=
sin r
sin 34
n=
sin 22
n = 1.51

Refraction by prisms
Different shaped objects, called prisms, each have their own patterns for
refraction. However, the rules at each surface are the same: light is refracted
towards the normal when it enters the prism, and away from the normal
when it leaves. The difference between the original and final direction of the
light will depend on the shape of the prism and the angle of incidence.

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 Now test yourself

3 Waves
15 For a glass block, will the angle of refraction be more or less than the angle of incidence?
16 For practicals that test light refraction, what safety precaution should be taken?
17 Light crosses from air into glass, which has a refractive index of 1.5, at 30°. What is the angle of
refraction?
18 Diamond has a refractive index of 2.42. Calculate the speed of light in diamond.

Answers on page 134

Total internal reflection Total internal reflection:

When light, travelling
Each time light meets a glass boundary it may be ref lected or refracted. inside a material, meets the
We often pay attention to just one or the other, but both may happen at surface but all the light is
the same time. If a semi-circular glass block is set up so light travelling reflected inside, with none
inside meets the surface at different angles, it can be seen that above being refracted out of the
a specific angle all of the light is ref lected and none is refracted. This material
behaviour is called total internal reflection.

ray box

ray box
1

2 1a

i 3

3 42°
ray box
2
1b

Figure 3.12 If the incident angle is below 42° light is reflected (1a) and
refracted (1b). At 42° the light is refracted to travel along the surface of
the prism (2). Above 42° all the light is reflected (3).

Critical angle and refractive index

In Figure 3.12, the maximum angle of incidence before total internal
ref lection is 42°. This is a typical critical angle for glass. Different Critical angle, c: The critical
materials have different values. For example, in water the critical angle angle for a material is the
is around 49°. maximum angle of incidence
for which there is any
The critical angle, c, for a material can be calculated if the refractive index
refraction. Above this value
is known. You do not need to know anything about the material on the all light will be reflected
other side of the boundary because there is no refraction. The formula to within the material.
calculate this is:

sin c = 1
n

critical angle, c, measured in degrees (°)

refractive index, n, a ratio with no units

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 Example
3 Waves

Diamond has a refractive index of 2.42. What is the critical angle?

Answer

sin c = 1
n
1
sin c =
2.42
sin c = 0.41
c = sin–1(0.41)
c = 24º (to nearest degree)

Total internal reflection in prisms and optical

fibres
If light meets an ordinary mirror at an angle, there will be several beams
because of the ref lection and refraction at the surface. These multiple beams Endoscope: Bundles of
can make the image seem blurred. For situations where clear images are optical fibres that can be
important (for example in cameras, optical instruments and periscopes) two connected to a camera.
triangular prisms are used. The triangular prisms are arranged so that light One end is placed inside a
crosses the boundaries between air and glass along the normal. This means patient’s body or another
object, receives light
there is no refraction, as all of the light is ref lected instead.
through some fibres, and an
Optical fibres are long and flexible strands of glass. The materials for the image can be seen through
two layers in the fibres are chosen so that light travelling in the inner core is the other end.
always totally reflected. Optical fibres have several important uses, including
communications (where visible or infrared light carries information as coded
pulses) and in endoscopes used by medical professionals. Revision activity
Create a concept map
Now test yourself linking together key ideas,
examples and applications
19 (a) Define the critical angle for a material. of refraction or reflection.
(b) What is the critical angle for glass? When you are finished, cover
20 The critical angle for water is 49°. What is its refractive index? up a quarter of the page and
21 Diamond has a relatively low critical angle. What effect does this practise recalling the hidden
have on its appearance and why? ideas. Each time you repeat
this, cover up a different
45° part of the map.
front
A B
45° back

45°

45°

C
D

45°

Figure 3.13 Two prisms used to make a periscope.

22 Explain why, in the diagram of a periscope in Figure 3.13, there is

no refraction shown.

Answers on page 134

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 Sound waves

3 Waves
Sound travels as longitudinal waves which can be ref lected and refracted.
Although we often think of sound as travelling through gases like air,
these waves can also transfer energy through solids and liquids.

The ear
The ear is made up of several parts, many of which lie inside the body.
For example, inside the body there is a thin surface called the ear drum,
which moves when air next to it is compressed and decompressed by a
sound wave. As well as the ear drum, tiny bones and f luid contained
within shaped chambers are caused to vibrate, which eventually causes
nerves to transmit an electrical signal to the brain. These signals are
decoded by the brain to recognise sounds.

Making and hearing sounds

The source of a sound is always something which vibrates. This vibration
causes a medium, such as air, to vibrate too. The vibrating movement Compressions: Regions
back and forth creates a longitudinal wave made up of regions where the where the temporary
molecules are pushed closer together (compressions) and pulled further displacement of a medium
apart (decompressions). The distance between two compressions in a has pushed particles closer
wave is the wavelength. together
Decompressions: Regions
A wave may be detected by an instrument such as an ear drum or a
where the temporary
microphone. Human ears can detect vibrations in the range from
displacement of a medium
20 to 20 000 Hz, although the upper limit is usually reduced by has moved molecules
accumulated damage over our lifetimes. Waves with a frequency above further apart. These are
20 000 Hz are called ultrasound and they can be detected by some also sometimes called
animals, but not humans. rarefactions.
wave velocity

Typical mistake
Do not use the term
C D C D C D
‘expansion’ to describe
regions where the wave has
caused the particles to move
further apart. Decompression
or rarefaction makes it
clear you understand
the movement is a wave
behaviour, rather than
Figure 3.14 The compressions (C) and decompressions (D) make up a something caused by heating.
sound wave.

Speed of sound
When people talk about the ‘speed of sound’, they usually mean the
speed of sound ‘in air’, but even this value varies. Sound travels quicker in
liquids and much more quickly in solids. Finding the speed of sound, just
as with any other speed, means measuring the distance travelled and the
time taken (see page 1 for more information). If the distance is small, then
the time will need to be measured very carefully.

speed = distance travelled

time taken

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 3 Waves

Required practical

Investigate the speed of sound in air

Two different methods are used to allow the calculated values to be compared.

Method 1
1 A loudspeaker was connected to a signal generator which produced short bursts of sound.
2 Two microphones, separated by a distance, d, were placed near the loudspeaker.
3 Each microphone was connected to a dual beam oscilloscope so the two detected signals were
displayed at the same time.
4 The scale on the oscilloscope screen was used to calculate the time taken, t, for a wave pulse to move
between the two microphones.
1cm
(b)
(a)
dual beam
loudspeaker oscilloscope
signal trace from
generator microphone A

trace from
microphone B
A B
d time base 1 ms per cm

Figure 3.15 The screen shows the same pulse detected by each microphone.
For microphones 220 cm apart, the time taken was measured as 6.5 ms.

Method 2
1 A student stood 40 m in front of a tall building and clapped their hands.
2 Each time they heard the echo, they clapped again.
3 A second student used a stopwatch to record the time for 10 echoes.
4 This was repeated three times so that a mean time for 10 echoes could be calculated.
It is important to remember that the distance travelled for each echo was 80 m, from the student to the
wall and back again.

Trial number Time in seconds

1 2.4
2 2.8
3 2.3
Mean 2.5

Analysis
Data from Method 1 Data from Method 2
d d
speed = speed =
t t
2.2 80
speed = speed =
0.0065 0.25

speed = 338 m/s speed = 320 m/s

Conclusion
The values are similar, but not identical, and close to the accepted value for the speed of sound in air of
330 m/s.

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 Revision activity

3 Waves
For each of the practicals you have completed, write down the briefest
possible bullet point notes about the method. Use these as prompts to
describe the details and complications from memory, then compare to
the full notes to see what you remembered and what you forgot. The
points you forgot are what you need to spend extra time on.
Typical mistake

Now test yourself Students lose marks if they

say a change in amplitude
23 (a) Taking the speed of sound in air as 330 m/s, what is the or frequency makes a
wavelength for a wave with a frequency of 40 Hz? detector such as the ear
(b) How many times will the ear drum vibrate in a minute for this drum ‘vibrate more’. Be
sound? specific: does it vibrate
24 Describe how you would model a sound wave using a slinky. faster (frequency) or vibrate
further back and forth
Answers on page 134 (amplitude)?

Loudness and pitch

The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the medium,
and is related to the energy carried by the wave. A sound wave with
higher amplitude of vibration is therefore louder, and temporarily moves
the ear drum a larger distance. If the amplitude is large enough the ear Pitch: The pitch of a sound is
drum may be damaged. how we detect the frequency
The frequency of a wave is the number of complete cycles or patterns of the wave. High-pitched
each second, measured in hertz (Hz). A sound wave with a high sounds, like a bat squeaking,
are high-frequency waves.
frequency is squeaky, whereas a sound wave with a low frequency
Low-pitched sounds, like an
is called ‘deep’ or ‘low’. The term pitch is used to describe how we elephant’s call, are low-
experience this property of a sound. The vibration of the source of a frequency waves.
sound, for example a guitar string, determines the frequency of the wave.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

0V 0V 0V 0V

Figure 3.16 Graphs to show (a) low amplitude, low frequency, (b) high
amplitude, low frequency, (c) low amplitude, high frequency, (d) high
amplitude, high frequency.

Using an oscilloscope to measure frequency

Because it is hard to see a pattern in the compressions and decompressions
of a sound wave, an oscilloscope is often used to help us. The vibrations
of a sound wave cause the microphone to move backwards and forwards.

The amount of displacement is measured (see page 97 for more

information) and plotted vertically on the oscilloscope trace against the
time, just like you would on a graph. The controls on the oscilloscope set
the scale of the graph being drawn.

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 Required practical
3 Waves

Oscilloscope: An instrument
that measures changing
voltage over time and
Investigate the frequency of a sound wave using displays this on the screen
an oscilloscope as a line. When the sensor
connected to an oscilloscope
An experiment was conducted to find the frequency of a sound wave.
is a microphone, the
An oscilloscope was used to measure the time period of the sound and
changing voltage represents
this was used to calculate the frequency.
the changing displacement
Method of the medium caused by a
sound wave.
1 The microphone was connected to the input of the oscilloscope and
it was switched on.
2 The y-offset control was adjusted so that the visible line was across
the middle of the oscilloscope screen.
3 With the source of the sound close to the microphone, the y-gain
control was adjusted so that one complete waveform, peak to Exam tip
trough, was visible vertically on the screen.
4 The x-gain control was adjusted so that one complete waveform It is important to remember
was visible horizontally on the screen. It was important to check that no matter how the
that it was the simplest possible waveform that could be displayed. information is displayed,
5 Using the setting of the x-gain control and the length of the a sound wave involves
waveform on the oscilloscope screen, as shown below, the time longitudinal displacement.
period was measured as 8 ms. An oscilloscope connected
to a microphone makes
grid marked
in cm squares a trace that might look
like a transverse wave,
but in fact it is a graph
peak showing displacement by a
voltage longitudinal wave.

ms s V mV
1 500 500
2 200 2 1 200
5
100 5 100
10 50 10 50
time/cm volt/cm
input
input to
y-plates
Typical mistake
For this experiment only
Figure 3.17 Each horizontal division on the screen is equal to 2 ms. one microphone is needed
as the wave itself is being
Analysis investigated. Only if two
1 waves are being compared,
frequency =
time period or if looking at the time
1 taken for the wave to move
frequency =
0.008 between two positions,
will you need to use two
frequency = 125 Hz
microphones.

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 Now test yourself Revision activity

3 Waves
How many of the variables
25 A student suggests that the sound of a jet engine has a high
from this topic can you
frequency because it is loud. What mistake have they made?
recall without checking your
26 Which control on an oscilloscope will need to be adjusted if the
notes at all? Include the
waveform is too wide to fit on the screen?
mathematical relationships
27 A microphone is connected to an oscilloscope and used to display a
between them in your
sound wave from a musical instrument. How will the graph shown
definitions. Try explaining
vary when
the concepts with only
(a) the instrument is played more loudly
words, or with only a
(b) a higher note is played?
diagram. Which is easier?
28 A musical note at 600 Hz is played into a microphone. How wide will
the waveform on the oscilloscope screen be if the scale is set to
5 ms per centimetre?

Answers on page 134

Summary
l Waves transfer energy without permanent l The electromagnetic spectrum, in order
movement of a material. of increasing frequency (and decreasing
l Longitudinal waves like sound have a wavelength) is radio waves, microwaves,
temporary displacement in the same direction infrared (IR), visible light, ultraviolet (UV),
as the transfer of energy. X-rays, gamma rays. There are specific uses
l Transverse waves like ripples on water have a and dangers for each band.
temporary displacement at right angles to the l Light, the visible part of the electromagnetic
transfer of energy. spectrum, can be reflected and refracted.
l Amplitude, A, is the maximum displacement of When reflected, the angle of incidence, i,
a wave, related to the energy carried by it. equals the angle of reflection, r. Angles are
l Wavelength, λ , is the distance measured always measured from the normal, a line
between two identical parts of a repeated perpendicular to the point on the surface
waveform, measured in metres (m). where the light arrives or leaves the material.
l Time period, T, is the time taken for one l Refraction can be observed when light appears
complete waveform to pass a given point, to bend at a boundary between materials. The
measured in seconds (s). refractive index, n, can be calculated using:
l Frequency, f, is the number of complete sin i
n=
waveforms that pass a given point each sin r
second, measured in hertz (Hz). l All materials have a critical angle, c, above
1 which all incident beams are reflected rather
frequency =
time period than refracted. This is called total internal
1 reflection and is important for the use of
f=
T optical fibres.
wave speed = frequency × wavelength 1
l sin c = n
v=f×λ l Sound is a longitudinal wave which can be
l There is a change in the observed frequency of reflected and refracted. The audible frequency
a wave when the source is moving relative to for humans is between 20 Hz and 20 000 Hz.
the observer. This is called the Doppler effect. Above this range it is called ultrasound.
l All waves reflect and refract at a boundary or l The amplitude of a sound wave is related to the
surface. loudness. Loud sounds are caused by larger
l All electromagnetic waves are transverse, vibrations.
travelling at the same high speed in a vacuum: l The frequency of a sound wave is related to
c = 3 × 108 m/s. the pitch. High-pitched sounds are caused by
vibrations at a higher frequency.

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 Exam practice
3 Waves

1 A sound wave is displayed on an oscilloscope screen as shown in the figure below.

(a) Which device is connected to the oscilloscope to
detect the sound wave? [1]
A ammeter C microphone
B voltmeter D loudspeaker
5 ms (b) Using the scale given, determine the time period
of the wave. [1]
(c) Calculate the frequency of the detected sound.
Give the unit. [4]
2 A student is investigating reflection of light using a mirror.
(1) (a) Identify the labels which should be added to
features 1 and 2. [2]
(b) For one reading the angle of incidence is 30°.
Predict the angle of reflection. [1]
(2)
(c) The student states that light is a transverse
wave. Explain what this means. [2]

3 The visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from red to violet light.
(a) Identify which colour of light has the highest frequency. [1]
(b) Red light has a wavelength of 700 nm.
(i) State the value of this wavelength in metres. [1]
(ii) Using c = 3 × 108 m/s, calculate the frequency in hertz. [3]
4 A campaigner suggests that mobile phone signals cause brain cancer.
(a) (i) Which two parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are used for mobile phone signals? [2]
A visible light C microwaves
B infrared D radio waves
(ii) X-rays are known to cause ionisation in cells. State another part of the electromagnetic
spectrum which can also cause ionisation. [1]
(b) (i) Describe how the properties of X-rays are useful in medical investigations. [2]
(ii) Explain how medical staff protect themselves from X-rays. [1]
(c) Explain why it is unlikely that the campaigner is correct. [2]
5 Light enters the cornea at an angle. The cornea is part of the eye.

cornea air

24˚
normal
34˚

(a) Identify the angle of incidence shown in the diagram. [1]

(b) (i) Calculate the refractive index for the material of the cornea. [3]
(ii) Explain why refractive index has no unit. [1]
(c) A synthetic material is produced to repair a damaged cornea. During a test
researchers measure the critical angle as 44°.
(i) Define the critical angle. [2]
(ii) Use the measured value to find the refractive index of the synthetic material. [3]
(iii) Will this material be useful as a replacement for a damaged cornea? [1]

Answers and quick quizzes online

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 4 Energy resources and
energy transfer
Energy
Energy stores and systems
When a system changes, the energy associated with different stores also
changes. The changes in a system are measurable (for example the height System: An object or
a ball is lifted from the f loor). a group of objects that
interact with each other
It is important to understand which changes in the system relate to which
energy stores:
l Gravitational: When an object is lifted or dropped, the energy in the
gravitational store changes. This is sometimes called the gravitational
potential energy (see page 68).
l Kinetic: A moving object has energy in a kinetic store. This is
sometimes called the kinetic energy (see page 68).
l Thermal: Any object with a temperature above absolute zero has
energy in a thermal store (see page 82).
l Chemical: The energy in the chemical store changes during chemical
reactions, including those that occur in living things. This is often
called chemical potential energy (see page 70).
l Magnetic: There is a change in the magnetic store when the distance
between two magnetic poles increases or decreases (see page 88).
l Electrostatic: There is a change in the electrostatic store when the distance
between two electric charges increases or decreases (see page 37).
l Elastic: Materials that are temporarily stretched or compressed have
increased the amount of energy in an elastic store (see page 10).
l Nuclear: When a nucleus changes there will be an increase or decrease
in the nuclear store.
Physicists use equations to describe the energy changes, although not all
of the stores have equations that you need to know at this level.
When a system changes, energy is transferred between stores. For
example, if objects are thrown up and then fall down, the kinetic and
gravitational stores are affected. Another example is during endothermic
and exothermic reactions when there are transfers between chemical
and thermal stores. When any system changes at least one store will be
decreased and at least one will be increased. Sometimes more than two
stores are affected.
The principle of conservation of energy states that the amount of energy
always remains the same. It can be transferred between stores but never
destroyed or created. Typical mistake

Energy, E, is measured in joules ( J). One joule is a comparatively small Students can lose marks
amount of energy in most situations, so it is often helpful to use kilojoules when they say that energy has
(kJ) and megajoules (MJ). been ‘lost’. Usually what they
mean is that it is no longer
1 kJ = 1000 J = 1 × 103 J easy to measure, or that it is
no longer in a useful store.
1 MJ = 1000 kJ = 1000000 J = 1 × 106 J

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 Many processes can transfer energy between stores:
4 Energy resources and energy transfer

l waves, like sound and light

l heating by particles
l electrical current.

These are all processes that transfer energy, not stores. A chemical
reaction is another kind of process which transfers energy, as is a
mechanical transfer that involves forces.

Useful and wasted energy transfers

Some processes are termed ‘useful’ because they transfer energy to a
store that we plan to use. Often, processes that occur in a system transfer Dissipation: The transfer of
energy to stores that we can’t use. This is sometimes described as ‘wasted’ energy to the surroundings,
energy. In most situations where the energy is transferred in a way usually to a thermal store,
so it is no longer useful
which is not useful, it ends up transferred to the thermal store of the
surroundings. This process is called dissipation.

Efficiency
Some machines or devices waste more energy than others. The energy
that is transferred in useful ways (or to useful stores), when considered as Efficiency: The proportion
a proportion of the energy supplied, is called the efficiency. Efficiency of supplied energy that is
is worked out as a fraction but is often expressed as a decimal or a transferred to a useful store
percentage.
useful energy output
efficiency = × 100 % Exam tip
total energy input
Efficiency can be expressed
Example as a fraction, decimal or
percentage – in each case
A winch is supplied with 12 kJ. It transfers 10.5 kJ to the gravitational
it means the same thing.
store, which is useful. What is the efficiency?
Remember that it can never
Answer be more than 1 (or 100 %).

useful energy output

efficiency = × 100 %
total energy input
10.5 Sankey diagram: A diagram
efficiency = × 100 %
12 that shows how much
efficiency = 87.5 % energy is transferred to
different stores or through
different processes
One way to represent the efficiency of a process is to draw a Sankey
diagram with arrows for each transfer of energy. The width of the arrow
is proportional to the amount of energy transferred in each way, or to Revision activity
each different store. Consider a different real-
life process every evening
and start by identifying one
useful output store that has lost energy
input
12 kJ 10.5 kJ and at least one which has
gained energy. Once you are
confident about the variables
involved with the start and
wasted energy
end points, you will be ready
1.5 kJ to choose the right equations
in questions that require a
Figure 4.1 A Sankey diagram for the winch given in the example.
mathematical approach.
The width of each arrow represents the amount of energy.

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 Now test yourself

4 Energy resources and energy transfer

1 For each system, state the store that energy is being transferred to:
(a) a box lifted from the floor to a table
(b) water in a kettle being heated by the element
(c) the string of a bow pulled back by an archer
(d) a ball bearing rolling down a ramp and speeding up.
2 Give the following values in joules:
(a) 28 kJ
(b) 4.3 MJ
(c) 0.91 kJ
(d) 76.5 MJ.
3 In one minute, a light bulb receives 240 J and transfers all this energy to the thermal store of the
room. 60 J is transferred as visible light, while the remainder is transferred by different kinds of
heating. What is the efficiency?

Answers on page 134

Conduction and convection

Energy is normally transferred from hotter objects to cooler ones, but
how this transfer happens depends on the materials involved and the
surroundings. Heat transfer between particles in a material is called
conduction.

Insulators and conductors

Materials that allow heat to be transferred through them quickly, from
particle to particle, are called conductors. Metals are very good conductors, Exam tip
because they have free electrons that can move throughout the material.
Most building materials, such as brick and concrete, are also reasonable If an exam question involves
thermal conductors (although they are not conductors of electricity). both heat and electricity, be
specific about the kind of
If the transfer of heat is slow, the material is an insulator. Air, plastics and conductor or insulator you
wood are described as insulators. Mammals and birds also have layers are describing. For example,
of insulating tissue that reduce the thermal transfer of energy to the brick is a fairly good
surroundings. A vacuum – a region with no particles at all, like space – thermal conductor but a bad
prevents thermal transfer by conduction and is used in engineering electrical conductor.
solutions to reduce heat transfer.

Required practical

Investigate thermal energy transfer by conduction

An experiment was conducted to compare the thermal conduction properties of four metals.

Method
1 Four metal samples were placed so they could be heated equally by a Bunsen burner flame.
2 A droplet of water was placed in the hollow at the end of each sample.
3 The Bunsen burner was lit and a stopwatch used to measure the time taken for the water to boil on
each metal.

Analysis
Copper was the best conductor, with the water boiling after only 10 seconds. Aluminium was only slightly
worse at 16 seconds. The water on brass took 36 seconds, and iron was the worst conductor tested with
a time of 54 seconds.

