PRACTICAL MANUAL

OF
ELECTRICAL HOME
WIRING TRAINER
 General LAB Rules

All students in the LABS are expected to adhere to the following guidelines.

 The students are supposed to come in proper LAB uniform

dress. Wearing Shoes in the workshop are compulsory.
 Do not fool around in the lab: Take your lab work
seriously and behave appropriately in the laboratory. Be aware
of yourclassmates’ safety as well as your own at all times.
 To successfully complete the experiments in one lab period,
you must comeprepared to the laboratory. You must read the
experiment in advance and answerthe pre-lab questions.
 Please treat the TRAINER with care, as they are very expensive.
 Return the components to the correct bins when you are finished
with them.
 Before leaving the lab, place the stools under the lab bench.
 Before leaving the lab, turn off the main power switch to the lab
bench.
 Keep your work area neat and uncluttered- Have only
Books and othermaterialsthat are needed to conduct
the experiment in the laboratory.
 This laboratory can be used by students during
laboratory hours only.
 CONTENTS

S.No Practical Description

1. Electrical Safety and precaution
2. Introduction to residential wiring
3. Tube light connection
4. Analogue Energy meter connection
5. Digital Energy meter connection
6. Stair wiring connection
7. Door Bell connection
8. Universal Board connection
9. Single Double pole breaker
10. Bulb holder connection
11. Fan connection
12. Home Load calculation
13. Iron Connection
14. Watt meter connection
15. Step down Transformer connection
 Practical # 1
Electrical Safety & precaution
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the basic electrical safeties for home and industrial.

THEORY:

Electrical Safety Principles

 When planning and performing work on electrical Home wiring systems
and equipment,keep these principles in mind:
 Understand the procedure completely before starting the work.
 Use good quality footwear/shoes in order to provide maximum
resistance.
 Never energize any circuit unless you are sure that no one is
workingon the circuit. Give electric supply to the wiring system only after
thorough verification.
 Before replacing a blown fuse always remember to put the switch off.
 Do not touch switch boards,main switches, holder points etc with wet
hands. Do not use broken switches, sockets or plug.
 Use non-conductive tools whenever possible.
 Before putting the plug pins in socket put off the plug switch and
disconnect the plug by pulling the plug pin and not by pulling cable.
 Take utmost care while handling lamps, lamp holders, switches etc,
because these materials are brittle.
 Never drape electrical cords over heat sources
 Before beginning work, tie back long hair, and roll up loose sleeves.
 Know the location and how to operate shut-off switches and/or
circuit breaker panels. Use these devices to shut off equipment
in the event of a fire or electrocution.
 Study of safety devices

Important of safety devices:

 The safety features are inbuilt with electric power distribution. The
current is to flow through the path it is expected to pass and should not
take another path through which it is not expected to pass. Conductors
made of copper or aluminum are provided across the path for carrying the
current and insulators like PVC, paper or rubber are provided across the
path through which the current is not expected to flow.
 Under abnormal condition there can be failure of insulations and
current will flow through the undesired path which can cause
damage to equipments and more important the safety of the user.
Sometimes the user may inadvertently touch a live conductor and cause
electric shock. The circuit may also carry under short circuit condition
much more than normal value of the current. The inbuilt safety features
will isolate the faulty circuit from the rest of the supply.
 The very high currents caused by short circuit situation can cause lots
of damage to electrical installation. Protective devices are needed to
break short-circuit and overload currents.
 Circuit breakers and fuses are protective devices that control the
power going to a particular route of wiring. In case of an overload or a
short on that circuit, the breaker or fuse trips and automatically shuts
off power to that circuit. Fuses are the commonly used protection
devices to protect components like wires, transformers electronics
circuit modules against overload. The general idea of the fuse is that
it "burns fuse link" when current gets higher than its rating and
thus stops the current flowing.

Types of safety devices

Fuse
Circuit breakers (MCB, MCCB & ELCB)
Earthing.