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 Convection currents
4 Energy resources and energy transfer

When materials are heated they usually expand. If a f luid (liquid or

Typical mistake
gas) is heated, the expanded region becomes less dense and will rise in
comparison to the unheated regions. This process is called convection and The everyday description
it transfers energy because the particles in the material move. of convection is that ‘heat
rises’. A much better
Whenever air is heated it rises, while cooler unheated air falls. This description is that ‘heated
pattern of moving air is called a convection current. This type of current substances rise’ as it shows
can happen within a small space such as a room, as well as in the large that you understand heated
space of the Earth’s atmosphere, where it accounts for the direction of particles are moving.
wind from the sea in the day, and towards the sea at night. This is because
of the different heating rates of the land and sea.
If the air being heated is trapped, for example in layers of clothing, the
thermal transfer of energy is reduced. So although air is an insulator in
terms of conduction, the air must be prevented from moving if convection
is to be minimised. Convection needs particles that are free to move, so it
cannot happen in solids or in a vacuum.

Required practical

Investigate thermal energy transfer by convection

An experiment was carried out to demonstrate the convection
currents in water.

Method
1 A large flask was filled with water and placed on a tripod with
gauze. This was left to settle for several minutes.
2 A crystal of potassium permanganate (VII) was dropped into the
centre of the flask.
3 The centre of the flask was heated slowly and the path of the
dissolved potassium permanganate (VII) was observed.

water

potassium
manganate (VII)
crystals
Exam tip
Remember that the
convection currents are
caused by the heating,
Figure 4.2 The path of the dissolved potassium permanganate (VII)
but are made visible
was observed.
because of the potassium
Analysis permanganate (VII). These
currents are there even
The observed paths of potassium permanganate (VII) colour showed
when they cannot be seen
that the heated water rose, spread out along the top surface, then
because it is the water
fell as the water cooled. The water rose when it was warmer and so
particles that are moving.
became less dense than the water around it, and fell when it was cooler.

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 Unwanted energy transfer

4 Energy resources and energy transfer

Materials that trap air in bubbles or pockets are good at reducing both
conduction and convection. These materials are used to avoid large energy
transfers where they are not wanted, for example in homes and other buildings:
l Chimneys are often placed within buildings so that the warm air heats
the walls of upstairs rooms before entering the atmosphere.
l External walls often consist of two layers of brick with foam sealed
between. Although brick is a relatively good thermal conductor,
the energy transfer is reduced by the thickness of material and the
trapped air. The area of the walls, as well as the temperature difference
between inside and outside, also affects the rate of heat transfer but
these factors are harder to change.
Exam tip
l Materials like carpets and loft insulation, which trap air to reduce
both conduction and convection, are effective ways to reduce energy In most cases, the air that
transfer to the outside of a building. Thicker materials trap more air, so is trapped within a material
are better insulators. is the effective insulator.
l Double glazing also traps air, or sometimes other gases like argon, in
Remember that because it
is trapped, both convection
between two layers of glass. The insulating material here is the gas
and conduction are reduced.
rather than the glass, which is a relatively good thermal conductor.

Now test yourself

4 On a hot day at the beach the air above the land is heated more quickly than the air above the water.
Sketch the movement of the air that results.
5 Why will there be a faster transfer of energy to the outside of a house on a winter’s day compared to
the energy transfer in summer?
6 Which properties make a metal like copper such a good thermal conductor?

Answers on page 135

Radiation
As well as being transferred through contact between particles
(conduction) and movement of particles (convection), energy can also
be transferred without particles. This type of energy transfer is called
thermal radiation, which is another way to describe infrared waves
(see page 48 for more information).

Absorbers and emitters

Bright and shiny materials, which have polished surfaces and pale colours,
tend to ref lect thermal radiation instead of absorbing it. These types of Exam tip
materials are also bad emitters, so when they are hot they transfer energy If in doubt about what
away relatively slowly. types of surfaces reflect
or absorb radiation, think
Materials with dark, matt surfaces are good absorbers and emitters of
about colours of clothing that
thermal radiation. They do not ref lect much of the thermal radiation that
you wear outside on warm
falls on their surfaces. days. Dark colours warm up
more quickly, as they absorb
Typical mistake
thermal radiation from the
It’s easy to mix up conduction and radiation when shiny metal Sun at an increased speed.
materials are involved. Metal materials are good conductors, but poor White clothes, even though
absorbers and emitters of radiation because they are shiny. If it is the same amount of radiation
important that heat is transferred by both conduction and radiation, falls on them, absorb less and
the metal is usually painted a dark colour. so do not warm up as quickly.

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 The higher the temperature difference between an object and its
4 Energy resources and energy transfer

environment, the more thermal radiation is emitted and the faster energy is
transferred to the thermal store of the surroundings. There is also a change
in the wavelength of the emitted radiation (see page 47 for more details).

Required practical
Investigate thermal energy transfer by radiation
An experiment was conducted to compare how quickly thermal radiation was absorbed by different
surfaces.
black surface
Method shiny surface
1 Two sheets of aluminium, one left
shiny and the other painted matt
black, were prepared by sticking a 20 cm 20 cm
marble on each surface with wax,
marble on the marble
which was allowed to set.
other side
2 The two sheets were placed at an
equal distance from a heater.
3 The heater was switched on and the
time taken for each marble to fall A B
off was recorded. Figure 4.3 The time taken for each marble to fall off was
recorded.
Results
The marble on the sheet with the painted side facing the heater dropped off first, after 34 seconds. The
marble on the sheet with the shiny side facing the heater dropped off after 53 seconds.
The results show that dark matt surfaces absorb thermal radiation faster than shiny surfaces.

Now test yourself

Revision activity
7 In a practical to compare the absorption of thermal radiation
by different surfaces, as well as the two surfaces used in the Anything designed to keep
practical described earlier on this page, a third aluminium sheet things warm or cool will rely
painted light grey is used. Predict how long it will take the marble on the same basic principles.
to fall off. Give reasons for your answer. Pick any two examples and
8 Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum is described as compare them; you should
‘thermal radiation’? be able to explain similarities
9 A student lays two plastic sheets on snow that has settled on a and differences. For example,
bright but cold day. One sheet is white, the other black. Predict what both fleece jackets and loft
will happen over the next few hours. Give reasons for your answer. insulation trap air which
10 Why are the cooling tubes on the back of a refrigerator painted black? reduces energy losses by
conduction and convection.
Answers on page 135

What is work?
Work done
Physicists say that work is done whenever a force is applied to move an
object over a distance. The amount of work done depends on both the Work: The energy
force needed and the distance moved. transferred when a force is
applied to move an object
Work is measured in joules ( J). This is the same as the unit used for
over a distance
energy, because when work is done energy is always transferred. Work is
not a store, but rather a way that energy is transferred between stores.

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 The equation to calculate work done is:
work done, W, measured in

4 Energy resources and energy transfer

work done = force × distance joules ( J)
W=F×d force, F, measured in
newtons (N)
When one newton is applied to move an object by one metre, this is the
equivalent of one joule of work being done. distance, d, measured in
metres (m)
Example
A student drags a box along a table with a newtonmeter. The reading
given shows the force applied is 15 N, and the box is moved 4 m. What
is the work done?
Answer
W=F×d
W = 15 × 4
W = 60 J

When work is done, energy is transferred between stores. In the previous

Example, energy has been transferred from the chemical store associated
with the student’s muscles to the thermal store of the table and box, with
intermediate steps involving the kinetic stores, because they are warmed
by the friction caused by movement.
Work is only done when a force is applied to cause movement over a
distance. Energy can be transferred without movement, for example
when holding an object so it does not fall down; in this example work is
not done and the energy is transferred in other ways.

Work and energy transfers

Energy is transferred between stores as a result of physical processes.
These processes often involve forces, fields and waves. It can be helpful to
describe how these processes happen. Energy can be transferred by:
l a force moving something through a distance (mechanical working)
l a current f lowing in a material or circuit (electrical working)
l conduction and convection (heating by particles)
l different kinds of waves or radiation, including both light and sound.

Sometimes, although we know that energy is transferred, it may not be

obvious which of these transfer types is happening. Chemical reactions,
including those in biological processes like photosynthesis, transfer energy
through the movement of electrons, but it can be hard to recognise this
as a form of electrical working. It is important to remember that these are
useful descriptions rather than definitions.
If the starting point of an energy transfer is a chemical store, this usually
means a fuel (such as petrol or digested food) is used up. Many of the
processes described above eventually lead to heating of the environment,
and both light and sound cause a temperature rise even though it is much
too small to measure in a school science lab.

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 Now test yourself
4 Energy resources and energy transfer

11 Rearrange the formula for work done so that the following values can be worked out:
(a) distance moved
(b) force applied.
12 If 80J is transferred from the chemical store of a battery when a model car moves 4 m, what force is
being applied?
13 If 240J is transferred when an object that has a weight of 32 N is lifted, what is the increase in height?
14 A battery is connected to a filament lamp. Describe the processes transferring energy:
(a) from the battery to the filament
(b) from the filament to the room.

Answers on page 135

Calculating energy
Energy stores can be described mathematically, but you don’t need to
know the maths for all of them at this level. Apart from gravitational
potential energy (GPE) and kinetic energy (KE), the only other formula
for energy you will need is the one for specific heat capacity, which is
explained on page 82.

Gravitational potential energy

When an object is lifted up, the work done is calculated using the weight
mass, m, measured in
of the object and the increase in height. The weight of the object depends
kilograms (kg)
on both the mass, m, and the strength of gravity, g, which on Earth is
10 N/kg (see page 8 for more information). The work done to lift an gravitational field strength,
object up is transferred to the gravitational store and is sometimes called g, measured in newtons per
the gravitational potential energy (GPE). kilogram (N/kg). On Earth,
g = 10 N/kg.
gravitational potential energy = mass × gravitational field strength × height
height, h, measured in
GPE = m × g × h metres (m)

Example
A mountaineer, who has a mass of 60 kg, climbs 20 m up a cliff. What is
the increase in their GPE?

Answer

GPE = m × g × h

GPE = 60 × 10 × 20

GPE = 12 000 J or 12 kJ

Kinetic energy
A moving object is said to have energy in a kinetic store. This is
mass, m, measured in
sometimes described as having KE. The amount of energy depends
kilograms (kg)
on how fast the object is travelling and how much mass it has, but the
relationship is not straightforward. velocity, v, measured in
metres per second (m/s)
kinetic energy = 1 × mass × speed 2
2
KE = 1 × m × v 2
2

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 Exam tip Typical mistake

4 Energy resources and energy transfer

Rearranging the formula to find the velocity of a moving object is It is easy to forget to square
difficult because you need to use a square root. In the exam, it may the velocity during this
be best to rearrange the formula so you calculate v2 , then use your calculation. Starting with
calculator to find the square root; note this as a separate line in your the equation and writing the
calculation. speed in twice may help, for
example 3 × 3 rather than 32.

Example
A skateboarder, who has a total mass of 45 kg, is moving at 3 m/s.
What is their kinetic energy?

Answer

KE = 1 × m × v2
2
KE = 1 × 45 × 32
2
KE = 1 × 45 × 9
2
KE = 202.5 J

Because the velocity is squared in this formula, it only takes a small

increase in velocity to make a big difference to the energy in the kinetic
store. For example, doubling the velocity increases the energy by a factor
of four.

Using equations to calculate energy changes

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be
created or destroyed, only transferred from one store to another. In other
words, the total energy before a process must be the same as the total
energy after. This means that, ignoring any energy transferred to thermal
stores, the energy decrease in a gravitational store must be the same as the
energy increase in the kinetic store (or the other way around).
m × g × h = 1 × m × v2
2
In other cases, a change in the kinetic store can be worked out by using
the formula for work done.
F × d = 1 × m × v2
2
If you are asked to calculate a value using either expression, start by
identifying all the values given and rearrange the formula, depending on
what you are being asked to work out.

Power
The rate at which energy is transferred is called the power (see page 25 power, P, measured in
for more information on power calculations in electrical circuits). If the watts (W)
same amount of work is done in less time, the power is greater.
work done, W, measured in
power = work done joules ( J)
time taken
P=W time, t, measured in
t seconds (s)

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 If work is done very quickly, the power may be measured in kilowatts
Exam tip
4 Energy resources and energy transfer

(kW) or megawatts (MW).

It can be easy to mix up work
1 kW = 1000 W = 1 × 103 W done, W, with power measured
in watts (W). If in doubt, use
1 MW = 1000 kW = 1000 000 W = 1 × 106 W words rather than symbols in
your equation until you have
Example substituted in the numbers. W
An industrial crane lifts a mass of 500 kg by 24 m. This takes is also used for weight, which
30 seconds. What is the power of the crane during this action? can cause further confusion.

Answer

P=W
t
(500 × 10 × 24)
P=
30
120 000
P=
30
P = 4000 W or 4 kW

Now test yourself

15 A tennis ball, with a mass of 60 g, is moving at 20 m/s. What is its kinetic energy?
16 How much work is done when a 75 kg student walks upstairs to the top floor in school, where there is
an increase in height of 12 m?
17 A winch can supply power at 40 W. How long will it take to lift a mass of 10 kg by 8 m?
18 After slipping, a rock climber, who has a mass of 85 kg, falls 12 m before their safety line stops them.
Ignoring air resistance, how fast would they be travelling at that point?
19 How much energy is transferred in 5 minutes if the power of a device is 2.7 kW?

Answers on page 135

Energy resources and electricity generation

Electricity generation and energy transfers
Mains electricity can be generated in several different ways. Most of
Renewable energy: An energy
these methods of generation rely on the movement of a magnet relative
resource that will not run out
to a coil of wire. This movement causes or induces a current in the for the foreseeable future, for
wire, as described further on page 98. Anything which can generate example, solar power
electricity is called an energy resource, which can be renewable or
Non-renewable energy:
non-renewable.
An energy resource that
Describing the energy transfers for each energy resource can help us has a limited supply (even if
to understand how they work. Most transfers involve a kinetic store it is expected to last many
because a generator has a moving magnet in a coil of wire. years), such as fossil fuels
and uranium

Fossil fuels
Coal, oil and gas are described as fossil fuels because they are formed over
millions of years by the decay of living things in anaerobic conditions. Different
situations create a range of fossil fuels and so they may be solids, liquids or gases.
These fuels (chemical stores) are burnt to heat water to steam (thermal store).
The steam created causes turbines to spin around (a kinetic store), which does
mechanical work on the generator to produce an electric current.

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 Advantages Disadvantages

4 Energy resources and energy transfer

Fossil fuels have been readily available for All fossil fuels are non-renewable and as the fuels
many years and the power stations that use become scarce their costs increase. Burning fossil fuels
them are reliable. Gas-fired power stations also produces carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas which
can be turned on and off quickly and can contributes to climate change. Coal produces other gases
provide a lot of power. which can further damage our health and the environment.

Nuclear power
In a nuclear power station, the fuel used is uranium or plutonium. These
elements are not burnt, but instead transfer energy from the nuclear store
during nuclear fission (for more information see page 116). As in a fossil-
fuel power station, this turns water to steam (thermal store) which turns a
turbine (kinetic store) and then a generator. Instead of a chemical store the
starting point is the nuclear store of the atom, which transfers energy to the
kinetic store of fast-moving particles, which then causes the heating.

Advantages Disadvantages
Although non-renewable, the available The small amount of radioactive waste produced in this
uranium will last for much longer than method is dangerous for hundreds of years, and must
remaining fossil fuels. Far more energy is be stored safely. It also takes a long time to start and
produced from a kilogram of uranium than stop the power station running. Accidents are rare but
any type of chemical fuel. No pollutant gases can be serious, causing contamination of the local and
are produced in normal operation. wider area.

Wind power
Air that is moving naturally in the atmosphere can be used to turn a
turbine. Heating by the Sun transfers energy to the kinetic store of the
air, and some of this energy is then transferred to the turbine blade and
generator. Wind turbines can be placed on land or off-shore.

Advantages Disadvantages
No pollutant gases are produced and the Wind speed is highly variable and so the amount of
running cost is low because no fuel is electricity generated is unpredictable. This means that
needed. It is a renewable resource. wind turbines must be used either to charge up a battery
or in combination with a more consistent supply. The
turbines can also be noisy (sound pollution) and some
people complain that they are ugly (visual pollution).

Water power
Moving water has been used by humans to do work for centuries. If the
f lowing water in a river or the sea is used to turn a turbine, electricity can
be generated.
A dam can be built to trap rain water high up on a river’s course in an
artificial lake called a reservoir. By allowing this water to f low through
a turbine, energy is transferred from the gravitational store of the water
to the kinetic store of the turbine. This is called hydroelectric power and
works best in countries with lots of rain and high hills.
Tidal power relies on the rise and fall of the sea water in river estuaries.
As the water f lows in and out of the estuary at each low and high tide it
passes through turbines.

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 Advantages Disadvantages
4 Energy resources and energy transfer

Hydroelectric and tidal power work without Building hydroelectric and tidal power stations can be very
producing any pollutant gases. Tidal power expensive initially and disruptive to the environment in
works because of tides, which are both the long term. Their creation may involve flooding areas
reliable and predictable. Hydroelectric where people and animals live. Neither method works
power is reliable as long as there is plenty of consistently through the whole day.
rain. Once built, running costs are low as no
Potentially, wave power using waves moving on the surface of
fuel is needed.
the sea could be used to drive turbines. Unfortunately, these
waves are caused by the wind and so far it has proved much
more effective to use wind turbines instead.

Geothermal
In volcanic areas there may be hot rocks close to the Earth’s surface.
When water is pumped down to these rocks steam is produced, which
can turn turbines to generate electricity. The rocks are hot because of
nuclear processes that occur naturally deep in the Earth’s crust, so the
starting point is the nuclear store of the materials below the surface.

Advantages Disadvantages
There are no waste products and Only a few countries, such as Iceland and New Zealand,
geothermal power is a renewable resource. have areas that are suitable for geothermal power on a
In suitable areas, the running costs are low large scale. Setting up a power station is challenging,
and power generation is constant. expensive and can be dangerous because of the volcanic
gases that are released.

Solar cells
A solar cell generates electricity when special materials absorb light. No
turbines or other moving parts are involved. Solar cells on a building
may reduce the need for electricity from the National Grid. If sunshine is
reliable throughout the year, solar ‘farms’ with many linked solar cells can
be effective.

Advantages Disadvantages
Running costs are very low and there are no The installation costs are high and the systems must
waste products. Solar power is renewable include batteries to store the energy generated for night-
and can be very useful in remote places, time use. If the weather is variable, the output is unreliable
especially in locations with long days and so may need to be combined with more consistent
where the weather is predictable. resources.

Solar heating systems

One way to reduce electricity consumption is to use the sunlight as a
method of heating. Normally this means using sunlight to heat water in
pipes, which reduces the amount of heating by electricity or gas.

Advantages Disadvantages
A solar heating system is much cheaper to In many regions the amount of sunlight is unreliable
build than a solar cell system and it reduces and the system cannot be used at night. It can only
both electricity/fuel use and heating costs. complement, not replace, other heating systems.
There are no waste products and it relies on
a renewable resource.

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 Revision activity

4 Energy resources and energy transfer

Pick any two methods of generating electricity at random and try
to remember the advantages and disadvantages. Extend the task
by justifying the best choice for energy generation for a particular
location, for example in Southern England or on a remote island.

Now test yourself

20 A website article claims that solar power supplies ‘free electricity’. Explain why this statement is not
true.
21 Students suggest building a wind turbine on school grounds. What disadvantages might they need to
consider?
22 Why is nuclear power considered a non-renewable resource?

Answers on page 135

Summary
l Energy is transferred between stores l Black and matt (dull) surfaces are good emitters
(chemical, kinetic, gravitational, elastic, and absorbers of thermal radiation. White or
thermal, magnetic, electrostatic, nuclear) shiny surfaces are poor emitters and absorbers,
by physical processes (including mechanical and are sometimes called reflectors.
working, electrical working, heating by l work = force × distance
particles, radiation and waves). l Work done, W, is measured in joules (J). One
l Energy is measured in joules (J). newton exerted to move one metre does one
l The principle of conservation of energy states joule of work.
that energy cannot be created or destroyed, l For a gravitational store,
only transferred. GPE = m × g × h
useful energy output l For a kinetic store,
l efficiency = 1
total energy input KE = 2 × m × v2
Conduction and convection involve heating by
power = work done
l
l
particles. Heating may also occur by infrared time
(IR) radiation. l Power, P, is measured in watts (W). One watt
l Metals have free electrons that make means one joule is transferred each second.
them good conductors. Gases, like air, are l Electricity can be generated by a range of
poor conductors and may be described as methods, some renewable and some non-
insulators. renewable. Some are better for generating
l Liquids and gases expand when heated and electricity on a large scale and others are better
these heated regions rise. The patterns of for single buildings. All methods have advantages
movement are called convection currents. and disadvantages to consider including cost,
reliability and environmental impact.

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 Exam practice
4 Energy resources and energy transfer

1 A local council suggests replacing a coal-fired power station with a ‘solar farm’.

(a) (i) The planned solar farm would supply an

average of 5 MW over a year. Explain
why this figure is misleading. [1]
   (ii) The average output of the coal-fired
power station is 2000 MW. Calculate how
many joules of energy are transferred
in a minute. [3]
(b)  Some campaigners claim that the solar
farm would be expensive, others that it
would be almost free. Explain how
each claim could be justified. [2]
(c)  The council decides to build the solar
farm without shutting down the coal-
fired power station. Explain how this
will benefit the local environment. [2]
2 A model car is launched up a ramp using an elastic band. The velocity of the car is measured as
it is released at the bottom of the ramp.
(a) Describe how energy is transferred to the moving car. [2]
(b) The initial velocity is measured as 4 m/s and the mass of the car is 1.2 kg. Calculate the kinetic energy. [4]
(c) Ignoring air resistance and friction, calculate what the maximum increase in height will be
for the model car. [4]
3 All light bulbs cause heating of the room. What matters is how that energy is transferred.
(a) Describe how energy is usefully transferred by a light bulb in a room. [1]
(b) (i) A bulb with a power rating of 9 W is left on for 5 minutes. Calculate how much energy is
transferred in this time. [3]
(ii) If the efficiency is 25 %, calculate how much energy is wasted in this time. [3]
(iii) A new design transfers the same useful amount but is 50 % efficient. Calculate the total
energy supplied each second. [4]
4 When a battery-powered motor is used to lift a load, some of the energy heats the components and
the surroundings.
(a) What word is used to describe this effect? [1]
(b) Identify the stores and processes labelled in this diagram. [3]

process iii store i

chemical
store

heating by conduction and radiation store ii

(c) (i) During use, 500 J is transferred from the chemical store and a total of 150 J is transferred
by conduction and radiation. Calculate how much has been transferred to store (i). [2]
(ii) Calculate the efficiency of the motor.  [3]
5 Two friends are pushing a broken down car.
(a) Together they exert a force of 600 N to move the car 20 m. Calculate how much work they have
done. [3]
(b) Identify which force they are overcoming during this time. [1]
(c) Calculate their power (in watts) if this takes 30 seconds. [3]

Answers and quick quizzes online

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 5 Solids, liquids and gases

Density
What is density?
If two identically sized samples of iron and wood are compared, one will
have a much greater mass. The iron is said to have a greater density. This Density: The density of
a material or object is
property is often what we mean when a material, rather than an object, is
calculated by dividing the
described as ‘heavy’. mass in kilograms by the
Density can be calculated by measuring the mass of an object and the volume in metres cubed.
volume it takes up. The symbol ρ is used and
mass the standard unit of density
density = is kilograms per metre
volume
cubed (kg/m3).
ρ= m
V

density, ρ, measured in kilograms per metre cubed (kg/m 3) Exam tip

mass, m, measured in kilograms (kg) When measuring small
samples, it may be
volume, V, measured in metres cubed (m 3)
easier to find the mass in
grams (g) and the volume
Example in centimetres cubed (cm3).
These measurements must
A cube of aluminium, each side 4 cm, has a mass of 160 g. What is the be converted into standard
density? units or the equation will
Answer then give density in non-
standard units, grams
ρ= m per centimetre cubed (g/
V
0.16 cm3). Alternatively, a non-
ρ= standard answer can also be
0.04 × 0.04 × 0.04
converted to standard units:
ρ = 2500 kg/m3 1000 kg/m3 = 1 g/cm3.

Required practical

Investigate density using direct measurements of mass 1: solids

Method
1 The mass of a block of wood was measured using an electronic scale.
2 The dimensions of the block were measured carefully with an accurate ruler.

Results 0.048 m

The mass was found to be 173.2 g or 0.1732 kg. The dimensions 0.013 m
of the block were as shown in the diagram.
The density of the block was calculated as 2750 kg/m3 (to 3 s.f.), 0.101 m

slightly greater than the value for aluminium in the previous Figure 5.1 The dimensions of the
Example. This shows that wood is not always less dense than block
metal.

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 Making strong objects is relatively easy. The problem is that strong thread
5 Solids, liquids and gases

often means dense, which can restrict the use of strong materials. Some
increase in
designed materials such as aluminium alloys and fibreglass are less dense volume of
graduated
than equivalents such as steel. These materials can be used for vehicles measuring
liquid
= volume
such as aircraft and racing yachts, but are usually too expensive for large cylinder of object
engineering projects. object whose
water
volume is to
If the density of an irregular solid is required, the volume can be found be measured
by measuring how much liquid it displaces when added to a measuring
cylinder or beaker. Figure 5.2 Measuring the
volume of a small irregularly
shaped object
Required practical
Exam tip

Investigate density using direct measurements of Remember that 1 centimetre

cubed (cm3) is the same
mass 2: liquids as 1 millilitre (ml). Pure
water at room temperature
Method has a density of 1 g/cm3 or
1 An empty 100 ml measuring cylinder was placed on an electronic 1000 kg/m3.
balance. The mass was recorded.
2 Ethanol was added to the measuring cylinder up to the 20 ml line.
The total mass (ethanol and cylinder) was recorded.
3 The mass of the liquid was calculated by comparing the first two
measurements.
4 More ethanol was added to the 40 ml line. The total mass was
recorded and the mass of the ethanol was calculated. This was
repeated for 60, 80 and 100 ml.
Results
Mass of
measuring
cylinder +
Volume (ml) liquid (g) Mass of liquid (g) Density (g/cm3)
0 34.2
20 49.8 15.6 0.780
40 65.3 31.1 0.778
60 81.7 47.5 0.792
80 97.4 63.2 0.790
100 113.0 78.8 0.788

The average density works out at 0.786 g/cm3 or 786 kg/m3. This is very
close to the accepted value for the density of ethanol of 789 kg/m3.

Now test yourself

1 A student compares two equal boxes, one filled with feathers and the other with gravel. Explain the
mass difference between the two, using the idea of density.
2 A sample cuboid, size 6 cm × 10 cm × 6 cm, is made of steel with a density of 8000 kg/m3. Calculate the
mass.
3 In food testing, a 100 ml sample is made up of a mixture of ethanol (density 0.789 g/cm3) and water
(which has a density of 1 g/cm3). If 40 ml of the mixture is ethanol, what will the total mass be?

Answers on pages 135–6

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 Pressure

5 Solids, liquids and gases

Pressure points
When you push a drawing pin into a cork board, the same force acts at
the point as on your thumb. The reason the forces have a different effect Pressure: Describes how
is that the area they are exerted over is different. The smaller the area, the a force is concentrated into
greater the pressure caused by a force. a contact area. Pressure
force is measured in newtons
pressure =
area per metre squared
F (N/m2) which is the same as
P= the pascal (Pa).
A
pressure, P, measured in newtons per metre squared (N/m 2)
force, F, measured in newtons (N)
area, A, measured in metres squared (m 2)

Example Exam tip

A box weighing 35 N has a surface area of 7 cm2 in contact with the Remember that 1 metre
table. How much pressure is acting? is 100 cm. This means
Answer that a metre squared
is 100 cm × 100 cm or
P= F 10 000 cm2.
A
35
P=
0.0007
P = 50 000 N/m2 or 50 000 Pa or 50 kPa

Typical mistake
Pascal: The unit of pressure,
There may be confusion between the units of pressure (newtons per equal to one newton of
metre squared, N/m2) and those for the stiffness of a spring (newtons force applied to a contact
per metre, N/m) and turning moment (newton metres, Nm). Using area of one square metre.
pascals (Pa) helps to avoid the confusion. If unsure, check the units of Most examples will use
the variables in the equation. Remember that force in newtons divided by kilopascals (kPa), where
area in metres squared gives pressure in newtons per metre squared. 1 kPa = 1000 Pa.

Now test yourself

4 (a) Rearrange the equation for pressure so that force is the subject.
(b) A tiled floor can withstand a maximum pressure of 400 kPa
without being damaged. If four table legs have a total surface
area of 12 cm2, what is the maximum total weight, including the
table itself, that should be supported by the legs?
5 Why are press-ups harder if you lean on your fingertips rather than
on the palms of your hands?
6 Explain why both polar bears and camels have evolved to have very
wide feet.
Answers on page 136

Pressure in liquids and gases

If materials are rigid, a force on them acts in a linear direction only. If a
material is a f luid (a liquid or a gas) then a force acting on the material
will cause the pressure against every surface to increase. When a force
causes pressure elsewhere, we say that the pressure has been transmitted.
The pressure in a f luid, whatever the value, acts equally in all directions.

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 Increase of pressure with depth
5 Solids, liquids and gases

The pressure on an object increases as it is lowered beneath the surface

of a liquid like water. The deeper it is below the surface, the greater the
pressure. This is due to the weight of water above it. Mathematically, we
can treat this as a vertical column of water. This force acts on all sides
of the object at once. Different liquids cause different forces because of
differences in their density.
P=h×ρ×g

pressure, ρ, measured in newtons per metre squared (N/m2) or pascals (Pa)

height of the column, h, measured in metres (m)
density of the liquid, ρ, measured in kilograms per metre cubed (kg/m3)
gravitational field strength, g, measured in newtons per kilogram (N/kg);
on Earth g = 10 N/kg

Example
A watch falls to the bottom of a lake, 25 m below the surface. Water has a
density of 1000 kg/m3. What is the pressure on the watch due to the water?
Answer
P=h×ρ×g
P = 25 × 1000 × 10
P = 250 000 Pa or 250 kPa

This might seem like a large pressure, but in fact the watch was under pressure
even before it fell in the water. At this depth the watch is actually experiencing
a total pressure of 350 kPa: 100 kPa from the air and 250 kPa from the water.

Measuring atmospheric pressure

Air is a mixture of gases and so it acts as a f luid. This means there is
a force acting on objects, which is the weight of the atmosphere. The
density of air is much lower than that of a liquid like water, but the height
of the vertical column of air is large.
At sea level, the pressure created by the atmosphere is around 100 kPa.
This seems like a large value, but as it acts on every surface equally we
tend not to notice it. If pressure changes very quickly, for example if you
are sitting in a car that drives down a hill at high speed, you may notice
the effect when your ears ‘pop’. In the mountains, the column of air
above us is not as high and so air pressure is lower.

Hydraulic machines
The shape of a liquid changes but the volume of the liquid is almost constant,
no matter how much it is compressed. If the liquid is sealed in a container, a
force on one surface will cause pressure to act equally in all directions, even
around corners. This effect is used to change the direction and magnitude of
a force in a hydraulic system, for example to control brakes in a car.
A hydraulic system uses tubes or pipes with different diameters, so the
area is different for the input and output forces. Pushing down on the
liquid surface in a small pipe causes a pressure to act on the liquid. The
same pressure then acts on all the other surfaces, including the larger pipe,
so an upwards force is caused that is greater than the input.
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 F2

5 Solids, liquids and gases

F1

Exam tip
small area It can be easy to miss, but
remember that the input
large area piston moves much further
than the output piston. This
must be true because the
work done by the first piston
oil oil must be the same as the
work done by the second
one, otherwise the principle
of conservation of energy
Figure 5.3 A small force acting on a small area causes a large force to would be violated.
act because of the larger area.

Now test yourself

7 A bottle with three holes in the side is filled with water. Why does the water travel further from the
hole closest to the base as it leaks out?
8 If atmospheric pressure is around 100 kPa, why are we not pushed around by the force exerted by
the air?
9 (a) Sea water has a density of 1025 kg/m 3 . How far under the sea must a diver swim before the
water pressure becomes 100 kPa?
(b) Why is the total pressure on the diver at this distance actually 200 kPa?

Answers on page 136

Solid, liquid and gaseous states

Substances can exist in three different states. The chemical properties
of a substance don’t change, nor do the individual particles. The particles State: The physical
stay the same, but their arrangement and movement changes. arrangement and motion
l In a solid, the particles are close together and sit in a regular pattern. of particles in a substance.
The particles are held in place by attractive forces and cannot move Solid, liquid and gas are
around, but can vibrate. It is difficult to change the shape of a solid. considered the normal three
states of matter.
l In a liquid, the particles are still close together, but the forces are
weaker so the particles can move around. The liquid changes shape
depending on the container, and will f low when poured. Liquids are
very hard to compress.
l In a gas, the particles are moving much faster and, although they often
collide with each other, the gaps between them are on average much
larger. A gas expands to fill any container but can also be compressed.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.4 The particle arrangement in (a) a solid, (b) a liquid and (c) a gas

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 Solids and liquids are denser than gases because the gaps between particles
5 Solids, liquids and gases

are small, which means there are more particles in the same volume.
When comparing two substances in the same state, it is the mass of each
particle that matters: gold atoms have more mass than aluminium, so gold
is denser than aluminium.

Internal energy
The particles in a system can be an energy store. (See page 61 for a
reminder about energy stores.) This is called internal energy and can be Internal energy: The
thought of as a combination of the energy in the kinetic store (because total energy in the kinetic
the particles are moving) and the potential store (because of the attractive and potential stores of a
material. It is increased
forces between the particles). The internal energy changes when a
when a material is heated,
material is heated or cooled because energy is transferred between the
whether it changes the
material and surroundings. temperature or the state.
When a material is heated, the internal energy increases. Sometimes this
is measured as an increase in the temperature of the system, because the
particles are moving (or vibrating) faster. Sometimes heating causes the
particles to move further apart, and this is observed as a change of state.

Changes of state
Each change of state is linked to a change in the internal energy of the
substance that affects the separation of particles and how quickly they move.
When substances are heated, solids melt to form liquids and liquids boil
or evaporate to form gases. Some substances turn straight from a solid to Melt: Change of state from a
a gas without a liquid state, which is called sublimation, but this is a rare solid to a liquid
occurrence. Boil or evaporate: Change
of state from a liquid to a
gas gas
boiling/evaporation condensation Sublimation: Change of
state from a solid directly
sublimation liquid deposition to a gas. This only happens
in a few examples, such as
melting freezing
carbon dioxide.
solid Condense: Change of state
from a gas to a liquid
Figure 5.5 Each arrow is labelled with a change of state.
Freeze: Change of state
When substances are cooled the internal energy decreases. Gases from a liquid to a solid
condense to form liquids and liquids freeze to form solids. Where
Deposition: Change of state
substances turn straight from a gas to a solid without a liquid state, this is
from a gas directly to a solid
called deposition.
Physical change: A change
These changes in state are all physical changes – no new substance is of state that is reversible,
produced and the process is reversible. Mass is always conserved, there are unlike a chemical reaction,
no chemical changes, and the arrangements of atoms and molecules do and no new substances are
not alter. However, there is an internal energy change, increasing from formed. Heating and cooling
solid to liquid and increasing greatly from liquid to gas. are physical changes, as are
changes of state.
Typical mistake
Students often lose marks because they describe a temperature
change (heating or cooling) rather than being specific about a change
of state. When solid ice in a warm room melts and becomes liquid
water, the change of state is important. Saying that the ice has
warmed up is unlikely to gain all the available marks.

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 Required practical

5 Solids, liquids and gases

Obtain a temperature–time graph to show the constant temperature
during a change of state
Method
A hot object in a cool room transfers energy to the surroundings.
In this experiment, the hot sample does not just cool but also changes
state from liquid to solid.
1 All students put on safety glasses.
2 The tripod and gauze were set up and a beaker with 150 ml of water thermometer
was heated.
3 A second tripod and gauze was set up to hold a beaker with ice
water.
4 A test tube of stearic acid, covered with a cotton wool plug, was
clamped in a retort stand and placed in the hot water. stearic acid
5 Once the stearic acid reached 100 °C, as confirmed with a
thermometer, the test tube was placed in the ice water and the
stopwatch was started. At this temperature, the stearic acid was Figure 5.6 The temperature
a liquid. change will happen faster
6 The temperature of the stearic acid was recorded every minute until if there is ice around the
it reached 50 °C. boiling tube.
7 A graph was drawn with time on the horizontal axis and temperature
on the vertical axis.

Results
The stearic acid cooled quickly at first (shown by a steep line down on the graph). For several minutes
the temperature then remained constant (shown by a flat line on the graph), and during this time the
stearic acid turned from a liquid to a solid. The stearic acid then cooled further, but not as quickly as
before (shown by a shallow line down).
During the cooling process, internal energy was being transferred to the surroundings. The part of
the graph that was flat, with a constant temperature, shows where the stearic acid was changing state
rather than cooling down. The energy was transferred from the potential store of the particles. Changes
of state for a pure substance always happen at a fixed temperature.

Exam tip
Now test yourself
If a question includes a
10 What word describes a state change from temperature graph with
(a) liquid to solid a state change, you may
(b) gas to liquid find it helpful to add notes
(c) gas to solid? about where the substance
11 Ice from a freezer at a temperature of –15 °C is placed in a warm is warming or cooling and
room and the temperature is recorded over several hours. At where it is changing state.
which temperature would the first flat line be and why? This will help you to write a
12 Particles in all substances could be described as ‘moving’, but they clear description in a logical
are only moving around in liquids and gases. Give the word used to sequence.
describe how the particles move in a solid and explain what it means.
13 What happens to the gaps between particles when steam (a gas)
condenses on a cold mirror to form water droplets (a liquid)?

Answers on page 136

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 Specific heat capacity Revision activity
5 Solids, liquids and gases

When a material is heated, the internal energy increases. When it cools, the You could use a flow chart
or annotated sketch for
internal energy decreases again as energy is transferred to the surroundings.
summary notes; the point
If there is no state change, the change occurs in the thermal store and is to focus on the important
depends on: points so you can expand
l the mass of the material on them under pressure.
l what the substance is made of Test yourself by completing
l the change in temperature. a partially completed
diagram. As you become
The energy required to change the temperature of a material by one
more confident, start from a
degree Celsius per kilogram of mass is the specific heat capacity. This version with fewer hints.
has a unit of joules per kilogram degrees Celsius ( J/kg °C). Materials
with a low specific heat capacity, such as copper, heat up and cool down
quickly. Water has a high specific heat capacity and requires lots of energy Specific heat capacity, c:
to be transferred for even a small change in temperature. The energy needed to change
the temperature of one
change in thermal energy = mass × specific heat capacity kilogram of a material by one
× temperature change degree Celsius. Measured in
joules per kilogram degrees
ΔQ = m × c × ΔT
Celsius (J/kg °C).
Example
A concrete block, mass 70 kg, is heated from 2 °C in the morning to change in thermal energy,
14 °C in the early afternoon. Concrete has a specific heat capacity of ΔQ, measured in joules ( J)
800 J/kg °C. How much energy has been transferred in this time?
mass, m, measured in
Answer
kilograms (kg)
ΔQ = m × c × ΔT
specific heat capacity, c,
ΔQ = 70 × 800 × (14 – 2) measured in joules per
ΔQ = 70 × 800 × 12 kilogram degrees Celsius
ΔQ = 672 000 J or 672 kJ (J/kg °C)
change in temperature, ΔT,
This is an example of an equation that describes the energy transferred to measured in degrees Celsius
or from an energy store. See page 68 for more information. (°C)

Required practical Typical mistake

Students often use a single
Investigate the specific heat capacity of temperature reading in
materials, including water and some solids calculations, instead of
comparing two values to find
There are many ways to heat a material, but to do so in a measurable
the temperature change.
way means using an electric heater with a voltmeter and an ammeter
When you revise, remind
included in the circuit. See page 25 for more information about how to
yourself that ΔT means a
calculate the energy transferred by an electric current.
change in temperature.
Method
1 100 ml (0.1 kg) of water was poured into a polystyrene cup with a lid.
2 The electrical heater was placed into the water, with an ammeter
placed in series and a voltmeter placed in parallel.
3 The water was stirred and the temperature, T1, recorded.
4 The heater was switched on for 5 minutes, then turned off. The
voltmeter and ammeter readings were recorded while the heater
was switched on.
5 The water was stirred and once the maximum temperature was
reached it was recorded as T2.

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 6 This method was repeated for solid blocks of sample metals,

5 Solids, liquids and gases

which were wrapped in insulation to reduce thermal transfer to the
surroundings.
Results
The temperature change of the water was calculated. The starting
temperature was 14 °C and the final temperature was 23 °C.
ΔT = T2 − T1
ΔT = 23 − 14
ΔT = 9 °C
The energy transferred by the heater was calculated. The readings
show that a current of 1.3 A flowed for 5 minutes and there was 11.8 V
across the heater.
E = I × V×t
E = 1.3 × 11.8 × (5 × 60)
E = 1.3 × 11.8 × 300
E = 4602 J
These values were used to calculate the specific heat capacity of
water, based on the energy transferred electrically, E, being the same
as the change in the thermal store, ΔQ.
ΔQ = m × c × ΔT
ΔQ
c=
m × ΔT
c = 4602
0.1 × 9 Exam tip
c = 5113 J/kg °C or 5100 J/kg °C (to 2 s.f.) Always leave rounding until
This is higher than the accepted value of 4200 J/kg °C. This difference your final answer. Get into
can be explained since energy is transferred to the environment from the habit of giving your
the water, which reduces the final temperature, T2. The readings on answers to the same level
the meter may not have been exact, and d.c. meters usually give a of accuracy, in this case
lower value when an alternating current is being measured. two significant figures, as
The readings taken during the heating of metals also gave higher the data provided in the
values for the heat capacity, when compared to the accepted values. question.

Now test yourself

14 Equal masses of water and copper are heated by identical Bunsen burners for the same amount of
time. Which one will have a higher final temperature?
15 If the sample from Question 14 contained 150 ml of water and the temperature rose by 40 °C,
how much energy was transferred? For water, c = 4200 J/kg °C.
16 A student completed the required practical described on page 82, but used a beaker rather than an
insulated cup. What difference would this make to:
(a) the measured temperature change
(b) the calculated specific heat capacity?

Answers on page 136

Ideal gas molecules

The particle model of gases
Scientific models allow us to explain what happens and make testable
predictions. Models are never perfect, but they are useful simplifications
for better understanding.

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 The particle model for gases, also called the kinetic theory (because it is
5 Solids, liquids and gases

about movement), helps to link the observed behaviour of gases to the

particles that make them up. It does not matter whether the particles in
question are atoms or molecules. In the model:
l Particles in a gas are constantly moving in random directions.
l The particles collide with each other and the walls of any container
without transferring kinetic energy.
l The motion of the particles is related to the temperature; the higher
the average kinetic energy of the particles, the higher the measured
temperature of the gas.
Although the particles are very small, they still exert a tiny force on the walls Absolute zero: The lowest
of their container during each collision. There is no energy transferred to the possible temperature,
equal to –273 °C, and the
walls because they do not move, so no work is done (see page 67 for more
starting point for the kelvin
information). There are so many collisions that the total force on the area of temperature scale
the container is enough to measure, and this is detected as pressure.

Linking the pressure of a gas to its temperature

If a sample of gas in a sealed container is heated or cooled, the pressure
in kPa
pressure it exerts on the walls of the container changes. (If the 150
container is flexible then the volume will change instead or as
well.) By keeping the volume of the gas the same, and by recording
the pressure for different temperatures, a graph can be plotted. The
points should make a straight line. According to the model, this 100
shows that particles at a higher temperature move faster because
they have more energy. More energy means more collisions, which
means a higher pressure on the container walls.
50
The straight-line graph predicts that at a very low absolute zero
–273 ˚C
temperature, –273 °C, the pressure will be zero. The only way temperature
to explain this is that the particles stop moving completely.
This temperature is called absolute zero and is the lowest –300 –200 –100 0 100˚C
possible temperature of anything. 0 73 173 273 373 K

Figure 5.7 As temperature of a fixed volume

of gas increases, pressure increases.

The Kelvin scale

Temperature is measured from the lowest possible value, absolute zero.
When the particles have stopped moving they have zero kinetic energy. Absolute temperature
Physicists call this the absolute temperature scale, and it is useful scale: A scale used to
because it means we can see how gas pressure is directly proportional to measure temperature with
units kelvin (K)
absolute temperature. Absolute zero is 0 kelvin, 0 K, which means 0 °C
is 273 K. Kelvin (K): The unit of
absolute temperature. The
Exam tip size of a kelvin is the same
When writing temperatures in kelvin, do not use a degree sign. The as 1 °C.
units are kelvins (K) not ‘degrees kelvin’.
temperature in kelvin = temperature in degree Celsius + 273

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 Calculating the pressure

5 Solids, liquids and gases

When the volume is kept constant there is a relationship between the pressure, P, measured in
temperature and pressure of a gas. This relationship is often called pascals (Pa)
Charles’ law. The ratio of pressure to temperature stays the same as the
gas is heated or cooled. The formula only works if the absolute temperature, T, measured in
temperature scale is used. kelvin (K)
P1 P The subscripts 1 and 2 are
= 2 used to show the values
T1 T2
‘before’ and ‘after’ a change.

Example
At 300 K, a gas sample in a canister exerts a pressure of 90 kPa on the
inside surface. What will the new pressure be if it is heated to 350 K?
Answer
P1 P2
=
T1 T2 Exam tip
P
P2 = T2 × 1 If you use kilopascals for
T1
one pressure value then
P2 = 350 × 90 the calculated value for
300 the other will also be in
P2 = 105 kPa kilopascals.

Linking the volume of a gas to its pressure

If a sample of gas is kept at the same temperature, the relationship
between pressure and volume can be investigated. As the volume is
decreased, the pressure increases. At a particle level, the smaller space
means collisions happen more often, and so the total force increases.