Basically two types of protections are provided in the power supply system of
domestic consumers.

a. Protection from over current.

b. Protection from leakage current due to failure of insulation or inadvertent
contact with live conductors by the user.
Over current and Short circuit
One type of situation that wiring needs to be protected against is over
current. The electrical wiring is rated for certain maximum current. If you try
to pull more current through it, the wiring will heat considerably. When
the wiring heats too much, it will cause the melting of cable insulation,
cause fire if there is something flammable near cable and even melt the
copper conductors in the cable. So protection is needed to guarantee that
in case of something tries to pull too much current through mains wiring,
this cannot happen for any long time until the fuse blows and stops the
current.
Many people are familiar with a "short circuit", which is a type of fault that
occurs when two conductors of an electric circuit touch each other. The
current flow caused by a short circuit is usually high and rapid and is
quickly detected and halted by conventional circuit protective devices, such
as fuses or circuit breakers. Ground faults are one type of problem when the
insulation fails.

Protection against over current

Every electrical circuit shall be protected against over current by suitable over
current devices. These devices could be
a. Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
b. Moulded Case Circuit Breaker
c. Semi enclosed rewirable fuses
d. High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) fuses

Typical breaking capacities of protective devices are as follows:

HRC fuses - 80 kA
MCB - 16 kA
Rewirable fuses - 1 to 4 kA

Protection against electrocution

The use of exposed, substandard, badly wired, wrongly connected or

damaged equipment as well as frayed or badly repaired cables reduces
the safety of an installation and increases the risk of person receiving an
electric shock.
Electrocution is a passage of current through human body, which is
dangerous. The flow of current through human body effects vital functions.

a. Breathing
b. Heartbeat

A correctly chosen RCCB can detect small currents flowing to earth and
reduces the risk of electrocution. Effect of electric current through human
body has been well researched and following chart summarizes the results:
Human sensitivity to electricity

However, electrocution should not be viewed in terms of current alone but in

terms of contact voltage. A person gets electrocuted by coming in contact
with an object that has a different potential from his/her own. The difference
in potential causes the current to flow through the body.

The human body has known limits:

- Under normal dry conditions, voltage limit = 50V.
- In damp surroundings, voltage limit = 25V.

FUSES
Fuse is a wire of short length having low melting point which gives protection
against excessive current. This excessive current may be due to over load or
short circuit. Under normal working condition the current flowing through the
circuit is within safe limit. But when some faults such as short circuit occurs the
current exceeds the safe limit value, the fuse wire gets heated and melts. This
will cause breaking of the circuit. After one fusing operation, fuse wire must be
rewired with the same size wire.
This basic guide will help you decide which fuse to fit to ensure the safe use of
your household appliances.

 Appliances up to 700 Watts = 3 Amp fuse

 Appliances between 700 and 1000 Watts = 5 Amp fuse
 Appliances over 1000 Watts = 13 Amp fuse

COMMON FUSE TYPES

1. Rewirable fuse
2. Cartridge fuse
3. HRC fuse
1. Rewirable fuse:
This is the cheapest method for protecting a circuit from short circuit.
Wires of different diameters made of lead and tin are used in the circuit.
When large currentflows these wires melts and disconnects the faulty circuit
from the rest of the supply.
There are different types of fuses. The usual type is the rewirable type in
which the fuse wire is carried in a removable fuse link (Fig. a). The fuse link
is made of porcelain or other suitable insulating material. The fuse carrier is
push-fitted to the fuse base to make the connection through. An advantage
of this type is that the blown fuse wire can be replaced with negligible cost.
But there is a chance ofselecting a wrong size of fuse wire. Another
disadvantage with rewirable fuse is that it may sometimes lead to fire hazards,
when the fuse wire blows.

Fig. (a) Rewirable fuse

The semi enclosed rewirable fuses has the following drawbacks:

 It normally melts on 50 % to 100 % excessive overload. The melting
current cannot be accurately predicted.
 It takes time to rewire the fuse.
 Standard fuse wire should be always made available.

However it is the cheapest mode of protection from short circuit.

2. Cartridge fuse
Cartridge fuse consists of a tube with metal end caps at both ends (Fig. b).
The tubeis usually made of glass with no filling material. The fuse wire is
placed inside thetube, connected between the end caps. Since the tube is
made of glass, the fuseelement can be easily inspected for breakage. When
the fuse is blown, the wholecartridge has to be replaced. The advantages of
cartridge fuses are, quick and easy replacement and the fuse rating is
marked on the end cap of the cartridge itself.

Cartridge fuses are mainly: used in various electrical and electronic equipment.
3. High Rupturing Capacity Fuse (HRC):

This is a completely enclosed cartridge type of fuse. These fuses are

screwed or linked in the circuit. Generally it is used in the high power
circuits. High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) fuse consists of a porcelain tube! with
metal end caps and fixing tags (Fig. c). The fuse element is held inside the tube
between the end caps and the tube is filled with silica sand or granulated quartz.
When the fuse element blows, the silica inside the tube prevent the formation of
an arc, and thus avoids the possibility of fire hazards. HRC fuse links are
available in a range of 10A to 800A.

The HRC fuse has the following advantages:

 It is very reliable.
 It has an enclosed fuse wire, therefore no chance its arc doing any
damage to the surroundings.
 It has low temperature rise at rated load.
 Maintenance free.

The drawbacks are:

 It is costly.
 Take time to replace the fuse.
 Circuit breakers

MCB and ELCB

MCB is miniature circuit breaker. It is automatic in action. When excessive current

passes through the circuit, handle of MCB will moves down and thus trips the
circuit. After one such an operation we can manually reset the supply by solving
the fault in that circuit. Thus rewiring fault size fuse wire in the case of fuse can be
avoided by using MCBs.

ELCB is earth leakage circuit breaker. It protects the circuit from any leakage
of current. It protects the circuit from lightning and thunder.

Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)

Miniature circuit breakers are compact devices used in distribution

boards for protection against overload and short circuit. The overload
protection is achieved by a thermal trip mechanism using a bimetallic strip. An
electromagnetic trip mechanism is also incorporated for instantaneous tripping
in the event of a short circuit.
When there is a sudden increase in current due to a short circuit, the circuit
should open immediately, but the bimetallic strip does not respond quickly. In
this case, the solenoid attracts the plunger and thus triggers the trip
mechanism. After clearing the fault, the MCB can be switched on manually.
 Earthing
What is earthing /grounding?

Earthing or grounding is the term used for electrical connection to the general
mass of earth. Equipment or a system is said to be 'earthed' when it is
effectively connected to the ground with a conducting object. Earthing
provides protection to personal and equipment by ensuring operation of the
protective gear and isolation of faulty circuit during:

 Insulation failure
 Accidental contact
 Lightning strike

Importance of earthing

Earthing is necessary for proper functioning of certain equipments. Earthing is

done also for preventing the operating personal from hazardous shocks
caused by the damage of the heating appliances. Consider an electric heater
connected to the supply using two-pin plug and socket. If by some chance
the heating elementcomes in contact with the metallic body of the heater, the
body of the heater being a conducting material will be at the same potential
as the heating coil. If a person comes and touches the body of the heater,
current will flow through his body, which will result in an electric shock.To avoid
unnecessary accident, it is recommended that electric heater beconnectedto a
3-pin socket using a 3-core cable. (Note: To see a three-core cable, open
aplug of an electric iron. There will be three wires, red, blue and green. The
greenwire connected to the body of the iron is the earth wire) In this case the
body of theelectric heater is connected to the green wire of the cable, which is
connected to theearth through the earth terminal. Besides the body of the
electric heater, bodies ofhot plates, kettles, toasters, heaters, ovens,
refrigerators, air conditioners, coolers,
electric irons etc could be earthed using three pin plugs. The resistance of
the pathto the earth terminal through the earth wire is very low. Hence, even
if the heatingelement comes in contact with the metallic body and a
human being comesincontact with the metallic body, major part of the
current will flow only through theearth wire (usually the green wire in a 3
core cable). Moreover because of the lowresistance path, a large current
will flow through the phase wire and the fuse willblow off. For large current
to flow, earth resistance should be low. To achieve this proper earthing has
to be done.

Earthing is classified as:

a. System earthing
b. Equipment earthing
System earthing:
It is the earthing of neutrals of generating stations and substations. It is
employed to limit the voltage of live conductors with respect to potential of
general mass of earth. This is necessary to prevent failure of insulation.