This relationship is often called Boyle’s law. For any sample that is kept at 600
constant temperature, multiplying the pressure by the volume will give
pressure in kPa

the same value as it is compressed.

400
P 1 × V1 = P 2 × V2
200

pressure, P, measured in pascals (Pa)

0
volume, V, measured in metres cubed (m 3) 1.0 2.0
volume in litres
Figure 5.8 When temperature is
Example
constant, halving the volume of
A sample of gas at 150 kPa takes up 0.67 litres. The volume is the gas doubles the pressure.
decreased to 0.25 litres while the temperature is kept the same. What
is the new pressure?
Answer
P1 × V1 = P2 × V2
P1 × V1 Exam tip
P2 =
V2
As before, different units
150 × 0.67 can be used as long you
P2 =
0.25 remember that the answer
P2 = 400 kPa will also be in those units.

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 Now test yourself
5 Solids, liquids and gases

17 Why does a car tyre that was fully inflated in the winter have a Revision activity
higher chance of bursting in the summer? Revise the relationships
18 Nitrogen gas condenses to a liquid at –196 °C. between pressure,
(a) What is this value on the absolute temperature scale? temperature and volume
(b) Give the melting and boiling points of water in kelvin. by thinking of a simple
19 A gas canister has a faulty valve and half of the gas leaks into the example, such as a diver’s
air. Why does the canister now feel cold? Use the movement of air tank. Practise linking the
particles to explain this change. observed changes to how
20 Which measured variable for a gas is directly proportional to the particles are behaving,
temperature? using key words including
speed, kinetic energy, force
Answers on page 136 and area.

Summary
l Density, ρ, is the mass of each unit volume of a a material by one degree Celsius. It has the
material and has units of kilograms per metre unit of joules per kilogram degrees Celsius (J/
cubed (kg/m3). kg °C).
mass ∆Q = m × c × ∆T
density =
volume
l Pressure, P, is the force exerted per unit l Particles in a gas cause pressure because
area of a surface and has units of newtons of many collisions with the surface of the
per metre squared (N/m2) or pascals (Pa): container. The temperature, pressure and
1 Pa = 1 N/m2. volume are all related.
l The pressure caused by a column of a fluid l The absolute temperature scale starts from
(liquid or gas) depends on height, density and the lowest possible temperature, –273 °C,
the force of gravity. Fluids exert pressure on Known as absolute zero. At this temperature
all sides and surfaces equally. particles stop moving entirely. The units of this
scale, kelvins (K), are the same size as degrees
P=h×ρ×g Celsius.
l Materials can exist in different states and l If the volume is kept constant, increasing the
change from one state to another in a temperature causes an increase in pressure.
reversible physical change because of heating The volume is directly proportional to the
or cooling. Melting, evaporating, condensing, absolute temperature.
P1 P2
freezing, subliming and deposition are all =
T1 T2
changes of state.
l Particles change their position, separation and l If the temperature is kept constant, increasing
motion during state changes. These changes the pressure reduces the volume.
explain the properties of materials. P1 × V1 = P2 × V2
l Specific heat capacity, c, is the energy needed
to raise the temperature of one kilogram of

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 Exam practice

5 Solids, liquids and gases

1 In a factory a steel component must be heated then cooled quickly. Steel has a specific heat capacity,
c, of 450 J/kg °C.
(a) Define specific heat capacity. [1]
(b) Calculate how much energy is needed to heat the steel component, which has a mass 2.4 kg,
from 20 °C to 650 °C. [3]
(c) The hot steel glows red. State how the energy is being transferred. [1]
(d) The component is immediately cooled down to 20 °C by placing it in 50 litres of cold water.
Calculate the temperature change of the water. Assume that for water, c = 4200 J/kg °C. [3]

2 In a cosmetics workshop a technician makes shapes with cocoa butter. It melts at 36 °C.
(a) Describe the behaviour of the particles in the cocoa butter at 10 °C. [3]
(b) A 750 ml beaker of the cocoa butter is placed in a water bath at 70 °C. Sketch the temperature
of the sample over time. [3]
(c) The density of solid cocoa butter is 0.96 g/cm3. Calculate the mass in the beaker. [3]
(d) (i) Describe one change in the behaviour of particles in the liquid compared to the solid.  [1]
(ii) The liquid produced is poured into moulds and allowed to cool. What can you say about the
mass of the solid at the end compared to the solid at the start? [1]

3 Engineers are designing a remote-controlled submersible to explore under the sea. It needs to be
able to withstand the pressure of the water.
(a) Which is the correct formula for pressure? [1]
A P=F
V
m
B P=
A
C P= F
A
D P=m×V

(b) (i) An engineering apprentice suggests that only the top surface of the submersible needs to be
strong, because the water is above it. Explain why they are wrong. [2]
(ii) Calculate what the pressure from the water will be at 0.8 km below the surface. Use
1040 kg/m3 as the average density of sea water. [3]
(c) A fish gets caught on the submersible and is pulled to the surface. Explain why it explodes. [2]

4 A medical supply company produces oxygen cylinders for patients in hospitals.

(a) 460 litres of oxygen at a pressure of 100 kPa is supplied. Calculate the force in newtons that
this would exert on a surface with area 1 m2. [1]
(b) The oxygen is kept at the same temperature and compressed to take up 2 litres in the cylinder.
Calculate the new pressure. [3]
(c) Explain why it is important that the filled cylinder is not left in direct sunlight. [2]
(d) (i) A patient needs 4 litres of oxygen at 100 kPa per minute. Calculate whether the cylinder
will last 2 hours.  [3]
(ii) Explain what will happen to the pressure inside the cylinder as the oxygen is used. [1]

5 A student is checking the density of different golf balls.

(a) The student does not have the right equipment to measure the diameter of the golf balls.
Describe a method, including any calculations, they could use to find the volume directly. [4]
(b) State which equation they need to use to find the density. [1]
(c) One make of golf ball is claimed to float in water. Explain what this suggests about the density of
the ball. [1]

Answers and quick quizzes online

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 6 Magnetism and
electromagnetism

Magnets North-seeking pole: The

end of a magnet that is
A magnet is an object that is attracted or repelled by other magnets, and attracted to the Earth’s
will attract some materials. If a magnet is allowed to move freely, one North Pole, usually colour-
end will point towards the Earth’s North Pole (in the Arctic). This end is coded red
called the magnet’s north-seeking pole. The other end will point in the
South-seeking pole: The
opposite direction, towards the Earth’s South Pole (in Antarctica). This
end of a magnet that is
end is called the south-seeking pole. attracted to the Earth’s
If a magnet is broken in half, each part will have its own north-seeking South Pole, usually colour-
pole and south-seeking pole. coded blue or white

Poles
If two magnets are placed close together, there are two possible effects.
The poles can be attracted (pulled together) or repelled (pushed apart). Typical mistake

Two north-seeking poles will repel each other and so will two south-seeking Magnets follow the same
poles. A north-seeking and a south-seeking pole are attracted to each other. rules about attraction
and repulsion as electric
This is often described as ‘like poles repel, opposite poles attract’.
charges (see page 37 for
more information) but
Magnets attract some materials that are not magnets themselves. These
magnetism and electrostatic
are called magnetic materials, and include iron, cobalt and nickel. This charge are not the same.
attraction is greatest when the material is close to the pole of a magnet. They are both examples
The two poles are equally strong and magnetic materials are always of non-contact forces (see
attracted to, not repelled by, a magnet. page 5 for more information)
Iron filings are attracted to the poles of a magnet. These filings can be used but they are caused by
different fundamental
to see the orientation of the forces at different points around a magnet.
properties.
To see the direction of the fields, a plotting compass is used instead. The
region where magnets and magnetic materials experience a force is called the
magnetic field.
Typical mistake
Make sure your explanation
doesn’t suggest that the iron
Magnetic: Materials that are attracted to magnets, but are not filings create the magnetic
themselves magnets. Iron, nickel and cobalt are magnetic, as are field. All they do is show us
some rare earth elements like neodymium. where it is.

Required practical

Investigate the magnetic field pattern for a permanent bar magnet and between
two bar magnets
Method
1 A sheet of paper was placed over a bar magnet.
2 Iron filings were sprinkled over the paper. Every few moments the paper was tapped lightly.

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 3 The patterns formed by the iron filings were sketched, with particular attention paid to the areas

6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

around the poles.
4 The method was then repeated with two magnets in both possible arrangements with two similar
poles together (two north-seeking poles or two south-seeking poles) and two opposite poles together
(north-seeking and south-seeking).
Results
magnetic
field lines

N S S S N S

Figure 6.1 The lines always start and end at a magnetic pole.
The magnetic field was strongest where the lines were closest together, at the poles. This is where the
force on another magnet or a magnetic material is largest. The magnetic lines never cross, and they always
connect a north-seeking pole to the closest south-seeking pole.

Magnetic fields
Some magnetic fields are stronger than others. Magnetic field lines are
used to represent the strength and direction of the field. Like the arrow
that might be drawn to show weight acting towards the ground because
of gravity, they are a model rather than suggesting magnetism only works
along those specific lines.
weak magnetic field

N S
N S strong magnetic field

plotting Typical mistake

compass
Don’t use the term ‘big
magnet’ when you mean
‘strong magnet’. Although
Figure 6.2 Plotting field lines around a bar magnet these terms might seem
Plotting compasses are used in drawings to show the direction of the similar in meaning,
writing about the strength
magnetic field lines. Arrows should be added to point from a north-
of a magnet shows you
seeking pole to a south-seeking pole.
understand it is the effect of
If two magnets are close together the fields will affect each other. For the field which matters.
example, if similar poles are close there will be a neutral area in between
them (X in Figure 6.3) where there is no magnetic field. If opposite poles
are close the field between them will be uniform, which means that the
field has the same strength in this area and the field goes in one direction.

(a) (b)

N S
S N X N S

uniform field - over this region the field

has the same strength and direction

Figure 6.3 (a) A neutral point, X, between two similar poles; (b) a
uniform field between two opposite poles

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 Now test yourself
6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

1 Predict what will happen when the north-seeking pole of a magnet is used to test the following
materials:
(a) iron nail (c) copper pipe
(b) wooden ruler (d) another magnet.
2 (a) Sketch the magnetic field lines around a bar magnet, ignoring the direction arrows.
(b) How would the diagram be different for a stronger magnet?
3 Two magnets are positioned so there is a uniform field between them.
(a) Sketch the field lines that this will create.
(b) What does this tell you about the poles of the two magnets?

Answers on page 136

Magnetising
Magnetic domains
A magnetically soft material can become an induced (or temporary)
magnet when in a magnetic field. A piece of pure iron magnetised like Magnetically soft:
this stops acting like a magnet relatively quickly. In contrast, steel is a Describes materials that
magnetically hard material and, once magnetised, will attract or repel can become temporary
other magnets until it is demagnetised. (or induced) magnets, for
example iron
If a magnet is used to pick up some pins which are pure iron, they will
Magnetically hard:
become induced magnets as long as they are in contact with the magnet.
Describes materials that can
As soon as the magnet is removed, the effect stops. If instead some steel be magnetised to become
nails are picked up, they will become weak but permanent magnets. permanent magnets, until
This effect will last even without the original magnet nearby, although it demagnetised, for example
can be removed by heating the metal or hitting it with a hammer. This steel
is because the magnetic effect is caused by lined up regions within the
material called domains. These domains become disrupted by heating or
beating the magnet.

Magnetising
For centuries it was known that a piece of unmagnetised steel, if stroked
in one direction with a magnet, could generate its own magnetic field. An Solenoid: A coil of wire that
easier way of creating a similar field involves putting a piece of steel in a coil is part of an electric circuit.
of wire called a solenoid. A large current in the wire makes a temporary While current is flowing it
but strong magnetic field, which permanently magnetises the steel. has a magnetic field around
it similar to a permanent bar
A solenoid is also part of an electromagnet, but this includes an iron magnet. The more turns or
bar instead of steel. Because iron is magnetically soft, it becomes a loops of wire in the coil, the
strong induced magnet only while there is current in the solenoid. bigger the effect.
Electromagnets are frequently used in industry where the ability to turn Electromagnet: A solenoid
a magnet on and off helps complete tasks, for example when lifting and with an iron core, which has
dropping materials in a recycling centre. a magnetic field only when
current is flowing

N S

steel rod

Figure 6.4 The piece of steel becomes

car battery to produce a permanent magnet after the current
a large current has been switched on and off.

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 Revision activity

6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

The fundamental physics that explains magnetism is surprisingly difficult to understand. Focus instead on
practical examples of magnetism and electromagnetism, while explaining the observed effects (such as
attraction or repulsion, weak or strong) in terms of poles and current. Rehearsing these explanations will be
a good basis for written answers.

Now test yourself

N
4 Explain the difference between a permanent
magnet and an induced magnet.
5 Why do the pins shown in Figure 6.5 repel
each other? S
6 Would you use a magnetically hard or soft
material to make an electromagnet? Why?

Figure 6.5 The two

Answers on page 136 pins repel each other.

Currents and magnetism

Magnetic fields near a straight wire
The magnetic field lines around a bar magnet go from the north-seeking
pole to the south-seeking pole. A magnetic field is also caused around
any wire which has current f lowing, but the lines form concentric rings
around the wire. The field is strongest close to the wire.

Exam tip

end view When describing how an

X of wire electromagnet works, it is
important to include the
current flowing in the coil.
Students can lose marks if
they imply that the iron core
or the copper wires cause
Figure 6.6 The dot and cross show the direction of the current in the the magnetism.
wire. The arrows show the direction of the magnetic field lines.
The direction of the magnetic field can be worked out if we know the
direction of the current. Figure 6.6 shows the wire with the current direction
going into the paper (indicated by the ‘X’) and the field lines pointing Right-hand grip rule: A way
clockwise around the wire. If the wire has the current flowing out of the to remember the direction of
paper (indicated by the ‘dot’) the field lines point anti-clockwise around the magnetic field lines around
wire. This can be remembered using the right-hand grip rule, whereby your a current-carrying wire
thumb points in the direction of current and your curled fingers point in the
direction of the magnetic field lines.

current

magnetic field lines

go around the wire in Figure 6.7 The right-
an anti-clockwise direction hand grip rule.

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 Exam tip
6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

Use the right-hand grip rule in exams to help you link electric current
and magnetic field. Just make sure invigilators understand you’re not
trying to signal a classmate.

Magnetic fields near coils of wire

A single loop in a coil of wire acts as if it has two magnetic fields,
each making a circle around one side of the loop. The right-hand
grip rule helps us work out the direction for each field. Because the
current in the loop is continuous, the two fields add up and so there
are magnetic lines created through the centre of the loop like you
would see in a bar magnet. For a single loop, these magnetic lines will
be very weak. Typical mistake
Don’t mix up the arrows on
the wire which show the
direction of current (from
positive to negative) with the
B arrows on the magnetic field
lines that show the direction
of the magnetic force (from
north to south).
N S

Figure 6.8 The magnetic field lines near a single loop of wire (current
flowing from A to B)

If there are two or more loops of wire, they make a coil called a solenoid.
As the coil gets longer, with more loops or turns, the magnetic field looks
more and more like the one seen around a bar magnet.

Producing large magnetic fields

An electromagnet produces a stronger magnetic field if it has:
l a larger current
l more turns of wire
l iron in the middle of the solenoid.

Some of these changes are easier to make in practical terms than others.
For example, a high current may cause the wire to melt or a fuse to
blow. If very strong magnetic fields are needed, for example in particle
accelerators, then wires are made of superconducting materials that have
zero resistance. These materials must be kept very cold, either with liquid
nitrogen (to cool the wires to 77 K) or liquid helium (4 K).

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 Now test yourself

6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

7 Where is a magnetic field strongest for a solenoid?
8 Explain the meaning of the three symbols that are used to show the direction of current in a wire:
arrows on a line, circle with a cross and circle with a dot.
bird's eye view

iron filings
plotting compass

hardboard

Figure 6.9 The magnetic field lines around a straight wire make concentric rings.
9 In Figure 6.9 which direction would the magnetic field lines point? Explain how this can be worked
out without looking at the plotting compasses.
10 A student is trying to make an electromagnet stronger but cannot increase the current because the
power supply fuse keeps blowing.
(a) Suggest what else they could change.
(b) How might they measure the strength of the electromagnet?

Answers on pages 136–7

The motor effect

Combining two magnetic fields
We know that when a current f lows in a wire, a magnetic field is
produced. However, if there is another magnetic field present, the two
fields will interact and cause a force. Unless both objects are fixed in Motor effect: The use of
place, this force will cause movement. This movement is called the motor two magnetic fields, one
effect and is the basis of almost every situation in which an electrical permanent and one from
current causes motion, from battery-powered fans to loudspeakers, from an electromagnet, to cause
movement
washing machines to the propulsion of aircraft carriers.
The motor effect is easiest to observe with a single wire. There is a
uniform field between the poles of the permanent magnet(s). The wire,
and the current, is at right angles to the magnetic field. The movement
of the wire is at right angles to both. If the current reverses direction, so
does the movement of the wire.

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 6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

movement

S current

field from current

Exam tip
When describing the
uniform field from N
the magnet interaction of multiple
fields that cause the motor
effect, it is easy to use the
terms ‘magnetic field’ and
‘electromagnetic field’ as if
they are different things. It
is better to describe them
both as magnetic fields, but
with different causes. In
other words, the ‘field of the
permanent magnet’ and ‘the
Figure 6.10 The movement is at right angles to the directions of the field of the electromagnet’.
magnetic field and the electrical current.

motion of wire

S
current

thuMb :
Motion N Exam tip
seCond finger :
Current As with the right-hand
grip rule, Fleming’s left-
hand rule is very useful in
exams to help you visualise
a situation and deduce a
direction. Other mnemonics
are sometimes used (for
First finger : example Thrust, T, Thumb)
Field
and it doesn’t matter which
you use as long as you can
make a correct prediction
and explain that field,
current and motion are all at
Figure 6.11 Fleming’s left-hand rule shows how field, current and right angles to each other.
motion are connected.

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 Figure 6.11 shows how the three directions (field, current and motion)

6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

can be identified using Fleming’s left-hand rule. The motion is always at Left-hand rule: A way to
right angles to the direction of both the magnetic field and the current. work out the connection
between magnetic field
Any movement is greater if:
(First finger, F, Field)
l the magnetic field is stronger
current (seCond finger, C,
l the current is higher
Current) and motion (thuMb,
l there is a greater length of wire in the field. M, Motion)
Some ammeters are designed to show how much current is f lowing
in a wire by measuring the amount of movement caused by the motor
effect.

Deflection of charged particles

Although the motor effect is usually observed because a wire moves, the
force acts on the moving charges within the wire. If charged particles are
moving at right angles to a magnetic field, then there is a current and a
force will act to cause def lection. If the motion is parallel to the magnetic
field, nothing happens, just as in the case of a wire that runs parallel to
the field lines.
The size of the force is increased if:
l the magnetic field is stronger
l the particles are moving faster
l the particles have a greater charge.

Exam tip
Working out the direction of a deflection is tricky. You need to remember
that for the left-hand rule the direction is for conventional current
(positive to negative, see page 32). This means the rule also works for
positively charged particles like protons. But you need to reverse the
direction if you are considering particles that have a negative charge,
such as electrons.

Now test yourself

11 An electric drill has a motor to make it spin. What will happen to
the drill if the current is increased?
12 List the three directions for the left-hand rule.
13 The Earth’s magnetic field is very weak but if a high current flows
in a wire it can still experience a force because of it. Which way
must the wire be pointed for the motor effect to occur?
14 Newton’s third law (see page 15 for a reminder) suggests that
when there is a force on the wire there must be an equal and
opposite force on something else. What is the other force exerted
on and why does it not move?

Answers on page 137

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 Electric motors
6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

The principle of the d.c. motor

Instead of one wire, a motor uses a coil of wire to increase the length
of wire that is in the magnetic field. More loops in the coil give the
electromagnet a stronger field, and this means a greater force. The
coil in a motor is mounted so it spins within the permanent magnetic
field.

pivot

magnet rotation
produced

coil

N S

split-ring
commutator B

carbon brushes

Figure 6.12 A simple motor showing the coils of wire

The motor effect can start the movement of a coil of wire, but as soon
as the wires are parallel to the magnetic field there will be no turning
force. Even if friction is low enough for the coil to complete more than a
quarter turn, the force would now be in the opposite direction. To solve
this problem, a split-ring commutator is built into the electric motor. Split-ring commutator: A
component in a d.c. motor
The easiest way to understand this process is to break it down into steps,
that spins with the coil, so
to consider both the current and the force. When the conductor of the
the force on it due to the
ring touches the brushes, the circuit is complete and there is a temporary motor effect is always in the
magnetic field around the coil. When the brushes are against the gap in same direction
the ring (the ‘split’), the circuit is incomplete.

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 split-ring commutator The current at A is pointing out of

6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

the page, so the force is upwards. At
N A X B S B the current is going into the page
so the force is downwards. Together,
these cause a clockwise motion.
(a)
– +
brushes

A
The coil continues to rotate in a
N S clockwise direction.
X
B
(b)
– +

A
There is no current when the coil is
vertical because of the gap or split in
N S the commutator. There is no force
but the coil is still moving.
X
(c) B

– +

A The coil passes the vertical and the split ring is

X now in contact with the opposite terminal. The
N S current at A is now into the page so the force is
downwards. At B the current is now coming out
B of the page so the force is upwards. Together,
(d) these cause a clockwise motion.

– +

The coil continues to rotate in a

N B X A S clockwise direction.

(e)

Figure 6.13 The split-ring commutator

If the current is in the opposite direction, the motor will spin anti-clockwise
instead.
The moving-coil loudspeaker
Sound waves are caused by a vibrating object, one that moves back and
forth, causing the air to do the same (see page 55 for more information). Exam tip
You can work out two of the
non-magnetic case three directions (current,
magnetic field and motion)
coil
paper cone paper cone using the left-hand rule,
cylinder magnet N if you are given one of the
directions in a diagram.
N S Remember that you may
N
N
need to check the directions
N S N N
on two parts of a coil.
N N
N
coil
permanent magnet

(a) (b)
Figure 6.14 Two views of a moving-coil loudspeaker

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 Although the arrangement of the coil and magnet looks different from a Revision activity
6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

d.c. motor, the loudspeaker also moves because of the motor effect. The
changing size and direction of the alternating current means the coil On pieces of paper, write the
experiences a changing size and direction of force. These changes cause names of some electrical
devices that have a moving
sound waves of specific amplitude (loudness) and frequency (pitch). The
part. Some should be mains-
direction of the force can be worked out with the left-hand rule. powered and others should
use batteries. Revise your
Now test yourself knowledge by choosing one
at random and describing
15 A student builds a motor, arranging the coils so that they are the effect of changing the
vertical in between the magnetic poles. What will happen when the current on how the device
battery is connected? works. Use the motor effect
16 Two motors have the same strength magnets and are connected as part of your description.
to identical power supplies, but one turns faster than the other.
Explain, using the motor effect, why this might happen.
17 The sound from a loudspeaker decreases in pitch (frequency) and
gets louder. Describe how the current changes to cause this effect.