Equipment earthing:
Is earthingof noncurrent carrying metal parts of electrical equipments. As
per Rules 33 and 61 of Indian Electricity Rule 1956 non-current carrying
metal parts must be earthed with two separate and distinct earth continuity
conductors to an efficient earth electrode. However equipments with
doubleinsulation need not be earthed.

Some Definitions:
Earthing:
A tower/equipments connecting to the general mass of earth by means of an
electrical conductor.

Earth Electrode: Connection to earth is achieved by electrically connecting a

metal plate, rod or other conductors or an array of conductors to the
general mass of earth. This metal plate or rod or conductor is called as "Earth
electrode".

Earth lead: The conductor by which connection to earth is made.

Earth loop impedance: The total resistance of earth path including

that of conductors, earth wire, earth leads and earth electrodes at
consumer end and substation end.

Factors affecting the value of earth electrode resistance

 Electrode material.
 Electrode size.
 Material and size of earth wire.
 Moisture content of soil.
 Depth of electrode of underground.
 Quantity of dust and charcoal in earth pit.

Earth resistance consists of following components

 Resistance of metal electrode

 Contact resistance between electrode and soil
 Resistance of soil away from electrode surface.
The resistance decreases with the presence of moisture and salt in soil. To
increase the effectiveness of earth, the total earth resistance should be
reduced. Efforts should be made to reduce the resistance contributed by
each of above three components.
Earth Electrodes

Earth electrodes can be following shapes

 Driven Rods or pipes

 Horizontal Wires
 Four Pointed Stars
 Conductive Plates
 Round Vertical plates
 Square Vertical Plates
 Buried Radial Wires
 Spheres made of metal
 Water Pipes

Water pipe as earth electrode

As water pipes exist extensively and these are most of the time embedded in
earth,they can make a good earth electrode. Such earthingis not
objectionablewithalternating currents. But with direct currents, the flow of
fault currents in pipesproduces electrolysis and results in heavy corrosion
of pipes. This electrolysis process makes the water also harmful to certain
extent. If water pipes are proposedto be used as earth electrode, then only
main water supply pipe should be used asan electrode. The water supply
main pipe should have metal-to-metal jointsbetween its segments. A
perfect electricalconnection should be made betweenwater pipe & earth
conductor. Pipe should be cleaned thoroughly with emery paper.Earth
conductor also should be cleaned thoroughly. The cleaned conductor should be
wrapped 4 to 5 times and ends clamped by nuts &bolts. The earth
resistance achieved by such an arrangement is usually a fraction of an ohm.
Low resistance of
such systemis due to long length of water pipe and the fact that it is mostly
embedded below earth. This method is mostly used for grounding in telephone
services. Electrodes should be made of a metal, which has a high
conductivity.Normally copper is used. The size of the electrode should be
such, that it is able toconduct the expected value of stray equipments. For
example a 3 phase star woundgenerator must have its neutral point at earth
potential.

The salts commonly used for chemical treatment of soil are

 Sodium Chloride
 Calcium Chloride
 Sodium Nitrate
 Magnesium Sulphate
Methods of placing earth electrodes in soil

1. Pipe Earthing:

Fig. Cross section of pipe earthing

Pipe earthing is done by permanently placing a pipe in wet ground. The pipe
can be made of steel, galvanized iron or cast iron. Usually GI pipes having a
length of 2.5m and an internal diameter of 38mm are used. The pipe should not
be painted or coated with any non-conducting material.
Fig. shows an illustration of a typical pipe electrode. The pipe should be placed
at least 1.25m below the ground level and it should be surrounded by alternate
layers of charcoal and salt for a distance of around 15 cm. This is to maintain
the moistureLevel and to obtain lower earth resistance. The earth lead of
sufficient gauge should be firmly connected to the electrode and it should be
carried in a Gl pipe at a depth of 60cm below the ground level. A funnel with a
wire mesh should be provided to pour water into the sump. Three or four
bucket of water should be poured in a few days particularly during summer
season. This is to keep the surroundings of the electrode permanently moist.
2. Plate earthing

Fig. E (2) Plate earthing

A typical illustration of plate earthing is shown in Fig. E (2). The plate electrode
should have a minimum dimension of 600x600x3.15mm for copper plate or
600x600x6.3mm for Gl plates. The plate electrode should be placed at least
1.5m below the ground level. The earth conductor is to be securely connected
to the plate by means of bolts and nuts. The bolts and nuts should be of
the same material as that of the plate. The earth conductor should be
carried in a Gl pipe buried 60 cm below the ground level. The plate electrode
should be surrounded by a layer of charcoal to reduce the earth resistance. A
separate Gl pipe with funnel and wire mesh attached is provided to pour water
into the sump.