Answers on pages 136–7

Electromagnetic induction
Induced voltage
When a conducting wire moves through a magnetic field, a voltage Induced voltage: A voltage
difference is produced; this is called an induced voltage. If the wire is that is produced by a wire
part of a circuit, this will cause an induced current to f low. A voltage will which is subjected to a
also be induced if a stationary wire is in a changing magnetic field. This changing magnetic field,
is called the generator effect. or that is moved within a
magnetic field. The voltage
causes a current.
Investigating induced voltages
Connecting the two ends of the wire to a sensitive voltmeter makes it
easy to investigate the factors that affect the size and direction of the
induced voltage. A voltage is only induced when the wire is moving at
right angles to the magnetic field, so that the electrons experience a force
along the wire. As with the motor effect, the three directions must all be
at right angles to each other. Exam tip

The factors that affect the size and direction of a voltage include: There are formulae that
l the speed of motion of the wire – increasing this creates a larger voltage
can be used to calculate
the induced voltage, but
l magnet strength – using a stronger magnet creates a larger voltage,
all you need to understand
even if the speed of motion is the same
is the factors that affect
l direction of motion – reversing this reverses the direction of the voltage
the direction and relative
l direction of the magnetic field – reversing this reverses the direction of values.
the voltage.
Coils and magnets
When a coil of wire (a solenoid) is connected to a voltmeter, a voltage and
current can be induced if a magnet is moved into or out of the coil. The
direction of the induced voltage depends on which pole of the magnet
goes into the coil first. The size of the voltage depends on:
l the strength of the magnet
l the speed of motion
l the number of coils in the solenoid.

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 Now test yourself Revision activity

6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

Electromagnetic induction
18 During an investigation of electromagnetic induction, 0.24 V is
and the motor effect are
induced in a wire when it is moved upwards. What will the value be
opposite processes, so many
if the magnets are reversed and the motion is at the same speed,
of the same factors are
but downwards?
relevant. Make summary
19 A student drops magnets, north-pole first, through a long solenoid
notes clearly showing the
which is clamped vertically. What effect will each of the following
links between these two
changes have on the induced voltage:
situations. You could use a
(a) a stronger magnet
flow chart for this purpose.
(b) dropping the magnet south-pole first
Revising the processes
(c) fewer coils in the solenoid?
together should mean you
20 A piece of iron the same size and weight as the magnet in Question 19 is
will understand both better.
dropped through the solenoid. What induced voltage will this produce?

Answers on page 137

Generators
A d.c. motor has design features (current and a permanent magnetic field)
to produce continuous movement in the same direction, based on the motor
effect. An a.c. generator is designed to induce an alternating current based
on the generator effect (motion in a permanent magnetic field). Our mains
supply is an alternating current, and in the UK this has a frequency of 50 Hz.

The a.c. generator (alternator)

In an a.c. generator, turning the coil moves the wire through a magnetic
field. Only movement of the wire at right angles to the magnetic field lines
produces a voltage. The maximum, or peak, voltage is produced when the coil
is horizontal, and there is no induced voltage when the coil is upright. This
means that the voltage produced increases and decreases, reversing direction
halfway through each rotation as the wires on each side of the coil switch
between upward and downward motion. Look at Figure 6.15, (i) through (iv),
for examples showing the voltage induced at different coil positions.
(a) (b) y
axle
C B (ii)
N S
(iii)
(v)
(i)

D 2 A
(iv)

1 x
slip-rings

to oscilloscope Typical mistake

Using static diagrams
(c)
end view means it can be easy to
of coil A D A forget that the coil must be
magnetic A D D A moving for a voltage and
field
(ii) (iv) current to be generated.
D A D Even in the positions shown,
(i) (iii) (v)
a stationary coil will produce
Figure 6.15 For an a.c. generator (a), different voltages are produced (b) no voltage.
as the coil moves through different positions (c).

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 The size of the induced voltage
6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

The value given to describe an a.c. voltage is usually slightly less than the
peak voltage, to make up for the times when the voltage is closer to zero Exam tip
(see page 22 for more information). The induced voltage is greater when: If the coil is rotated faster,
l the coil rotates faster there are two effects. As
l the magnet is stronger well as an increase in the
l there are more turns of wire in the coil maximum voltage, the time
l the coil has a soft iron core at the centre. between each peak is also
reduced. This is measured
as an increase in the
frequency.

Producing power on a large scale

Almost all mains electricity is produced by large-scale devices based on
the principle of an a.c. generator (the only exception being solar cells).
When producing mains electricity a different method is used to provide
the movement of the turbines (see page 70 for more information).

a.c. output

stationary coil

turbine
N
turbine blades

S
steam

a.c. output: 25 000 V

boiler

thermal energy from coal burning

Figure 6.16 Electricity generation in a coal-fired power station

The magnet is on a rotating axle so that the output cables can be fixed Exam tip
in place. The burning coal boils the water and the steam then turns a Although the arrangement
turbine. This is what causes the axle and the magnets to turn, inducing a of components may seem
high voltage in the output wires. different from the small-
scale a.c. generator, the
Now test yourself important thing is that
the coils and magnets are
21 Why does an a.c. generator not need a split-ring commutator? moving relative to each
22 A student explains that doubling the rotation speed will double the other. Current is produced
peak voltage of an a.c. generator. What other change will occur? whether it is the coils or the
23 When is the largest voltage induced in the coil? You may wish to magnets that are moving.
use a sketch in your answer.

Answers on page 137

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 Transformers

6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

Changing fields and changing currents
Switching a current on or off in a solenoid causes a changing magnetic field.
If another coil of wire is close by, this changing magnetic field induces a
voltage in the wire (just as if a magnet was moving nearby). The induced
voltage occurs only while the magnetic field is changing, which happens
when the current is changing. A constant current causes a magnetic field, but
does not cause an induced voltage in the second solenoid.

Transformers
If two coils share an iron core, the changing magnetic field around the
first coil has a greater effect on the second. Energy is transferred between Transformer: Two coils of
the two coils even though they are not electrically connected. This wire on a soft iron core.
arrangement is called a transformer. Energy is transferred
between the primary and
In a transformer, there is a clear sequence of events involving secondary coils because
electromagnetism and induction: of electromagnetism and
1 The primary coil is connected to an alternating current supply. electromagnetic induction.
2 The changing current causes a changing magnetic field around the soft
iron core.
3 An alternating voltage is induced in the secondary coil because it is in a (a) soft iron core

changing magnetic field. secondary

coil 600
If the number of turns of wire on the secondary coil is greater than on the turns

primary coil, the output voltage will be increased. If there are fewer turns
on the secondary compared to the primary, the output voltage is decreased.
A step-up transformer is used to increase voltage for its transmission over
large distances of many kilometres. A step-down transformer might be primary coil
100 turns
used to reduce mains voltage for household devices.
Step-up transformer: A transformer with more turns on the (b)
secondary coil, so the secondary voltage is increased compared to the
primary voltage
Figure 6.17 (a) A step-up
Step-down transformer: A transformer with fewer turns on the
transformer and (b) the circuit
secondary coil, so the secondary voltage is decreased compared to the
symbol for a transformer
primary voltage

The ratio of the turns on the primary and secondary coils is the same as
the ratio of the voltages. For example, if the number of turns doubles, so
does the voltage.
input (primary) voltage input (primary) turns
=
output (secondary) voltage output (secondary) turns voltage, V, measured in volts
V P NP (V)
=
VS N S number of turns on the coil,
The subscripts P and S stand for primary and secondary. The primary coil N, which is a number with
is the input and the secondary coil is the output. no units

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 Example Exam tip
6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

An a.c. supply, 2 V, is connected to the input of a transformer with Sometimes the terms
100 turns on the primary coil and 600 turns on the secondary coil. primary or secondary are
What is the output or secondary voltage? used to identify coils and
values. Sometimes they are
Answer described as input or output
V P NP instead. If using symbols
= with subscripts, you may
VS NS
prefer to use 1 and 2 rather
N
VS   = S × VP than letters.
NP
600
VS = ×2
100

VS   = 6 × 2
Typical mistake
VS   = 12 V
Make sure your answers
don’t suggest or imply that
Exam tip
the primary and secondary
You might find this calculation easier to do using ratios, through coil are connected
looking for an easy multiple shared between the primary and electrically – they are two
secondary values. Make sure you check your answer, and remember separate circuits. It is the
that voltage and turns both increase for a step-up transformer, and electromagnetic effect that
both decrease for a step-down transformer. links them together.

Power in transformers
The power transferred by electricity is calculated using the current and
the voltage (see page 25 for more information). For a transformer that is voltage, V, measured in volts
100 % efficient the power transferred by the primary coil must be equal to (V)
the power transferred by the secondary coil. current, I, measured in
V P × I P = VS × I S amperes or amps (A)

Example
A step-up transformer increases the voltage from 2 V to 12 V. The
current in the primary coil is 1.8 A. What is the output or secondary
current?

Answer

VP × IP = VS × IS

V P × IP
IS =
VS
IS = 2 × 1.8
12
IS = 3.6
12
IS = 0.3 A

For a step-up transformer, the voltage increases and the current decreases.
For a step-down transformer, the voltage decreases and the current
increases.

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 The National Grid

6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

Step-up transformers are used to increase the voltage (and decrease the
current) before transmission over long distances. This is because a high
current would cause heating of the wires, and energy would be dissipated
to the surroundings instead of being transferred usefully. Step-down
transformers are then used to reduce the voltage so that it is safe (see
page 38 for more information).

grid network
25 000V 400 000V
electricity homes
generator
230 V

step-up transformer step-down transformer

Figure 6.18 The National Grid uses step-up and step-down transformers.

Revision activity
The ideas in this topic link many concepts, from forces and motion
to voltage and current. For each key idea, review how it relates to
electromagnetism. A mind map may be a good way to show the links
without too much writing.

Now test yourself

24 A step-down transformer in a local sub-station reduces the voltage from 11 500 V to 230 V. There are
5000 turns on the secondary coil. How many coils would be on the primary coil?
25 In a school lab, a transformer has 230 V supplying 0.2 A through the primary coil. The secondary
current is 2 A. What is the secondary voltage, assuming there is 100 % efficiency?
26 Why can’t transformers be used with direct current?

Answers on page 137

Summary
l Magnets have a north-seeking and a south- stronger when the current is higher, when there
seeking pole. Opposite poles attract and like are more turns of wire in the coil or if there is a
poles repel. soft iron core.
l Magnetic fields are shown with field lines that l A current-carrying wire experiences a force
point from north poles to south poles. The field in a permanent magnetic field and may move.
is strongest (and the force greatest) where the This is called the motor effect. The left-hand
lines are closest together. rule links the directions of current, magnetic
l When iron, nickel and cobalt (magnetically field and motion.
soft materials) are placed in a magnetic field l Motors are designed to rotate when current
magnetism is induced. Steel is magnetically flows in the coil. The speed will be higher if the
hard and once magnetised it becomes a current is higher, when there are more turns of
permanent magnet. wire in the coil or if the magnet is stronger.
l An electric current in a wire produces a l A wire moving at right angles in a magnetic
temporary magnetic field around it. The right- field, or in a changing magnetic field, will
hand grip rule predicts the direction of the have an induced voltage. This is called the
field. generator effect and is used to generate mains
l A coil of wire, called a solenoid, has a magnetic electricity. The induced voltage will be higher
field similar to that of a bar magnet. The field is if the motion is faster, when there are more

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 The input and output power will be the same on
6 Magnetism and electromagnetism

turns of wire in the coil or if there is a soft iron l

core. a transformer which is 100 % efficient.
l Transformers have a primary coil and a VP × IP = VS × IS
secondary coil which share a soft iron core.
l The National Grid uses step-up transformers
They increase or decrease the voltage
to increase voltage (for reduced energy
depending on the relative number of turns of
dissipation over long wires) and step-down
wire on each coil.
transformers to decrease voltage (for safe
V P NP consumption).
=
VS NS

Exam practice
1 Students are investigating data on the output from a coal-fired power station.
(a) Which of these is not used as a source of heat in a thermal power station? [1]
A oil C geothermal
B uranium D solar cell
(b) State what turns the turbine in this kind of power station. [1]
(c) The output voltage is shown in the figure below.

+20
potential difference in kV

time in s
0.02

–20

(i) Identify the time at which the coil is at right angles to the magnetic field. [1]
(ii) Describe how the oscilloscope trace would change if the turbines were spinning
twice as fast. [2]
(d) The voltage produced by the turbine is used as the input for a transformer connected to the
National Grid. Describe the type of transformer that would be used and give reasons for your
answer. [3]
2 A teacher is demonstrating the effects of magnets and electromagnets.
(a) The pattern in the figure below is demonstrated with two magnets and iron filings.

(i) Describe the poles of the magnets based on the pattern in the figure. [1]
(ii) Identify what kind of field exists between the magnets. [1]

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 6 Magnetism and electromagnetism
(b) State what force you would expect between the magnets in this position. [1]
(c) A solenoid is set up with a current flowing. Describe how the magnetic field lines could be
sketched using plotting compasses. [3]
(d) State how the field lines would be different if
(i) a soft iron core was placed at the centre of the solenoid [1]
(ii) the direction of the current was reversed. [2]
3 A transformer is used to decrease the voltage from 230 V for a bathroom shaver socket.
(a) There are 575 turns on the primary coil and 30 turns on the secondary coil. Show that the
secondary voltage is about 12 V. [3]
When a device that is plugged into the socket is working normally, the current flowing
through it is 0.45 A.
(b) (i) Calculate the current in the primary coil. [3]
(ii) What assumption have you made for this calculation? [1]
(c) Explain why transformers only work with an alternating current supply. [2]
4 Proton beam therapy uses positively charged particles travelling at high speed to kill cancer cells.
(a) A strong magnetic field is needed to deflect the particles so that they can be aimed. Give two
reasons why an electromagnet is better than a permanent magnet for this task. [2]
(b) Explain why the electromagnet is cooled with liquid nitrogen. [2]

N S

(c) (i) Using the above figure, state whether the protons are deflected in an upwards or downwards
direction. The arrow shows the original direction of the protons. [1]
(ii) Explain your answer. [1]
(d) Electrons have a negative charge and a smaller mass. Describe how the direction and size of
deflection would change. [2]
5 Students are investigating the design of an electric motor.

N
S

(a) Explain what will happen to the coil of wire as soon as the current is switched on. [3]
(b) (i) Identify component X. [1]
(ii) Explain how X allows the coil to turn continuously. [2]
(c) Suggest two changes to the circuit that would increase the speed of the motor. [2]

Answers and quick quizzes online

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 7 Radioactivity and particles

Atomic structure
Neutrons, protons and electrons
Each atom is made up of protons and neutrons that exist in a very
small nucleus, with electrons orbiting around it. Almost all the mass Proton: A subatomic particle
of an atom is in the nucleus, which is positively charged because of the with a +1 (positive) charge
protons there. Electrons have almost no mass and are negatively charged. and a relative mass of 1,
Neutrons are uncharged or neutral. found in the nucleus of an
atom
lithium atom
– Neutron: A subatomic
– particle with no charge and
a relative mass of 1, found in
+ the nucleus of an atom
KEY + +
+ proton Electron: A subatomic
– electron
particle with –1 (negative)
neutron – charge and a negligible
mass, found orbiting the
nucleus
Figure 7.1 Protons, neutrons and electrons in a lithium atom (Not to
scale)
Each atom is mostly empty space, with the nucleus around 10 000 times
smaller than the distance out to the orbiting electrons. Atoms have
neutral charge overall because they have equal numbers of protons and
electrons.

Ions
If an atom gains or loses electrons, the positive and negative charges are no
longer equal. This means the particle is now an ion. If it gained electrons it
will be a negative ion. If it lost electrons it will be a positive ion.

Particle: A single unit of a material which could be an atom, ion or

molecule. It is also used for parts of the atom (protons, neutrons
and electrons), and the products of nuclear decay emitted from the
nucleus (alpha, beta and neutrons).
Negative ion: An atom that has gained orbiting electrons and so has
an overall negative charge. These are shown by including a negative
value after the symbol (for example Cl–).
Positive ion: An atom that has lost orbiting electrons, and so has an
overall positive charge. They are shown with a positive value after the
symbol (for example Ca2+).

Exam tip
In chemistry, a positively charged ion is sometimes called a cation and
a negatively charged ion is an anion, because of the electrodes they
are attracted to.

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 Atomic and mass number

7 Radioactivity and particles

A chemical element is determined by the number of protons in the Exam tip
nucleus. This is called the atomic number or proton number. All atoms
of an element have the same number of protons. For example, all boron The elements in the Periodic
Table are listed in order of
atoms have five protons.
their proton number.
The number of neutrons in an element is not fixed, although some
combinations are more common than others. The mass number or
Atomic number or proton
nucleon number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the
number: The number of
nucleus (a nucleon is a proton or a neutron). For any single atom this must
protons in the nucleus of an
be a whole number, but the values given in the Periodic Table are averages. atom
By knowing the mass number and the atomic number for an atom, the
number of each type of subatomic particle can also be worked out. Mass number or nucleon
number: The total number
11B of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of the atom, and

5 the mass in relative units

● Atomic number = 5: this means there are 5 protons.

● Mass number = 11: this means there are 11 – 5 = 6 neutrons.
● For an atom the number of electrons and protons are equal: this means
there are 5 electrons.

Isotopes
Although every atom of an element has a fixed number of protons, the
number of neutrons is more variable. These different forms are chemically Typical mistake
identical but have different masses and are called isotopes. For example,
chlorine exists in two common stable isotopes (as well as in other unstable Take care with similar
ones which are much rarer) called chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. looking words when working
under pressure in an exam.

35Cl 37 Cl Mixing up neutron, nucleon

and nucleus will lose you

17 17    marks.

Revision activity Isotopes: Atoms of the same

Many of these ideas crossover to chemistry. Make summary notes element that have different
about the ideas here, perhaps with a column for differences in numbers of neutrons and so
language between the subjects. The numbers of protons and electrons different masses
are important in chemistry because of chemical bonding, while the
neutron number and the isotopes may be more relevant in physics.
Typical mistake
It is not just the rare or
Now test yourself unstable atoms that have
isotopes. For example, the
1 (a) How many protons and neutrons are there in the lithium atom three different types of
shown in Figure 7.1? carbon atoms – all with six
(b) What is its atomic number? protons but with varying
(c) What is its mass number? numbers of neutrons – are
2 Explain the difference between an ion and an isotope. isotopes.
3 A rare isotope of carbon is written as 146C. How is this different to the
more common isotope, which can be written as carbon-12?

Answers on page 137

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 Radioactivity
7 Radioactivity and particles

Nuclear decay
Most atoms are stable, with a nucleus that does not change. Some nuclei
are less stable and emit particles to become more stable. This is called Radioactivity: The
nuclear decay and the numbers of the subatomic particles in the nucleus emission of particles or
change during this process. Sometimes electromagnetic radiation is electromagnetic radiation
emitted as well. All these different emissions are called radioactivity. from a nucleus following
nuclear decay
Nuclear equations show what is present at the start and end of nuclear
decay, and are written so that the total masses and charges are the same
before and after the emission. There are four types of radioactive emission Exam tip
you need to understand and remember. These are: As there are different kinds
● alpha particles of emissions, it is best
● beta particles to be specific. The term
● gamma rays ‘radiation’ by itself may be
● neutron radiation. unhelpful as it can apply to
electromagnetic radiation,
which is not always emitted
Alpha particles from a nucleus.
Alpha particles are made up of two protons and two neutrons, the same
as a helium nucleus. They have a +2 charge and a mass of four. They
are usually only emitted from very heavy elements, and the nucleus left Alpha particle: Two protons
behind has two fewer protons and two fewer neutrons, so it becomes a and two neutrons, emitted
different element. This is called alpha decay. from an unstable nucleus;
written as 42 α or 42 He
U → 23490Th→+238
238 4
2UHe→ 23490Th 238
+92 U
4
→ 23490+
2 He Th + 42 He Alpha decay: The emission
92     92             
uranium nucleus thorium nucleus alpha particle of an alpha particle from an
(helium nucleus) unstable nucleus

Beta particles
Beta particle: Fast-moving
Beta particles are fast-moving electrons. They are emitted from a
electron, released by the
nucleus when a neutron changes into a proton (which stays) and an breakdown of a neutron in
electron (which does not). The nucleus left behind therefore has one an unstable nucleus to a
fewer neutron and one extra proton, but the mass change is too small proton and electron; written
to measure. The proton number of the nucleus increases by one, so it 0
as –10 β or –1 e
becomes a different element. This is called beta decay.
Beta decay: The emission
   14 C    →    + –10 e +     
N        14
6 C → 7 N + –1 e
of a beta particle from a
14 0
6 → 14 N + 140 eC →
7 –16
14
7
nucleus
carbon nucleus nitrogen nucleus beta particle (electron)

Gamma rays Gamma rays:

Gamma rays are sometimes emitted after a nucleus has emitted an alpha Electromagnetic radiation
or beta particle. These rays are a kind of electromagnetic radiation, not with a very short wavelength
a particle. They do not change the subatomic particles in the nucleus and a high frequency;
which is why this process is not always called decay (see page 49 for more written as γ
information about gamma rays).

Neutron radiation Neutrons: A rare form of

Neutrons are sometimes emitted from highly unstable nuclei. This means radioactivity which is highly
the mass number is reduced by one but it does not become a different dangerous; written as 01 n
element. Neutron radiation is highly dangerous but is also very rare.
   5    5 1         4 5         1
4
→
2 He → 2 He + 2 0He
n → 2 He 2 He+→
15 4
02nHe →+ 4201He
2 He n + 0n
helium 5 nucleus helium 4 nucleus       neutron

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 Ionisation

7 Radioactivity and particles

All four forms of radioactivity can be described as ionising radiation. This
means that when they collide with or are absorbed by materials they can Ionisation: The production
cause ionisation. The ions produced when the radiation is absorbed can of ions by radioactivity due
cause damage in living tissue including changes to DNA. These changes to the energy transferred
to living tissue are called mutations and can lead to cancer.
Some kinds of nuclear radiation are more ionising than others: Exam tip
● Alpha radiation is very strongly ionising. Make sure your answers
● Beta radiation has medium ionising power. do not suggest that it is
● Gamma radiation is weakly ionising. the charge of the particles
● Neutron radiation causes ionisation indirectly, by causing other atoms which causes ionisation.
to become unstable. The different kinds of
radioactivity are all ionising
Revision activity because they transfer
energy during collision or
A Venn diagram is a useful way to summarise the different kinds
absorption.
of radioactivity. Using this technique means you have to consider
the similarities and differences between each kind, and how these
characteristics affect their behaviour.

Now test yourself

4 Explain why an alpha particle is sometimes referred to as a ‘helium nucleus’ and sometimes as ‘2p+2n’.
5 Copy and complete the summary table for the different types of radioactivity.