3. Strip earthing

For all places having a rocky soil bed, this type of earthing is suitable.
On this system, wires or strips made of GI of size 25 mm x 4 mm or made of
copper of size 25 mm x 1.6 mm are embedded 0.5 m, below the soil in the
form of a network. The length should not be less than 1.5 m as per ISI
specification. Detail is given in figure below.
Effect of Soil Properties in Earthing

While it is not possible to change the fundamental nature /properties of soil

at a given location, but local variations of soil conditions do occur even in a
small area. When a location for making earthing pit has to be selected,
preference should be given to location, which is likely to give minimum
electrical resistance. In the list below, soils have been arranged in
ascending order with regard to their electrical resistance.

 Wet marshy lands, or lands containing ashes

(Avg Resistivity 2400 ohm cm)
 Clay, loamy soil, arable land clay
 Clay & loam mixed with varying proportion of gravel & sand
(Avg Resistivity 15,800 ohm cm)
 Damp & wet sands
 Dry sand
 Gravel & Stones
OBSERVATION/OPINION:
 Practical # 2

Circuit’s basics

Objective
To determine the circuit basics and its characteristics.

Basic Definition overview

Electric current:
Electric current can be termed as a continuous flow of electrons through a
conductor. One ampere is the current produced when a pressure of one volt is
applied across a circuit having one ohm resistance.

EMF:
EMF is electro motive force. Potential difference between two points in a circuit
is theelectrical pressure difference required to drive a current between them.
Potential difference may be termed as voltage.
Voltage of a torch battery is 1.5 V and that of automobile battery is 12V. KSEB
supply voltage for domestic installation is 240 V.

Electric power (watt):

Electric power, P = Voltage * current * Power factor Unit of electric power is
watt (W)

Electric energy:
Unit of electric energy is KWh (Kilo Watt hour) 1 unit energy = 1 KWh KESC
provides one KWh meter at every Installation for measuring consumed energy.

Resistance:
It is the property of a substance due to which it opposes the flow of current through
it. Unit of resistance is ohm
Resistance, R = Specific resistance * I / A
Where I is the length of material & A is the area of cross section

Effect of temperature on resistance:

When temperature increases resistance of puremetals and Alloys increases
when temperature increases resistance of electrolyte, insulators etcdecrease.

Resistance in series:
Consider three resistors connected in series, and then the totalresistance of the
circuit will be the sum of the three resistors.
Ohms law:
Ohms law states that, the ratio of potential difference between any two points in
a conductor to the current flowing between them is constant.
R = V /1 Keeping temperature constant.

Study of Electric Power supply

Electricity:

Electricity is a form of energy. Electricity is the flow of electrons. We get

electricity, which is a secondary energy source, from the conversion of
other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power, Hydel
power and other natural sources, which are called primary sources.

Electric power supply system

Electricity in Pakistan is generated, transmitted, distributed and retail supplied by two

vertically integrated public sector utilities: Water and Power Development
Authority (WAPDA) for all of Pakistan (except Karachi), and the Karachi Electric Supply
Corporation (KESC) for the city of Karachi and its surrounding areas. There are around
20 independent power producers that contribute significantly in electricity generation in
Pakistan.

All domestic and commercial consumers get electric energy from the
distribution network of concerned electricity boards. Based on the power
requirements of consumers Electricity Boards may give 3-phase connection
(for high power) or single phase connection (for low power). In the three phase
connections 4 wires are provided, where as in single-phase connection one
phase and a neutral connection are provided to the consumers. Phase to neutral
voltage in our country is 230 V and phase-to-phase voltage is 400 V of frequency
50 Hz. Most of the appliances work on single-phase supply. There are some
motors, which require three phase supply.

A KWh meter is provided at the consumer end for measuring the electrical energy
consumed. KESC introduces different tariffs for different consumers, as per their
connected load and nature of connection.
Basic circuits:
One lamp controlled by one switch

Series connection

Parallel connection
Staircase wiring

Godown wiring
Fluorescent lamp wiring
OBSERVATION/OPINION:
 Practical# 3

Introduction to residential electrical wiring

Objective
Take knowledge about Three phase distribution.

A network of wires connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical energy

from the supplier’s meter board to the numerous electrical energy consuming devices
such as lamps, fans and other domestic appliances through controlling and
safety devices is known as wiring system.
The supplier’s service cable feeding an installation terminates in what is usually called
the service fuses. In an ordinary house the service fuse is called as service cutout. Such

cutouts including service meters remain the property of the supplier and represent the
furthest point of the supplier responsibility. The point at which the consumer's wiring is
connected into cutout is known as point of commencement of supply or
consumer's terminals. From consumer terminals onwards the supply cables are entirely
under thecontrol of consumer's and so laid out as per his selection. A typical house
wiring circuit isshown in fig.
Systems of distribution of electrical energy

Since as per recommendations of ISI the maximum number of points of lights, fans and
socket-outlet that can be connected in one circuit is 10 and the maximum load that can
be connected in such a circuit is 800 watts, hence in case more load or more points are
required to be connected to the supply system, then it is to be done by having more
than one circuit

Distribution Board System

In distribution board system, which is most commonly adopted for
distribution of electrical energy in a building, the fuses of various circuits are
grouped together on a distribution board, sometimes simply known as fuse board.
The two copper strips, known as bus-bars, fixed in a distribution board of hard
wood or metal case are connected to the supply main through a linked
switch so that the installation can be switched off as a whole from both the
poles of supply if required. A fuse is inserted in the + ve or phase pole of
each circuit so that each circuit is connected up through its own particular fuse.
In large buildings, however, if only one distribution board were used, some of the
points would be at a considerable distance from it and in such cases it is
advisable to employ sub-distribution boards either to save cable or to prevent
too great voltage drop at the more distant points (lamps or fans or other
appliances). In such cases main distribution board controls the circuit to each
sub-distribution board from which the sub-circuits are taken, as shown in fig. a
The number of circuits and sub-circuits are decided as per number of points to be
wired and load to be connected to the supply system. For determination of load of
an installation the following ratings maybe assumed unless the values are known
or specified.
a) Fluorescent lamps — 40 watts.
b) Incandescent lamps, fans, and socket outlets — 60 watts.
c) Power socket-outlets — 1,000 watts.
d) Exhaust fans — as per capacity of exhaust fans.

The Tree System

Another system of distribution of electrical energy in a building is the tree system.
In this system smaller branches are taken from the main branch, as shown in
fig. b and the wiring system resembles a tree. As each branch is taken off, a
fuse is inserted. This system used to be employed in early days. Now-a-days it
is no more adopted due to the following draw-backs in this system.

a) The voltage across all the lamps does not remain the same. The lamps in
the last branch will have least voltage across them on account of voltage
drop in leads,
b) A number of joints are involved in each circuit.
c) Fuses are scattered.

d) In case of occurrence of fault all the joints have to be located and if some
of these joints are concealed beneath floors or roof spaces, a lot of
difficulties are to be faced. Sometimes a number of such joints are required
to be opened for testing purposes, so damage is caused to installation,
conductors and building

Methods of wiring

There are two methods of wiring known as

a) Joint box system (or Tee system) and
b) Loop-in system

a. Joint Box or Tee System:

In joint box system the connections to the lamps are made through joints made in joint
boxes by means of suitable connectors or joint cutouts. In this method though there is
a saving in the quantity of wire or cable required but the same is offset by the extra
cost of joint boxes. The other disadvantage of T-connections is that the number of T-
connections made in a wiring system results in weakness if not properly made. Now-a-
days the use of this system is limited to temporary installations only, as its cost is low.

b. Loop- in- system:

This system is universally employed for connections of various lamps or other

appliances in parallel. In this system when a connection is required at a light or
switch, the feed conductor is looped-in by bringing it direct to the terminal and
then carrying it forward again to the next point to be fed, as shown in fig. d.
The switch and light feeds are carried round the circuit in a series of loops
from one point to another until the last point on the circuit is reached.
The phase or line conductors are looped either in switch board or box and
neutral conductors are looped either in switch board or from light or fan. Line or
phase should never be looped from light or fan.