Emitted
from Change in mass Change in
nucleus number atomic number
Alpha 2p + 2n
Beta 0
Gamma 0
Neutron
6 Which kind(s) of radioactivity:
(a) cause ionisation
(b) have no charge
(c) decay to leave a different element?
3
7  1H decays by emitting a beta particle. Write the nuclear decay equation to work out the proton and
mass numbers of the new nucleus.

Answers on page 137

The nature of alpha, beta and

gamma radiation
Detecting particles
Initially, the different kinds of nuclear radiation were described by their
effects. For example, they can be detected by their effect on photographic
film (the radiation has the same effect as visible light), or by their ionising
properties. A detector called a Geiger-Müller (GM) tube is used to
measure the ionisation of atoms in a gas caused by radiation, but it cannot
distinguish between the different types.

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 Required practical
7 Radioactivity and particles

Investigate the penetration powers of different types of radiation using

radioactive sources
Method
Alpha, beta and gamma sources can be used by a trained teacher in school. Neutron sources are too
dangerous for classroom use.
1 The teacher set up the Geiger-Müller tube, connected to a counter that recorded each detection.
Students stood at a safe distance.
2 In turn, each radioactive source was lifted with long tongs and pointed towards the GM tube.
3 The number of detections in a minute was recorded for each source, through air and through different
materials. Each measurement was repeated three times.
Although the pattern was clear, the exact number of detections varied. The average results were used to
compare the penetration power of each kind of nuclear radiation.

Results

+
alpha +
particles
+
+

–
beta
particles GM tube
gamma rays
sheet of paper 5 mm thick 5 mm thick 5 cm thick
aluminium lead lead

Figure 7.2 Penetration of alpha, beta and gamma radiation

l The alpha radiation was stopped by a sheet of paper or a few centimetres of air.
l The beta radiation went through the paper and did not decrease much over several metres of air. It
was stopped by a thin sheet of aluminium.
l The gamma radiation went through the paper and the aluminium and showed no change in air. It was
reduced by a thin layer of lead and stopped by a thick layer of lead.

Background radiation
We are all exposed to nuclear radiation from the environment. Some is
natural and some is caused as a result of human activity. The amount of Background radiation:
The nuclear radiation
background radiation in the area depends on the place. For example,
from natural and artificial
some radioactive rocks release radon over time, which can be inhaled if it
sources in our everyday
builds up in cellars or underground. People who live at altitude or spend a environment
lot of time f lying in planes are exposed to more cosmic rays. In most
places artificial sources, such as nuclear power stations or the remains of
Exam tip
nuclear weapons testing, only make up a very small amount of the
background radiation. Remember that background
radiation is an average,
People who work with radioactive materials, for example in nuclear and local areas might have
reactors or in some medical facilities, take extra precautions to reduce more or less. In Britain
their exposure. the biggest variable is the
underlying geology as some
rocks are more radioactive
than others.

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 Now test yourself

7 Radioactivity and particles

8 An unknown sample is tested with a Geiger-Müller tube. The count rate went down to nearly zero
when there was aluminium in between the source and detector, but was not affected by a piece of
paper. What was the source emitting?
9 Why might ‘airline pilot’ and ‘coal miner’ both be careers that involve exposure to nuclear radiation?
10 A factory makes smoke alarms using tiny amounts of an alpha radiation source. Why is it more
important for the staff to wear a face mask than to wear gloves while they work?
11 What material is used as shielding for radioactive samples in school?

Answers on page 137

Radioactive decay
Random process
Nuclear radiation is emitted when an unstable nucleus decays. This
process is predictable for a large sample. For single atoms, it is a random
process and impossible to predict.

Decay
On average, a sample emits less radiation over time. This is because when
an unstable atom decays it leaves behind a smaller sample of atoms that can
decay. The number of atoms that decay each second is called the activity and
is measured in becquerels (Bq). The higher the activity, the quicker the
unstable atoms decay and the faster the sample will stop being radioactive.

Activity: The number of atoms that decay each second. The more
unstable the isotope, the higher the activity will be. The count rate
of a Geiger-Müller tube is often used to estimate the activity, which
reduces over time for a sample.
Becquerels (Bq): The unit of activity and a way to describe how
much radiation a sample or source is emitting. Often units of milli-
becquerels (mBq) are used.

Measurement of half-life
If measurements of activity are recorded for a sample, a pattern can be
seen. For each different isotope there is a fixed amount of time during Half-life, t1 : The amount of
which the average activity is halved. This is called the half-life, tt 21 . For 2
time taken for the activity of
some isotopes, it takes millions of years. For others, it takes only seconds.
a sample, and the number of
The more stable an isotope, the longer the half-life will be. remaining unstable atoms,
As you have just read, after one half-life, however long that is for a radioactive to be halved. This should be
isotope, the activity will be halved. After two half-lives it will have halved measured in seconds, but
again, which means the activity will be a quarter of the original. The half- for very long half-lives it
life for an isotope is not affected by temperature or chemical reactions. may be given in other units
for convenience.

Typical mistake
Do not suggest that there are fewer atoms after nuclear decay. The
total number of atoms has not changed, but the number of unstable
atoms reduces over time, which is why the average activity decreases.

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 1800
Exam tip
7 Radioactivity and particles

A half-life is specific to the

activity in counts/min

isotope, not the element.

Carbon-12 is so stable the
half-life can be treated as
900 infinite. Carbon-11 has a
half-life of 20 minutes and
carbon-14 has a half-life of
5700 years.

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
time in hours

Figure 7.3 The radioactive decay curve for a substance with a half-life of
2 hours
If activity is plotted against time, lines can be drawn to show the half-life,
as shown in Figure 7.3.

Dating archaeological remains

All living things take in carbon from the environment, either as food or
as carbon dioxide. Some of this will be carbon-14. If the activity of an
historical sample that contains carbon can be measured and compared to a
similar modern sample, the reduction in activity can be used to tell us how
old it is.

Example
Revision activity
A sample of preserved wood has an activity one-eighth of the original
value (worked out by comparing it with a similar but modern sample). Make a list of some of the
How old is the sample? (Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years.) key words in this section and
check that you can recall the
Answer meaning of each one by testing
l After one half-life or 5700 years the activity will be half the original yourself daily. Mix up the order
value. to ensure it is the definition
l After two half-lives or 11 400 years the activity will be a quarter of you are learning and not just
the original value. remembering the order of
l After three half-lives or 17 100 years the activity will be an eighth of terms. As you become more
the original value. confident, pick two words at
random and explain how they
So the sample is around 17 100 years old.
could be related to each other.

Now test yourself

12 Two radioactive samples are tested by a teacher and have the same
activity of 2000 Bq. One has a half-life of 2 days, the other of 2 years.
Explain what you would expect to find in each sample when the
measurement is repeated 4 days later.
13 Will the half-life be large or small for a very unstable isotope?
14 How is the measured count rate for a sample different to the activity?

Answers on page 137

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 Uses of radioactive materials

7 Radioactivity and particles

Medicine
Because ionising radiation can kill living cells, it is used to sterilise
equipment. Intense gamma sources such as cobalt-60 are aimed at sealed
containers of surgical tools, dressings and syringes. This will kill any
micro-organisms, such as bacteria, without the complications associated
with heating or use of chemicals such as bleach.
There are two separate ways that radioactivity is used directly in medicine
– for diagnosis and treatment. As with sterilising equipment, cobalt-60 and
similar sources are used to deliberately kill living cells, in particular cancer
cells within the body. The dose and position of the emitted radiation is very
carefully planned, but some healthy cells are always affected and the side Tracer: A radioactive
effects can be unpleasant. This treatment is called radiotherapy. isotope, usually a gamma
emitter with a short half-
Many other conditions can be investigated with radioactivity, often in
life, that is used to detect
combination with X-ray imaging (see page 49 for more information), as a the position of leaks or
form of diagnosis. Because the emitted radiation can be detected outside the blockages in systems that
body, a chemically safe tracer is injected, inhaled or swallowed. Tracers with are hard to investigate.
short-half-lives are used, so the person only receives a low dose, but while These can include
radiation is being emitted the radiographer can use X-rays to tell how well the underground pipes or
target organ is working. For example, if radiation from an inhaled gas is only human body systems.
detected from one side of the chest it suggests there is a blockage in the lung.

Industry
Tracers are used in other settings apart from medicine, such as in industry.
For example, if a radioactive material is placed inside a container or pipe, a
Geiger-Müller tube can be used to detect increases in emitted radiation. This
will show where leaks are happening, even if they are too small to detect with
other methods. Again, it is important to use sources with a short half-life.

Irradiation and contamination

If a person is exposed to radiation from a radioactive source, they have
been irradiated. If the activity and penetration of this radiation is high, Irradiation: Exposure to
damage may be caused. However, as soon as the source is removed, the nuclear radiation. The
irradiation stops. In some medical treatments, carefully aimed irradiation, irradiation stops when
used in controlled amounts, is necessary despite the possible side effects. the source is removed or
blocked.
Accidental irradiation is a problem but rarely happens. If some of the
Contamination: When
radioactive source gets into a place where it is not wanted contamination
the source of radiation is
has happened. This is a kind of pollution. The rare cases of reactor found somewhere it is not
incidents have led to some contamination, both of the local area and then wanted, usually because
more widely as air and water carry the isotopes around the world. of an accident. This means
Contamination is particularly dangerous when some of the radioactive that people may be exposed
source gets into the body. This is hard to remove and so continues to to nuclear radiation,
sometimes without knowing.
irradiate living cells, leading to health problems or even death.

Revision activity
Review the practical method for measuring radioactivity and identify
the ways in which both irradiation and contamination are limited. Make
sure you can explain the precautions those working with radioactive
sources need to take to avoid accidental irradiation and contamination.

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7 Radioactivity and particles

15 Which part of the body might be under investigation in a patient who is asked to swallow a radioactive
tracer?
16 An engineer wants to check the thickness of aluminium foil in a factory, and so places a radioactive
isotope underneath the conveyer belt and a detector above. What kind of radioactive source would
work best and why?
17 It is thought an engineer might have accidentally inhaled some dust containing americium-241, which
is an alpha emitter. Why would it be hard to test to see if they are contaminated?

Answers on page 137

The hazards of radiation

The damage caused by radiation depends on the type of radiation, the
ionising power and how much of the radiation reaches the living cells.

Damage from different types of radiation

Alpha sources are not dangerous if they are outside the body because they are
stopped by air or the skin. If they get inside the body, for example by being
inhaled or swallowed, they can be highly dangerous. This is partly because
the radiation is strong enough to cause direct damage, colliding with cells
and destroying body tissue. Neutron radiation from nuclear reactors does this Mutation: Damage to the
too, but is penetrating enough to be damaging even from outside the body. DNA in a living cell. The
cell may either die or start
Alpha is also the most highly ionising form of radiation. This is a problem reproducing uncontrollably,
because it means alpha radiation is absorbed within short distance and ions which is known as cancer.
form inside the body damaging cells and DNA. This is called mutation and
can lead to cancer. Beta and gamma radiation are not so strongly ionising, so
they are absorbed more gradually, which means the damage is spread out. Exam tip
Gamma sources are dangerous, even though they are weakly ionising, If answering a question
because they always penetrate the body unless lead or concrete shielding about the effects of radiation
are in the way. on the body, make sure you
give clear links between the
The more radiation a person is exposed to, especially in a short time, the
properties of the radiation
more likely it is they will have harmful effects. Although small doses are to (ionising and penetration
be expected from background radiation, flights or medical scans, the risk of power) and the damage
damage is small. Other lifestyle factors such as smoking, diet, traffic fumes caused.
and exercise contribute much more to health problems than nuclear radiation.

Disposal of radioactive waste

The waste from nuclear power stations contains a mixture of isotopes with
a high activity (which makes them dangerous in the short term) and those
with a long half-life (which makes them dangerous for many decades).
The waste from these stations is only produced in small quantities but
the best storage methods and locations are highly debated. Usually waste
is sealed in containers that use concrete and steel to prevent leaks, and

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 then placed deep underground or at the bottom of the sea. Most scientists

7 Radioactivity and particles

believe this is the safest method available but not everybody agrees.

Now test yourself

18 Students are comparing the dangers of alpha and gamma radiation.
Give a way in which
(a) alpha is less dangerous than gamma
(b) alpha is more dangerous than gamma.
19 To reduce harmful risks, those who work with radiation regularly
use shielding. What material would be best for this shielding?
20 Explain why an isotope can’t have a high activity and a long half-life.

Answers on pages 137–8

Nuclear fission
Fission
During radioactive decay an unstable nucleus emits an alpha or beta particle,
leaving behind a more stable nucleus that is slightly different. For some large Nuclear fission: A kind of
nuclei the process leaves two roughly equal pieces, instead of emitting a nuclear decay when the
unstable nucleus divides
much smaller particle, called daughter nuclei. When this happens, it is called
roughly in half instead of
nuclear fission. For uranium this usually happens when a neutron hits the
emitting a much smaller
nucleus. The exact size of the nuclei produced varies and there may be two or particle. Only a few
three neutrons emitted. An example of this reaction is: elements undergo fission,
1 such as uranium and
0
n + 235
92
U→ 236
92
U → 13752Te + 97
40
Zr + 2 01 n plutonium, and it releases a
lot of energy.
slow neutron

235
92 U nucleus

236
92 Unucleus
unstable

137 97
52 Te 40 Zr

a variety of
fission
products
is possible

+ ENERGY
+ 2 fast neutrons

Figure 7.4 The fission of a uranium-235 nucleus

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 Nuclear energy
7 Radioactivity and particles

The daughter nuclei and neutrons created from fission have a lot of
Typical mistake
kinetic energy. A very careful measurement of the mass before and after
the reaction shows that mass has been converted to energy, and the When writing similar words,
amount can be calculated by using the most famous equation in physics: make sure your spelling
E = mc 2 (although you don’t need to know this for the exam). This is is clear. For example, you
what is meant by the nuclear store. should double check that
you have spelt ‘fission’
In the right conditions, these nuclei and neutrons will heat up other and ‘fusion’ correctly and
nearby atoms. This means the energy can be used to heat water for that you are using the right
steam, which then turns a turbine. This is similar to any coal-fired term in the right place. If
power station, but the fission of uranium produces far more energy than the spelling is somewhere
the combustion of coal or any other fossil fuel (see page 70 for more in between you may lose
information). Energy is also released during nuclear decay, but as well as a mark for something you
knew.
being a smaller amount than from fission, it is much less predictable and
harder to control.

Chain reaction
Nuclear fission of uranium is such an effective source of heat for a power
station because of the neutrons involved. Two or three are emitted when Chain reaction: When
the first nucleus splits. If at least one of these is absorbed by another neutrons from the fission
uranium-235 (U-235) nucleus, then that nucleus will split too, emitting of one uranium nucleus are
allowed to cause fission in
more neutrons. This is called a chain reaction, and more and more
more uranium nuclei, which
uranium atoms start to undergo fission, releasing more and more energy release more neutrons to
and neutrons. continue the process

fission 235
U
fragment
235
U

235U 235 235

U U

neutron 235
U

235
U

Figure 7.5 A chain reaction in uranium-235

If this process is controlled, by absorbing some of the neutrons in other
materials, a chain reaction produces a predictable and controllable amount
of heat. If all of the neutrons are allowed to continue the reaction without
being controlled, the result is an explosion. This science is the basis of
nuclear weapons.

Nuclear power stations

Rather than burning coal, a nuclear power station produces heat in
a nuclear reactor. Instead of boiling water directly, most use a hot Nuclear reactor: The heat
gas such as carbon dioxide which heats more predictably than water. source of a nuclear power
Around the reactor layers of concrete shielding absorb the dangerous station and where fission
happens in a controlled way
neutron radiation which would otherwise hurt the workers. Concrete is a
particularly good absorber of neutrons because it contains water.

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 Exam tip

7 Radioactivity and particles

The reactor is described as ‘gas-cooled’ because it is a gas, rather
than water, which is used to transfer heat from the reactor to the
steam which turns the turbines.

There are three materials inside the reactor which are used to make sure
the fission process happens at the right speed: Fuel rods: Enriched
● The fuel rods contain uranium-235 (U-235), which is the starting
uranium rods to supply
nuclei for fission
point for fission, along with uranium-238 (U-238) which is the most
common isotope of the element. Over time the uranium is used up, Moderator: Graphite that
one atom at a time, as it breaks down into daughter nuclei which are slows down neutrons so
themselves unstable. Eventually the fuel rods need to be replaced and they can be effectively
the old ones are processed as radioactive nuclear waste (see page 71). absorbed to continue the
● The fuel rods are thin, so that the fast-moving neutrons can escape and
chain reaction
travel through the moderator material, such as graphite. This slows Control rods: Rods made of
down the neutrons so that they can be absorbed by uranium-235 nuclei boron that absorb neutrons
in another fuel rod. As the neutrons slow down the gas is heated up. so they can’t carry on the
● The control rods are very important, because they stop the chain chain reaction
reaction. They are made of boron, which absorbs the neutrons so they
cannot cause more fission. They can be moved in or out of the gaps
between the fuel rods to adjust the speed of the chain reaction, or be
dropped in to stop it completely.
boron control rods

heat
exchanger

steam to
turbo-
hot gas generators

uranium
fuel rods
core

graphite
moderator
cold water

gas flow cold gas

pump
thick concrete shield
to absorb neutrons and
other radiations

Figure 7.6 A gas-cooled nuclear reactor.

Revision activity
This is a good point to review the links to the energy topic, including
comparisons with other power stations and the different kinds of
energy transfer that happen. Aim to include ideas from both topics in
your answers, showing an understanding of how the ideas are related.

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7 Radioactivity and particles

21 How are the nuclei of uranium-235 and uranium-238 different? Remember that the atomic number of
uranium is 92.
22 The energy released by the fission process starts in the nuclear store of the uranium atoms. Describe
the transfers that occur after that.
23 Explain the use of each of the following materials in a nuclear reactor:
(a) boron   (b) uranium   (c) concrete   (d) graphite.

Answers on page 138

Nuclear fusion
Energy is released when nuclei change to make a more stable
arrangement. With nuclear decay and fission large nuclei make smaller
ones. However, it is also possible for smaller atoms to join together to Nuclear fusion: The
make more stable larger ones. This process is called nuclear fusion. combination of two small
nuclei to make one large
3
1 H + 21 H → 42 He + 01 n + γ ray one, with the release of
When deuterium and tritium – isotopes of hydrogen – fuse together, energy energy as a result
is emitted from the new, more stable helium nucleus as gamma radiation.

Fusion at high temperatures

Nuclei are positively charged which means they are repelled by electrostatic
forces (see page 37 for more information). At low temperatures the particles
are moving slowly which means they do not have enough kinetic energy
to overcome this repulsive force. As the temperature increases, average Exam tip
speed and kinetic energy both increase and the nuclei get much closer when Remember that fusion
they collide. At very close range a special attractive force (called the strong is about what happens
nuclear force) overcomes the electrostatic repulsion and fusion can happen. between nuclei, not the
atoms. The nuclei are
The temperature needed to cause fusion is in the millions of kelvin. Nuclear
strongly positive which
fusion is the energy source of stars, starting with the fusion of hydrogen nuclei is why the repulsion is
to make helium. This happens at the core of the star where both temperature important even if the atoms
and pressure are high, making fusion more likely. Physicists are starting to are neutral overall.
understand how to make fusion happen on Earth, but so far it produces less
energy than is initially needed to maintain the high temperature and pressure.

Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion

Both nuclear fission and nuclear fusion are sources of energy, which is released
because of the mass change that happens when more stable nuclei are formed.
Table 7.1 compares the two processes.
Table 7.1 Comparing fission and fusion
Fission Fusion
Smaller nuclei from a large one Large nucleus from smaller ones
Caused by a neutron colliding with a large nucleus Caused by high temperatures and pressures making
small nuclei collide
Produces unstable daughter nuclei and neutrons Produces stable nuclei such as helium
which can cause a chain reaction
Products carry away kinetic energy Gamma radiation carries away energy
Controlled in a fission reactor and used to generate Not yet used for the generation of electricity
electricity

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 Now test yourself Revision activity

7 Radioactivity and particles

Being able to explain fission
24 Why is alpha emission more like fission than fusion?
and fusion clearly is very
25 What is the fuel for the main nuclear fusion process in our Sun?
important. Diagrams can be
a very good way to check your
(b) understanding, so practise
γ ray labelling and explaining the
processes, and using these
prompts to write descriptions
(a) tritium in clear paragraphs. For
3H
1 the equations, use sketches
of the nuclei at each stage
to show how the changes
happen.

(c)

Figure 7.7 Fusion of two hydrogen isotopes

26 Identify the particles (a), (b) and (c) in Figure 7.7.

Answers on page 138

Summary
l Atoms are made of protons and neutrons (in l Neutrons are sometimes emitted during
the nucleus) and electrons (orbiting). nuclear fission or fusion. They are stopped by
l The atomic or proton number of an element is water or concrete and are weakly ionising (no
the number of protons in the nucleus, which change to atomic number, mass number –1).
have a positive charge. l Nuclear radiation causes harm because of
l The mass, or nucleon number, is the total of ionisation, which damages living cells and can
the protons and neutrons found in the nucleus. cause mutations which lead to cancer.
l Electrons have a tiny mass and a negative charge. l Gamma radiation is used to kill cancerous
For an uncharged atom, the number of protons is cells in the body and to sterilise materials such
equal to the number of electrons. If electrons are as surgical instruments. Radioactive tracers
gained or lost the atom is called an ion. are used for diagnosis because the small
l Isotopes have the same number of protons (so amount of radiation they emit can be tracked
are the same element with the same chemical from outside the body.
reactions) but different numbers of neutrons l The higher the activity of a source, measured in
(so have different masses). becquerels (Bq), the shorter the half-life, t1 .
2
l Unstable atoms decay and emit one or more l Half-life is the amount of time taken for the
kinds of nuclear radiation. This is called activity and the number of unstable atoms to be
radioactivity and the composition of the reduced by half. Each isotope has a consistent
nucleus is changed in the process. value for the half-life, which can range from a
l An alpha particle is an emitted helium fraction of a second to millions of years.
nucleus. These particles are stopped by a few l Nuclear fission of large nuclei such as
centimetres of air or thin paper and are highly uranium releases large amounts of energy and
ionising (atomic number –2, mass number –4). neutrons which can continue a chain reaction.
l A beta particle is an electron emitted from the This can be controlled in nuclear reactors to
nucleus when a neutron decays into a proton. generate electricity.
They are stopped by a few millimetres of l Nuclear fusion of small nuclei releases large
aluminium and have medium ionising power amounts of energy and happens naturally in
(atomic number +1, no change to mass number). the Sun, producing larger and more stable
l A gamma ray is a form of electromagnetic nuclei. It only happens at high temperatures
radiation emitted after another nuclear decay. because the electrostatic repulsion of
They are stopped by lead or thick concrete positively charged nuclei can only be overcome
and are weakly ionising (no change to atomic by fast-moving particles.
number or mass number).