The advantages and disadvantages of loop-in system are as follows;

Advantages
a) Joint boxes are not required.
b) In loop-in system no joint is concealed beneath floor or in roof spaces. As they are
made only at outlets so they are accessible for inspection and opening out merely by
removing the fitments concerned. Hence fault location is easy.

Disadvantages:
a) Length of wire or cable required is more and voltage drops and copper losses are,
therefore, more.
b) Looping-in switches and lamp holders is usually difficult.

SYSTEMS OF WIRING

The types of internal wiring usually employed in our country are:

1. Cleat wiring:

In this system of internal wiring the cables used are either VIR or PVC type. The cables
are held by porcelain cleats about 6 mm above the walls or ceiling. The cleats are made

in two halves, one base and the other cap. The base is grooved to accommodate the
cables and the cap is put over it and whole of it is then screwed on wooden
plugs(gutties) previously cemented into the wall or ceiling. Thus the cables are firmly
griped
between the two halves of the cleats and secured to the supporting wall or ceiling. The
cleats used are of different sizes and different types in order to accommodate cables of
various sizes and different numbers of cables respectively. The cleats are of three
types—one groove, two grooves and three grooves to accommodate one, two, and
three cables respectively.

Advantages:
a) It is the cheapest system of internal wiring.
b) Its installation and dismantlement is easy and quick.
c) Material is recoverable after dismantlement.
d) Inspection, alterations and additions can be easily made.
e) Skill required is little.

Disadvantages:
a) It is not good looking.
b) It is quite temporary and perishes quickly.
c) The wires are exposed to mechanical injury.
d) The insulation catches dampness from the atmosphere and common salt like
substance appears on the insulation which lowers the insulation resistance and Causes
leakage. Hence this system of wiring cannot be used in damp places.
e) Oil and smoke are injurious to VIR insulation.

Fields of Application:
The wiring of this type is very suitable for temporary
installations in dry places. This is also acceptable
where appearance is not so important and
cheapness is the main consideration. This system is
not suitable for use in domestic premises.

2. Wooden Casing and Capping Wiring:

The cable used in this type of wiring is either VIR or PVC or any other
approved insulated cables. The cables are carried through the wooden casing
enclosures. The casing consists of V-shaped grooves (usually two to hold the
cables of opposite polarity in different groves) and is covered at the top by means
of rectangular strip of wood, known as capping, of same width as that of
casing. The capping is screwed to the casing by means of wooden screws
fixed at every 15 cm on the centre fillet. To protect the casing against white
ants first class seasoned teak wood, varnished by shellac varnish is
employed. Two or three cables of same polarity (either all phases or all
neutrals) may be run in one groove and in no case the cables of opposite polarity
should be run in the same groove. The casing ia usually placed 3.2 mm apart
from the wall or ceiling by means of porcelain distance pieces of thickness not
less than 6.5 mm in order to keep the casing dry at the back.

3. CTS or TRS Wiring.

In this type of wiring the cables used may be single core, twin core or three
core TRS cables with a circular oval shape. Usually single core cables are
preferred. TRS cables are sufficiently chemical proof, water proof, steam proof
but are slightly affected by lubricating oils. TRS eaoles are run on well
seasoned, perfectly straight and well varnished (on all four sides) teak wood
batten of thickness 10 mm at least. The width of the batten depends upon the
number and size of cables to be carried by it. The battens are available in
width of 13,19,25,31,38,44,50,56,63,69 and 75 mm. The wooden battens are
secured to the walls or ceiling by flat head wood screws to wood or other
approved plugs at an interval not exceeding 75 cm. The cables are held on the
wooden batten by means of tinned brass link clips already fixed on the batten with
brass pins and spaced at an interval of 10 cm in case of horizontal runs and 15
cm in case of vertical runs. The wiring after erection is neatly painted with two
coats of oil-less no cracking paint as specified in IS 732 and so on.