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 Exam practice
7 Radioactivity and particles

1 A radioactive source and a detector are set up in a school laboratory. Different materials are placed in
between the source and detector.

detector radioactive source

(a) State the name of the detector. [1]

(b) (i) The count rate detected does not change as distance x is increased from 1 cm to 1 m.
What type of radiation is not emitted? [1]
A alpha
B beta
C gamma
D neutrons
(ii) Explain how you can tell. [1]
(c) Different materials are placed in between the source and detector. The reading is halved
when a sheet of aluminium is used but close to zero if a sheet of lead is added. Explain
how this shows what is being emitted by the source. [4]
(d) State which material is often used as shielding for neutron radiation. [1]
12 14
2 Two isotopes of carbon are 6C and 6C.
(a) (i) State how the nuclei are similar. [1]
(ii) Identify the difference between the nuclei. [1]
14
(b) 6C is radioactive and decays to nitrogen as shown in the equation. Copy and complete
the equation to describe the decay fully. [4]
14 ? ?
6C → ?N + ?β
3 Radioactive isotopes have several different uses in medicine.
(a) Explain why a gamma emitter might be used to process surgical equipment. [2]
(b) A different gamma emitter with a short half-life is inhaled by a patient.
(i) Define half-life. [2]
(ii) Explain why is it important that an emitter which is taken into the body has a
short half-life. [1]
(c) The original activity of a gamma emitter was 200 Bq, and after 18 hours it was
measured as 25 Bq. Calculate the half-life. [2]
(d) The element that was used has an isotope with an even shorter half-life, but it is
an alpha emitter. Give two reasons why this would not be suitable. [2]
4 A scientist describes the reaction in a fission reaction as follows:
235 1 92 141
92U + 0 n → 36Kr + 56Ba + ? + energy

(a) Identify what the question mark in this equation represents. [2]
(b) Explain how a chain reaction is controlled in a fission reactor. You may draw a
diagram as part of your explanation. [6]

Answers and quick quizzes online

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 8 Astrophysics

Earth’s place in the Universe

Our planet, Earth, orbits a star we call the Sun. Earth is part of a solar
system that is made up of everything that orbits the Sun as a result of the
pull of gravity: planets and moons, dwarf planets, asteroids and comets.
Some planets are mainly solid while others are made up of gas. Lumps
of rock too small to be planets are called dwarf planets if they are
roughly spherical. Some of the planets in our solar system have one or
more moons orbiting them. Asteroids are the rocks that orbit the Sun in
between Mars and Jupiter. Comets are rocks that go around the Sun in
elongated elliptical orbits, so their distance to the Sun changes over time.
Our Sun is one of several hundred billion stars in a galaxy called the
Milky Way. A galaxy is a large group of billions of stars. The Milky Way
galaxy is one of many billions of galaxies in the Universe. This is what
we mean by the Universe – a large collection of billions of galaxies.

Now test yourself

1 (a) What object do the planets orbit around in our solar system?
(b) What might orbit around one of these planets?
2 If there are one hundred billion galaxies in the Universe and one
hundred billion stars in each galaxy, how many stars are there in
Exam tip
the Universe?
Remember, 1 billion = 1 × 109
Answers on page 138 or one thousand million.

Orbits
Gravitational field strength
Every object in the solar system has gravity. The force ‘down’ for 1 kg of
mass towards the centre of each object is called the gravitational field Gravitational field strength:
strength, g, and it is different for each object. On Earth g is about The strength of gravity on a
10 N/kg. We call the force caused by gravity ‘weight’. See page 8 for planet or moon, measured
more information. by finding the force down on
each kilogram. For some
Gravity happens because of mass. The larger the mass of an object,
objects, such as asteroids,
the higher the gravitational field strength will be. If two objects with
it may be so small that it is
a different radius have the same mass then the smaller one will have a hard to measure.
higher value for g at the surface.

The pull of gravity and orbits

Close to Earth, gravity causes objects to fall to the surface. Further from
the Earth – or further from any large body – gravity causes any objects

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 with mass to have an attractive force between them. This causes smaller
8 Astrophysics

masses to orbit larger ones. For example:

l artificial satellites orbit the Earth (and could orbit other planets)
l moons orbit planets and dwarf planets
l planets orbit the Sun.

In each case, the force of attraction causes the smaller mass to continuously
change direction and so it orbits the larger mass. Although the orbits are
actually elliptical (oval) they are close enough to a circle for most calculations.

Speed of orbits
A satellite in orbit around the Earth is following the path labelled B in S

Figure 8.1. If the satellite speeds up, the force of attraction is no longer A C
strong enough for it to change direction around the planet and it will
f ly off into space (path C). If it slows down, the change of direction will
bring it closer and closer to the planet until it falls to Earth (path A). A B
satellite can theoretically orbit a planet at any range, but the closer it is, Earth
the faster it must travel to be stable.
If an orbital path is treated as a circle, the orbital radius is the distance
to the centre and the distance travelled is the circumference. The time
taken for one complete orbit is called the time period, T. Planets orbiting
further from the Sun have a lower orbital speed and a larger time period. Figure 8.1 An artificial
2 × π × orbital radius satellite, S, is travelling
orbital speed = time period around the Earth.
2×π×r
v=
T orbital speed, v, measured in
Example metres per second (m/s)
How fast is the Earth orbiting if the distance to the Sun is orbital radius, r, measured in
150 million km on average? Take 1 year as 365 days.
metres (m)
Answer
2×π ×r time period, T, measured in
v= seconds (s)
T

v=
(
2 × π × 150 × 109 ) Exam tip
(365 × 24 × 60 × 60) It can really help to sketch
3 × π × 1011 the orbit for a question
v= like this, as you can then
31 536 000
label the radius and
circumference before
v = 29886 m/s or 30 km/s (2 s.f.)
attempting the maths.

Comets
Lumps of rock and ice called comets also orbit the Sun. The ice in these Revision activity
comets is melted by the Sun’s heat as they get closer and this produces
the cometary ‘tail’. Each comet is slightly different in time period and Sketch the solar system,
composition, but their behaviour is similar. Rather than nearly circular, concentrating on examples
of each object rather than
the orbits of comets are highly elliptical and they are only close to the
the details of names and
Sun for a small proportion of their journey. They travel fastest when they
numbers. Add comparisons of
are close to the Sun, because gravity causes more acceleration, then slow orbital speed and time period
down as they move further away. to your sketch and check that
you can explain the patterns.

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 Now test yourself

8 Astrophysics
3 The Earth’s Moon has a much smaller mass than the Earth. Will the
gravitational field strength on the Moon be more or less than that on
Earth?
4 Which will have a longer time period, Mercury (closest planet to the
Sun) or Neptune (furthest planet away)?
5 Ceres is the largest asteroid at a distance of 414 million km from the
Sun. The time period is equal to 4.6 Earth years. What is its orbital
speed?

Answers on page 138

Stellar evolution
Star temperature and colour
Stars emit different kinds of electromagnetic radiation, including visible
light. Stars can be described by their brightness, but this is only a measure Luminosity: The power of
of how much visible light can be detected here on Earth. Brightness is the energy emitted by a
not the same as the luminosity, which is a measure of how much energy star, in all directions and
across all wavelengths of
is emitted each second across all wavelengths, visible and otherwise.
electromagnetic radiation.
A star which is further away will seem less bright because less of the This is measured in watts (W).
radiation reaches us. The luminosity is how astrophysicists compare stars,
rather than the brightness.
A more useful description of a star is based on colour, which is related
to surface temperature. Red or orange stars are the coolest, while blue–
white or blue stars are the hottest. Our Sun has a surface temperature of
5800 K, in between these extremes, and is described as yellow–white.

Lifecycle of a star
The lifecycle of a star, from start to end, occurs over billions of years.
What happens at each stage will depend on various factors including the
size and mass, because this changes how gravity affects the nuclear fusion Nebula: A cloud of dust and
process. gas in space which slowly
collapses into itself because
The lifecycle starts in space where there is dust and gas, which are of gravity
individual atoms spread far apart. This collection of dust and gas is called
Protostar: A ball of gas
a nebula (from a word for cloud), because they look like clouds in the
which contracts due to
night sky. Gravity causes some of these particles to move together, first gravity and heats up due to
slowly, then more quickly, and when a central mass forms it is called pressure
a protostar. The weight of the outer layers continues to squeeze the
atoms closer together and so both pressure and temperature increase (see Main sequence star: A
stable gas sphere which
page 84 for more information). When the nuclei collide quickly enough,
has ongoing nuclear
nuclear fusion starts, turning hydrogen into helium, and what forms
fusion, releasing energy as
next is described as a main sequence star. Our Sun is currently about electromagnetic radiation in
halfway through its life and has around 5 billion years left as a stable main all directions
sequence star.

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 Revision activity
8 Astrophysics

cloud of dust
and gas (nebula) Copy out the flow chart
in Figure 8.2 and add as
much additional detail as
you can remember about
protostar the different types of stars.
Review any ideas you’re
stars much not sure about using your
stars about main sequence star more massive
the same than the Sun original notes, a video or
mass as animation, and then fill in
the Sun
any gaps. Repeat over a few
days until your recall is both
red giant red super giant
complete and fast.

white dwarf supernova

black dwarf neutron star black hole

Figure 8.2 The end stage of a star’s lifecycle depends on its mass. Red giant: A star that is fusing
helium to make heavier
elements up to oxygen
Stars about the size of the Sun
Stars like our Sun will eventually run out of the hydrogen atoms that fuel White dwarf: A star that is
the fusion process. This causes the pressure to drop, so the forces holding shrinking and is no longer
stable as nuclear fusion is
the surface away from the core decrease and the star collapses. This causes
stopping
the core temperature of the star to increase, even though the outer surface is
cooler, and the star increases in size again as new fusion processes turn helium Black dwarf: A star that has
into heavier elements such as carbon and oxygen. The star is now a red giant. completely stopped fusing
When the helium runs out, the core cools down again and the star shrinks to atoms and is no longer
become a white dwarf, which is smaller and has a hot surface. Over time this emitting heat or light
white dwarf cools and will eventually enter a black dwarf stage.

Stars with a mass much larger than the Sun Red super giant: A star that
is fusing helium and other
If a star has at least 10 times the mass of our Sun, the process is different. nuclei to make atoms as
As helium is fused to make heavier elements, the star forms a red super large as iron
giant. There is enough mass so that the higher gravity causes more
Supernova: An explosion
pressure, and so atoms as large as iron can be formed. Eventually, even
that sends out the outer
these huge stars start to run out of atoms for the fusion process. The core layers of a red super giant,
will then cool down and the surface collapses, but this happens so fast that leaving behind a dense core
the rapid crushing of the core causes the star to explode in a supernova.
This explosion scatters the outer layers out into space, with atoms larger Neutron star: A dense core
left behind after a supernova,
than iron that were formed during the explosion.
made up of neutrons
The core of the star is left behind after this supernova but it is now so Black hole: A collapsed mass
dense that even atoms cannot exist. Protons and electrons are crushed left behind after the largest
together to make neutrons, and this neutron star may only be a few stars explode in a supernova,
kilometres across. If the star originally had enough mass, the collapsing with such a strong gravity
nuclei will form a black hole, a microscopic point with such strong even light cannot escape
gravity that nothing nearby, not even light, can escape.

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 Now test yourself

8 Astrophysics
6 Why will our Sun never make iron atoms?
7 Why are black holes not visible, even with the most powerful
telescopes?
8 What is the difference between a protostar and a main sequence
star?

Answers on page 138

Brightness of stars and absolute

magnitude
Absolute magnitude
Historically, astronomers always described stars by their brightness. A Exam tip
first magnitude star was brighter than a second magnitude star, and so
on. The problem with this description is that the apparent brightness of a You are not expected to
know the value of this
star depends not only on how much light it is emitting, but also on how
range for brightness, or
close it is to us. Scientists now use the idea of absolute magnitude, which
how the units are worked
measures how bright the star would appear at a standard distance. The out. The important thing
standard distance chosen is 10 parsecs, or 32.6 light years. to know is that using the
By using a standard distance, comparing the absolute magnitude of two same range means the
stars is meaningful. A higher value means it is less bright, and the more values for different stars are
comparable.
negative the number the brighter a star would appear at the set distance.
As absolute magnitude decreases, the luminosity of the star increases.

brighter dimmer
Absolute magnitude: A
value showing how bright
a star would appear at a
−8 −6 −4 −2 0 +2 +4 +6 +8 +10 +12 +14
standard distance from
the observer. Stars with a
Rigel
−8.1

Canopus
−2.5

Arcturus
0.2

Procyon A
2.7
Sun
4.6
Cygni A
6.8

Barnard’s star
13.2

higher value than our Sun

(4.6) would appear dimmer,
if they were at the same
distance. Stars which are
very bright have a negative
Figure 8.3 Absolute magnitude allows stars to be compared as if they value for the absolute
were at the same range. magnitude.

Typical mistake
The scale for absolute magnitude is complex, so make sure you
explain clearly that a higher value for magnitude means a less bright
object to gain marks. Be particularly careful when comparing values
with opposite signs.

Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
As we have seen, the colour of a star gives information about its
temperature. This value is plotted on the horizontal axis. The absolute
magnitude of a star can be calculated to give information about the
luminosity and this is plotted on the vertical axis. This is the origin of
the Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram, which has been used for over a
century to describe stars in the Universe.

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 temperature in K
8 Astrophysics

50000 25000 11000 7500 6000 5000 3500 2500

–10
super giants

104
–5 main
sequence
stars giants

C
absolute magnitude

luminosity (Sun = 1)
102
0

B
1
+5
Sun

A
D 10–2
+10

white dwarfs

10–4
+15

Figure 8.4 The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram

If there was no link between luminosity and temperature, we would

expect the points to be scattered at random. Instead, different types of
stars tend to be in groups. Three of these areas are particularly interesting:
l Main sequence stars form a band or stripe diagonally across the
diagram. The brightest stars are also the hottest. Note that all these
stars are turning hydrogen into helium by nuclear fusion.
l Stars near the end of their lives, red giants and red super giants, are in
two linked groups at the top right of the diagram. These are bright,
but at a lower temperature than the equivalent main sequence stars.
Nuclear fusion is still happening but larger nuclei are forming.
l Stars in which nuclear fusion is stopping, but without a supernova, are
in the bottom left of the diagram. White dwarfs and similar objects are
very dim despite the high (and decreasing) temperature.

The Sun’s evolutionary path

Our closest star, the Sun, will change in the same way as similar sized Exam tip
stars. Points A to D show how it would appear on the diagram at different
The changes in the
stages in its lifecycle: temperature and behaviour
l in a bright but cool nebula (A)
of a star are sometimes
l currently halfway through 10 billion years as a main sequence called a lifecycle, and
star (B) sometimes ‘stellar evolution’.
l getting hotter and slightly dimmer as a red giant with fusion of Stars are not alive, but these
hydrogen to helium (C) terms are a useful way to
l collapsing into a white dwarf as fusion slows then stops (D). describe the predictable
pattern of changes.

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 Now test yourself Revision activity

8 Astrophysics
Practice making links
9 (a) W
 hat happens to the absolute magnitude of a main sequence between the descriptions
star as it becomes a red super giant? of a star’s luminosity and
(b) How does its position on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram temperature, as shown
change? on the HR diagram, and
10 Which is brighter, Procyon A with an absolute magnitude of 2.7, or the stage of its lifecycle.
Canopus with an absolute magnitude of –2.5? Focus on the measurable
11 What kind of value for absolute magnitude would you expect a and observable changes,
galaxy to have? Explain your answer. remembering that they are
12 Sketch the HR diagram, including labelled axes. seen over millions or billions
of years.
Answers on page 138

The evolution of the Universe

The Big Bang Theory
The current understanding of the beginning of the Universe is based on
a ‘Big Bang’ about 13.8 billion years ago. The cause of this explosion is
still disputed, but it is likely to have resulted in highly energetic particles
and gamma rays for the first fractions of a second, which then cooled to
produce protons, neutrons and electrons.

The first 30 minutes

Within around 30 minutes the temperature from the Big Bang would
have cooled to around 108 K. At this point, some nuclear fusion would
have occurred, producing deuterium and helium nuclei. The temperature
would have been too high for any electrons to orbit nuclei, so no atoms
would have formed and most mass would still be in the form of protons.

The first billion years

In the first billion years, the Universe continued to expand, which would
have cooled the matter down to a point where atoms could form, after
around 70 000 years. These atoms would originally have been hydrogen
and helium as no more fusion could have happened at first.
Gravity began to cause these atoms to be attracted to each other. This
would have formed clouds or nebulae, which in turn made more fusion
possible as stars and galaxies developed.

One billion years to now

The most distant objects in the Universe are galaxies that formed a few
billion years after the Big Bang. In comparison, our Sun is relatively
young and formed more than 9 billion years after the Big Bang (about
4.8 billion years ago).
In the billions of years in between the Big Bang and now, stars would
have lived and died, making heavier elements during fusion and
supernova explosions, which in turn produced new stars or planets. Most
of the atoms in your body – everything above helium in the Periodic
Table – were originally made by a star.

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 Now test yourself
8 Astrophysics

13 Which particle joins with a proton to make a deuterium nucleus?

14 Over billions of years the Universe has expanded and cooled. What
had to have happened to the nuclei for atoms to form?

Answers on page 138

The evidence for the Big Bang

Theory
There are two sets of observable data that support the Big Bang Theory.
This data does not prove that the theory is correct, but currently no
other model explains both of these data sets as fully as the Big Bang.

Cosmic microwave background (CMB)

radiation
Scientists have found that no matter where a telescope is pointed, it will
detect an electromagnetic signal with a wavelength of around 1 mm. This
signal is in the microwave band (see page 48 for more information) and
corresponds to a background temperature of 2.7 K. This figure matches
the temperature predicted for a Universe that has expanded and cooled.
As this wavelength is detected from space (cosmic), is between the radio
and infrared bands (microwave) and comes from everywhere at once
(background), it is called the cosmic microwave background (or CMB).

Red-shift
If the source of a wave is moving towards or away from an observer, the
detected wavelength will be different to the emitted wavelength. For
sound this difference is called the Doppler effect (see page 46 for more
information). This change also happens with electromagnetic waves, but
Red-shifted: An increase
the source has to be moving very quickly to make a measurable difference.
of wavelength of a detected
If the source of the electromagnetic wave is moving away, the wavelength electromagnetic wave
increases (and the frequency decreases). Visible light moves towards the compared to the source,
red end of the spectrum so it is said to be red-shifted. If the source is caused as it moves away
moving towards the observer, the wavelength decreases. The term blue- from the observer
shift is sometimes used for this.
Typical mistake
Stars do not give out every single wavelength of electromagnetic
radiation. There are ‘missing wavelengths’ of set values, which correspond The name red-shift can be
deceptive; it refers to what
to the properties of gases in the star. When electromagnetic signals from
will happen for visible light,
distant galaxies are detected, the positions of these gaps in the spectrum
which is shifted towards the
are different. Since 1929 the evidence obtained has told us: red end of the spectrum. A
1 The galaxies must be moving away from us, because the signal in the red part of the
electromagnetic waves are red-shifted. visible spectrum is shifted
2 The further away the galaxy, the faster it is moving, because the red- towards the infrared. The
shift is larger. rule to remember is that
3 Galaxies are moving away from us in all directions, because this effect wavelength always increases
is consistent no matter which galaxies are examined. for a receding object.

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 The only way to explain this is that all of the matter in the Universe

8 Astrophysics
is spreading out or expanding. At one point, all of the material in the
Universe must have been in the same position. When the speeds of the
galaxies are compared, we can calculate that all the particles started
spreading out nearly 14 billion years ago. This was the Big Bang.

Calculating the speed and distance of galaxies

Comparing the amount of red-shift with the reference or emitted
wavelength allows the velocity of the galaxy to be calculated:
observed wavelength, λ,
changeininwavelength
change wavelength velocity
velocityofofa agalaxy
galaxy measured in metres (m)
==
referencewavelength
reference wavelength speed
speedofoflight
light
reference (emitted)
wavelength, λ0, measured in
λ − λ0
= ∆λ = v metres (m)
λ0 λ0 c
change in wavelength, Δλ =
λ – λ0, measured in metres
Example (m)
A reference wavelength of 660 nm is shifted to 690 nm for a distant velocity of galaxy, v,
galaxy. How quickly is it moving away? measured in metres per
Answer
second (m/s)
speed of light in a vacuum, c,
λ − λ0 ∆λ v which is 3 × 108 m/s
= =
λ0 λ0 c

Exam tip
690 − 660 v
=
660 3 × 108 This equation shows why
the effect is not easily
measurable with moving
3 × 108 × 30 objects on Earth, as the
v=
660 speed will always be a tiny
fraction of the speed of light.
9 × 109
v=
660

v = 1.4 × 107 m/s (2 s.f.)

The astronomer Edwin Hubble showed that for closer galaxies, the
distance was approximately proportional to the speed. Later work showed
that this was true even for more distant galaxies, so working out the
speed of a galaxy from its red-shift lets us work out the distance.

Now test yourself

15 Why can we not detect red-shift in the light from the Sun?
16 A galaxy is moving away from us at 1.2 × 107 m/s. Calculate the wavelength change for a reference
signal at 550 nm.
17 Explain each part of the term ‘cosmic microwave background radiation’.

Answers on page 138

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 Summary
8 Astrophysics

l The solar system contains planets, dwarf planets, l Stars change during their lifetime and go
comets and asteroids orbiting a star, our Sun. through distinct stages.
l Galaxies, like our Milky Way, contain billions of l The position of stars on the Hertzsprung-
stars. The Universe contains many billions of Russell diagram shows how luminosity and
galaxies. surface temperature are related.
l Gravitational field strength varies depending l Observations of the cosmic microwave
on the size of the object, and is the cause of background radiation and red-shift of light
moons orbiting planets and planets orbiting from galaxies support the theory of the
stars. Orbital speed is calculated by: Universe starting 13.8 billion years ago in the
Big Bang.
2×π ×r
v= l Measuring red-shift allows the calculation of
T the speed of a light source by:
l Stars are classified by colour which describes λ − λ0 ∆λ v
the surface temperature from blue-white = =
(above 10 000 K) to red (less than 3500 K). λ0 λ0 c

Exam practice
1 Nuclear fusion is important in several astrophysical processes.
(a) Explain how deuterium nuclei might have formed in the early Universe. [2]
(b) Explain what causes nuclear fusion to start when a main sequence star is formed from a
protostar. [2]
(c) Describe how nuclear fusion in a red giant is different to that in a main sequence star like
our Sun.  [2]
(d) Explain what happens to the energy produced by nuclear fusion in a star. [2]

2 Phobos is a moon of the planet Mars.

(a) Define a ‘moon’. [2]
(b) Phobos has an orbital speed of 2.1 km/s and a time period of 460 minutes. Calculate the
orbital radius. [3]
(c) Phobos is small with a mass much lower than that of Mars. Identify which object would have the
strongest gravity of the two. Explain your answer. [2]

3 Astronomers observe large stars that are described as red giants and red super giants.
(a) Explain the difference between a red giant and a red super giant. Include a description of how the
end result of stellar evolution will be different for each of them. [6]
(b) Uranium is naturally present on Earth. Explain what this suggests about how the Earth formed. [3]

4 The cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation and galactic red-shift are evidence for the Big Bang.
(a) (i) Define the term cosmic microwave background radiation. [3]
(ii) Suggest how the wavelength of the CMB radiation will change over the next billion years. [1]
(b) Red-shift causes: [1]
A wavelength to increase, frequency to increase
B wavelength to decrease, frequency to increase
C wavelength to decrease, frequency to decrease
D wavelength to increase, frequency to decrease.
(c) A galaxy has a speed of 1.5 × 107 m/s. Calculate the effect on a reference wavelength of 450 nm,
given that c = 3 × 108 m/s. [3]

Answers and quick quizzes online

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 Now test yourself answers

1 Forces and motion time taken =

−3
−2
distance travelled time taken = 1.5 s
1 speed =
time taken
1000 − 400 8 (a) v 2 = u 2 + 2 × a × s
speed =
100 − 70 v 2 − u2 = 2 × a × s
speed =
600
s=
( )
v 2 − u2
30
2×a
speed = 20 m/s
(b) v = u + 2as becomes v 2 = 2as then becomes
2 2

2 average speed = total distance travelled v = (2as )

time taken
9 v = u2 + 2as becomes v 2 = 2as then becomes
2

average speed = 1000 v = (2as )

100
average speed = 10 m/s v= (2 × 2 × 100)
3 The average speed includes the time when the v= ( 400)
car was moving more slowly or was stopped.
v = 20 m/s
4 average speed = total distance travelled 10 (a) initial speed = distance final speed = distance
time taken time time
average speed = 10 000 initial speed =
0.1 final speed = 0.1
3600 0.1 0.2
average speed = 2.8 m/s (to 1 d.p.) initial speed = 1m/s final speed = 0.5 m/s
change in velocity (b) There is no value given for the time between
5 (a) acceleration = the two speed measurements, so acceleration
time taken
cannot be calculated. It is possible to say it is
+15
acceleration = decelerating, because v < u.
3
acceleration = + 5 m/s2 11 Thrust should be labelled 900 N and the 700 N
arrow should be labelled drag or air resistance.
change in velocity
(b) acceleration = 12 The ball is pushed which increases the speed. It
time taken will then slow down because of friction and/or
−12 air resistance. The wall exerts a force to change
acceleration =
6 the shape, compressing it temporarily. When it
acceleration = − 2 m/s2 returns to the original shape, this exerts a force
6 16
on the wall to change the direction of motion.
13 (a) 300 N forwards or to the right, causes
14
acceleration (forwards or to the right)
12
(b) Balanced or zero force, no effect on movement
velocity in m/s

10
(c) 2000 N backwards or to the left, causes
8 deceleration (or acceleration backwards)
6 14 If the engine stops working the force acting
4 forwards becomes zero. There are still forces
2 acting to resist motion, for example air resistance.
The forces are no longer in balance so there will
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 be a change in speed, in this case deceleration.
time in s 15 F = m × a

7 acceleration = change in velocity a=F

m
time taken 40 000
change in velocity a=
time taken = 200 000
acceleration a = 0.2 m/s2

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 16 (a) W = m × g       (c) W = m × g 28 m1 × v 1 = m2 × v 2
Now test yourself answers

W = 900 × 10       W = 900 × 4    m1 × v 1

v2 =
W = 9000 N or 9 kN      W = 3600 N or 3.6 kN m2
(b) Mass is the same,
v 2 = 45 × 3
  
so 900 kg 50
17 The skydiver with an open parachute has the     v 2 = 2.7 m/s
lowest terminal velocity. This is important 29 60 N (in the opposite direction)
because the speed needs to be low enough that
30 M = F × d
landing is survivable.
18 thinking distance = speed × reaction time d =M
F
thinking distance = 20 × 0.9
d = 750
thinking distance = 18 m 300
19 The total stopping distance is increased. This is d = 2.5 m
because ice on the road reduces friction between 31 They are incorrect. The maximum load will
the road and the tyres which increases braking be halved when the distance is doubled (to
distance. 32.5 tonnes). It is inversely, not directly,
20 From 5 cm to 7 cm is an extension of 2 cm. If the proportional, because it is the turning moment
force is doubled, so is the extension, so 4 cm. which matters.
21 (a) F = k × e        (b) F = k × e 32 The newton metre (Nm)
F 33 In equilibrium so clockwise and anti-clockwise
k = F           e = turning moments must be equal:
e k
k = 4         e = 1000 F1 × d1 = F2 × d 2
0.02 200
F1 × d1
k = 200 N/m       e = 5 m    F2 =
d2
(c) In practice, the spring would probably 4000 × 12
undergo plastic (non-proportional)    F2 =
2
deformation and break long before this point.
   F2 = 24000 N or 24 kN
22 Elastic deformation is temporary and the object
will return to the original size and shape once 34 Half each so 7.5 kN
the force is removed. An object which has been
plastically deformed will not.
2 Electricity
23 p = m × v
p = 0.06 × 20 1 (a) 3 × 1.5 = 4.5 V (b) The bulb would be brighter.
p = 1.2 kg m/s 2 There could be a spark and you might receive an
24 Momentum is a vector quantity as it has direction electric shock.
as well as magnitude (size). 3 Voltage
25 (a) ∆p = m × ∆v (b) There is no time given 4 250 mA = 0.25 A
∆p = 65 × 3 for the change in
5 Any three of: earth connection, fuse, cord grip,
∆p = +195 kg m/s velocity.
plastic insulaton
26 F = ∆mv 6 Greater numbers of cycles
t
7 Any two of: gives a more precise value; it’s faster
80 × 25
F = at cutting current; faster to replace easy to reset
0.4
once the problem is solved and the current is
F = 5000 N or 5 kN back to a safe level; can be set to any value, not
27 All momentum is transferred to the first from just common ones such as a 13 A fuse.
the second trolley:
8 Current, I, is measured in amperes or amps (A)
m1 × v 1 = m2 × v 2
9 (a) P = I × V        (b) E = P × t
   m2 × v 2 P = 0.5 × 12        E = 6 × 300
v1 =
m1
P = 6 W         E = 1800 J or 1.8 kJ
   v 1 = 1 × 0.8
2
   v 1 = 0.4 m/s

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 E
10 P = I = 36

Now test yourself answers

t 60
400 I = 0.6 A
P =
60
24 (a) Parallel
P = 6.7 W (to 1 d.p.)
(b) If the lights were in series, they could either
11 I = P be all on or all off, not a mixture.
V
25 (a) 3 A           (b) 2 + 2 + 2 = 6 A
I = 1800 (c) 2 + 1.5 = 3.5 A
230
I = 7.8 A (to 1 d.p.) 26 (a) 12 V         (b) 12 V
12 (a) (Open) switch      (b) Ammeter 27 (a) 1.5 V         (b) 3 V
(c) Variable resistor     (d) Lamp (c) Current through the 15 Ω resistor:
13 (a) Current decreases   (b) Current decreases I =V
(c) Current increases R

14 The other lamp goes out if one breaks. I= 3

15
15 An ammeter is connected in series, as part of the I = 0.2 A
main loop. The two connections of the voltmeter
(d) Resistance of the lamp:
are placed either side of the component being
measured, in parallel. R =V
I
16 Resistance, R, measured in ohms (Ω)
R= 3
17 R = V 0.25
I
R = 12 Ω
12
R = (e) Ammeter reading = 0.2 + 0.25 = 0.45 A
0.4
R = 30 Ω 28 (a) Negative
18 (a) Circuit symbol for a filament lamp (b) The sign is the same
29 (a) The electrons are free to move even though
the atoms themselves are fixed. It is the
movement of electrons that makes up the
(b) Horizontal axis labelled voltage/V and vertical current in a metal wire.
axis labelled current/I. Line through origin, (b) In plastic and other insulators the electrons
steep at low voltages then flattening out as are not able to move away from the nuclei, so
voltage increases. no current can flow.
I
30 As the fuel is pumped on to the plane, friction
makes it charged. If this charge builds up it could
cause a spark and set the fuel/plane on fire.
The cable allows the charge to flow back so it is
balanced and there is no spark.
31 (a) The particles will all be positivey charged, so
they will repel each other and spread out.
V (b) A negative charge so they attract the soot
19 R = 4 + 8 + 6 = 18 Ω
20 (a) Charge, Q, is measured in coulombs (C).
(b) A volt means one joule is transferred for each
3 Waves
coulomb of charge. 1 (a) Hertz (Hz)
21 Electrons, which are negatively charged (b) T = 1
f
22 (a) Q = I × t
        (b) E = Q × V f = 1
Q = 0.043 × 120       E = 5.16 × 2.4 T
Q = 5.16 C         E = 12.4 J (to 1 d.p.) f = 1
0.02
23 Q = I × t
f = 50 Hz
I =Q
t

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 2 A longitudinal wave
Now test yourself answers

3 v =f ×λ speed of light in air

speed of light in the material =
refractive index
f =v 3 × 108
λ speed of light in the material =
2.42
330
f = speed of light in the material = 1.24 × 108 m /s
0.2
f = 1650 Hz 19 (a) The critical angle is the lowest angle of
4 When a wave meets a surface, the angles are incidence when all light is reflected, none
measured from the normal to that surface. refracted.
5 28 cm/8 peaks = 3.5 cm (b) 42°
1
6 The pitch will be high as it approaches then get 20 sinc =
n
lower (deeper) as it moves away.
1
7 (a) Wavelength has decreased/is less    n =
sinc
(b) Refraction 1
   n =
8 (a) Radio, micro, IR, visible sin49
(b) UV, X-ray, gamma       (c) IR, visible    n = 1.33
9 (a) 350 nm = 3.5 × 10 –7 m 21 Light is much more likely to be reflected than
c refracted through the surfaces, which is part of
(b) f = the reason why diamonds sparkle.
λ
3 × 108 22 The light crosses each boundary at a right angle.
f =
3.5 × 10−7 Refraction only happens when light enters or
leaves a material at an angle to the normal.
f = 8.6 × 1014 Hz (to 2 s.f.)
10 Blue 23 (a) v = f × λ (b) 40 × 60 = 2400 times in a minute
11 Sunburn is caused by ultraviolet (UV), which is v
  λ =
part of sunlight all year round. UV light reflects f
off the snow making skiers more susceptible to   λ = 330
sunburn. 40
12 normal   λ = 8.25 m
reflected ray 24 Push and pull on the end to cause compressions
and decompressions (rarefactions)
incident ray
25 They said frequency when they meant amplitude
30° 30° (for loudness).
26 The x-gain (horizontal)
mirror
27 (a) Higher peaks/lower troughs
(b) Narrower waveforms, more visible at one time
13 90° or right angle 1
14 85° 28 T =
f
15 Less
T = 1
16 Ray boxes get very hot in use so be careful when 600
moving them to avoid burns. T = 1.67 ms
sin i So each wave form will be one third of a
17   n =
sin r centimetre.
sin i
sin r =
n
4 Energy resources and energy
sin30
sin r =
1.5 transfer
0.5
sin r = 1 (a) Gravitational store    (b) Thermal store
1.5
r = sin 0.33−1 (c) Elastic store       (d) Kinetic store
r = 19.5° (1 d.p.) 2 (a) 28 000 J         (b) 4 300 000 J
speed of light in air (c) 910 J          (d) 76 500 000 J
18 refractive index = useful energy output
speed of light in the material
3 efficiency =
total energy input

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 4 1
× 0.06 × (20)
2
KE =

Now test yourself answers

2
1
KE = × 0.06 × 400
2
KE = 12 J
hot air cool air 16 GPE = m × g × h
GPE = 75 × 10 × 12
GPE = 9000 J or 9 kJ

land water 17 P = W
t
W
 t =
P
5 The rate of transfer of energy depends on m×g ×h
several factors, one of which is the temperature t =
P
difference. On a cold day the difference in
10 × 10 × 8
temperature between inside and outside is t =
40
greater so the transfer will be faster.
800
6 Metals like copper have free electrons which t =
40
make them good thermal conductors.
t = 20 s
7 The marble will fall off before the one on the
1 2
shiny surface but after the one on the black 18 m × g × h = 2 × m × v
surface (between 34 and 53 seconds, based on
the sample results given). This is because the       v 2 = 2 × g × h
grey surface is a better absorber than the shiny 2
      v = 2 × 10 × 12
one but not as good as the black one. 2
      v = 240
8 Infrared or IR
       v = 240
9 The snow under the black sheet will melt faster
than the snow under the white sheet. This is        v = 15.5 m/s (to 1 d.p.)
because the black sheet absorbs more of the NB: the mass is irrelevant as it cancels out when
thermal radiation on it so gets warmer. you rearrange.
10 To make them better emitters (and so cool down W
the contents) 19 P =
t
work done W W =P ×t
11 (a) distance = or d =
force F W = 2700 × (5 × 60)
(b) force = work done or F = W W = 2700 × 300
distance d
W = 810000 J or 810 kJ or 0.81 MJ
W
12 F = 20 There are no fuel costs for solar power but the
d
installation costs of the solar cells are high.
F = 80 21 Erratic supply, noise and appearance
4
F = 20 N 22 The fuel used in nuclear power stations will run
out eventually, even though there is currently no
W shortage.
13 d =
F
240
d =
32 5 Solids, liquids and gases
d = 7.5 m
1 Gravel is denser so an equal volume has more
14 (a) Energy is transferred electrically (by a
mass.
current) from the chemical store of the m
battery to the thermal store of the filament. 2   ρ = V
(b) Energy is transferred by conduction and by both m = ρ ×V
visible and IR radiation from the thermal store
of the filament to the thermal store of the room. m = 8000 × (0.06 × 0.1 × 0.06)
1 m = 8000 × 0.00036
15 KE = × m × v 2
2
m = 2.88 kg

Edexcel International GCSE (9–1) Physics 135

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 3 Ethanol: m = ρ × V 18 (a) 273 − 196 = 77 K
Now test yourself answers

m = 0.789 × 40 (b) Melting point of water/ice: 273 K. Boiling point

m = 31.56 g of water/steam: 373 K
Water: m = ρ × V 19 The gas that is left is now at a lower pressure in
m = 1 × 60 the same volume. The particles have less kinetic
m = 60 g energy so the temperature is lower.
Total mass is 91.56 g (or 92 g to 2 s.f.) 20 Volume
4 (a) F = P × A
(b) F = P × A 6 Magnetism and
F = 400 000 × 0.0012
electromagnetism
F = 480 N
5 The area of the fingertips is smaller than the area of 1 (a) Attract    (b) No effect    (c) No effect
the palm, so the same force (weight) causes a larger (d) Attract south pole, repel north pole
pressure and that makes the press-up harder. 2 (a)
weak magnetic field
6 Polar bears and camels walk on soft ground
(snow and sand, respectively). The large area of
their feet makes it less likely they will sink in.
7 The pressure is greater at the bottom so the force N S strong magnetic field
acting to push the water out of the hole is larger.
8 The pressure is the same on all sides so we do
not notice any overall effect.
9 (a) P = h × ρ × g

h= P (b) The lines would be closer together

ρ×g
3 (a)
100000
h=
1025 × 10
h = 9.8 m (2 s.f.)
N S
(b) The total pressure must also include the air
pressure, which has an average sea-level
value of 100 kPa.
10 (a) Freezing (or solidifying)
(b) Condensing or condensation (b) The poles must be opposites.
(c) Deposition 4 A permanent magnet always has a magnetic field
11 The flat line would be at 0 °C because this is around it; an induced magnet only has a magnetic
where the ice melts (i.e. changes state). While it field when it is within another field or touching
is melting there is no temperature change. another magnet.
12 The particles in a solid vibrate. This means they 5 The two pins have been magnetised and their
are moving back and forth around a fixed point. induced poles are the same, so they repel.
13 The gaps become much smaller. 6 A magnetically soft material is used to make an
14 Copper electromagnet, so it can be turned on and off.
15 ∆Q = m × c × ∆T 7 At the ends (or in the centre)
∆Q = 0.15 × 4200 × 40 8 Arrow on a line: shows the direction of
∆Q = 25 200J or 25.2 kJ conventional current, from positive to negative
16 (a) The measured temperature change would be Circle with a cross: shows the current going into
smaller the paper
(b) The calculated specific heat capacity would Circle with a dot: shows the current coming out of
be greater (and less accurate) the paper
17 The pressure of the gas increases when it is 9 The right-hand grip rule (thumb pointed down to
warmer so there will be a greater force on the match the arrows for the current) shows that the
inside of the tyre. field lines will point clockwise.

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 10 (a) More turns of wire in the coil, or add a soft 26 There is only an induced voltage on the secondary

Now test yourself answers

iron core coil when the magnetic field is changing. This only
(b) Test how many paperclips or pins it can hold, happens when the primary current is changing, so
or the maximum distance at which it affects a an alternating supply is needed.
compass
11 It will spin faster. 7 Radioactivity and particles
12 First finger for the magnetic Field, seCond finger
for Current, ThuMb for Thrust/Motion 1 (a) 3 protons, 4 neutrons   (b) 3     (c) 7
13 From east/west or at right angles to north/south 2 Ions have lost or gained electrons in the orbits
14 The opposite force acts on the permanent around the nucleus. Isotopes are atoms with
magnet, but because this is (probably) much, a different number of neutrons but the same
heavier the motion is much smaller. number of protons.
15 Nothing; when the coils are vertical there is no 3 It has 2 more neutrons and/or has a larger
force. mass.
16 The motor turning faster might have more turns 4 An alpha particle is made up of 2 protons and 2
on the coil, so the force is greater. (It could also neutrons, which is the same as a helium nucleus.
be because of less friction, but the question 5
Emitted Change Change
specifies the motor effect.) from in mass in atomic
17 The alternating current will have a greater value nucleus number number
but a lower frequency.
Alpha 2p + 2n –4 –2
18 The same, 0.24 V. Do not accept –0.24 V.
Beta Electron 0 +1
19 (a) Higher voltage
Gamma EM wave 0 0
(b) Same voltage, opposite direction or sign
(c) Lower voltage Neutron Neutron 0 –1
20 There will be no induced voltage because the 6 (a) All of them: alpha, beta, gamma, neutron
solenoid is not in a changing magnetic field. (b) Gamma, neutron    (c) Alpha, beta
21 The changing direction of the magnetic field is 7 31H → –10β + 32He
what makes the induced voltage alternate. If a 8 Beta
split-ring commutator or similar was used, the
output would be a direct current. 9 Airline pilots will have a higher exposure to
cosmic rays, coal miners might be exposed to
22 The frequency of the a.c. will also be doubled. more radioactive rocks and/or radon.
23 The largest voltage is induced when the coil is 10 Alpha radiation can’t get through the skin but if
horizontal, because this is when the wires on swallowed or inhaled it can cause a lot of damage.
each side are moving vertically the fastest.
11 Lead
V N
24 P = P 12 The sample with a short half-life would have a
Vs N s
new activity of around 500 Bq. The sample with
VP the long half-life has probably not changed.
NP = N s ×
Vs
13 Small
11500 14 Activity includes emissions which are not
NP = 5000 ×
230 detected in the count rate.
NP = 5000 × 50 15 The digestive system
NP = 250 000 turns 16 A beta source; no matter how thick the
25 VP × IP = Vs × I s aluminium, it would stop all alpha particles and
no gamma rays. Only the amount of detected
VP × IP beta radiation would change depending on the
Vs =
Is thickness of the aluminium.
230 × 0.2 17 The human body would absorb all the alpha
Vs = radiation before it could be detected outside the
2
46 body. The solution would be to test around the
Vs = mouth, and hope for a negative result.
2
Vs = 23 V 18 (a) Alpha is less dangerous than gamma because
it is blocked by the skin and has a short range
in air.

Edexcel International GCSE (9–1) Physics 137

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 (b) Alpha is more dangerous than gamma 7 Light cannot escape from a black hole, which is
Now test yourself answers

because it causes direct damage to cells and why they’re described as ‘black’.
is strongly ionising, which means lots of ions 8 In a protostar the pressure and temperature
to damage DNA. at the core are increasing, but not enough for
19 Lead or concrete fusion to start. Once it does, the object is a (main
20 If an isotope has a high activity this means the sequence) star.
unstable atoms are decaying quickly. This is the 9 (a) The absolute magnitude of a main sequence star
opposite to a long half-life, which is when the increases when it becomes a red super giant.
atoms are more stable. (b) The position on the Hertzsprung-Russell
21 Both isotopes have 92 protons. U-235 nuclei diagram moves up and right, diagonally.
have 143 neutrons and U-238 nuclei have 10 Canopus (absolute magnitude of –2.5) is brighter
146 neutrons. (the value might be less but negative magnitudes
22 Nuclear store (of uranium atom) to kinetic store are brighter).
(of fission products) to thermal store (of graphite 11 A galaxy would have a strongly negative absolute
and gas) to thermal store (of water/steam) to magnitude, because this is calculated as if it
kinetic store (of turbines) then transferred by were relatively close.
electrical pathway.
12 temperature in K
23 (a) Boron is used in the control rods to absorb 50000 25000 11000 7500 6000 5000 3500 2500
neutrons and stop the chain reaction. –10
super giants
(b) Uranium is used in the fuel rods to provide the
nuclei for the fission reaction.
–5 104
main
(c) Concrete is used as shielding to keep workers sequence giants
safe, because it contains water that absorbs stars
absolute magnitude

luminosity (Sun = 1)
neutrons. 0
C 102
(d) Graphite is used as a moderator to slow down
the fast neutrons from one fission reaction B
so they can be absorbed by another uranium +5 1
Sun
nucleus for the chain reaction.
24 Because smaller nuclei are produced from D
A
10–2
+10
larger ones
white dwarfs
25 (Isotopes of) hydrogen
26 (a) Deuterium (or hydrogen-2) +15 10–4

(b) Neutron    (c) Helium

13 Neutron
8 Astrophysics 14 Electron(s) in orbit
15 The Sun is not moving away from us.
1(a) The Sun    (b) Moons or satellites ∆λ v
16 =
2A minimum of: 1 × 1022 λ0 c
3Less v ×λ
∆λ =
4Neptune c 0

2×π ×r 1.2 × 107

5v = ∆λ = × 550
T 3 × 108
2 × π × 414 × 109 1.2 × 55
v = ∆λ =
4.6 × ( 365 × 24 × 60 × 60) 3
8.28 × π × 1011 ∆λ = 22nm
v =
145 065 600 17 Cosmic: from space
v = 17 931 m/s or 18 km/s (2 s.f.) Microwave: around 1 mm wavelength, in the
6 Iron atoms are only made in red super giants, microwave band
and our Sun does not have enough mass to go Background: from all directions equally
through this stage. Radiation: an EM wave

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