Advantages

a) Its installation is easy and quick and saving in labor largely compensate
for the extra cost of the cable.
b) Its life is long.
c) Within certain limits it is fire proof.
d) It can withstand the action of most chemicals such as acids and alkalis.
e) It is cheaper than other types of wiring except cleat wiring.
f) If the job is carried out with proper attention, it gives a nice
appearance.

Disadvantages

a) Good workmanship is required to make a sound job in TRS wiring.

b) This type of wiring cannot be recommended for use in situations open
to sun or rain unless preventive steps are taken to preserve the
insulation of cables.
Fields of Application
The TRS wiring is suitable for low voltage installations and is extensively
used for lighting purposes everywhere i.e. in domestic, commercial or industrial
buildings except workshop where it is liable to mechanical injury.
This type of wiring is suitable in situations where acids and alkalis are likely to be
present.

4. Lead Sheathed Wiring

This type of wiring employs conductors insulated with VIR and is covered with an outer
sheath of lead aluminum alloy containing about 95% lead. This metal sheath gives
protection to the cable from mechanical injury, dampness and atmospheric
corrosion. The whole lead covering is made electrically continuous and is connected to
earth at the point of entry to protect against electrolytic action due to leaking current and
to provide safety against the sheath becoming a live. The cables are run on wooden
batten and fixed by means of link clips as in TRS wiring. The great part of the cable
employed is flat twin (the cable having two insulated conductors side by side
Covered with red and black tape respectively and under one flat covering of lead
alloy). Three-core flat type cable is also used in certain cases as well as single core
cables under a circular sheath of lead alloy.

Advantages
a) It provides protection against mechanical injury better than provided by
TRS wiring.
b) It is easy to fix and looks nice as it can be run in building without damaging
decoration and can be painted to suit color scheme of the surroundings.
c) Its life is long if proper earth continuity is maintained throughout.
d) It can be use din damp situations provided protection against moisture effect on
the ends of the cable is given.
e) It can be used in situations exposed to rain and sun provided no joint is
exposed.

Disadvantages
a) It is costlier than TRS wiring.
b) It is not suitable for places where chemical corrosion may occur.
c) In case of damage to insulation the metal sheath becomes alive and
gives shock, so as to provide safety against electrical shock it is necessary that the
sheath is properly earthed and an earth wire is run side by side with it and all pieces are
properly bounded or joined together so that not a single cover is left unearthed.
d) Skilled labour and proper supervision is required.

Fields of Application
This wiring system is suitable for low voltage (up to 250 volts) installations. It
may be used in places exposed to sun and rain provided no joint is exposed. It
may also be used in damp places with a suitable protective covering. It should not
be used in places where chemical corrosion may occur. This type of wiring is not
very common in use these days except for some small installations and distribution
boards etc.

5. Conduit Wiring
In this system of wiring steel tubes, known as conduits, are installed on the surface of
walls by means of saddles or pipe hooks or buried under plaster and VIR or PVC cables

are drawn into afterwards by means of a GI wire of size of about 18 SWG. In damp
situations the conduits can be spaced from the walls by means of small wooden blocks
fixed below the pipes at regular intervals. In order to facilitate drawing of wires numbers
of inspection fittings are provided along its length. The conduits should be electrically
and mechanically continuous and connected to earth at some suitable point. The
conduits used for this purpose are of two types namely (i) light gauge (or split type)
conduit and heavy gauge (or screwed type) conduit. Light gauge or split conduit with a
seam along its length is used for cheap work. It is not water tight or even damp proof
and is not permitted on medium voltage (i.e. on voltages higher than 250V). Screwed
conduit (solid drawn or with welded seam) is used for all medium voltage (250 V or 600
V) circuits and in places where good mechanical protection and absolute protection
from moisture is desired. In general the finish of the conduit is black stove-enameled,
there being a smooth coating of enamel both on the inside and outside surface of the
tube. Galvanized conduit is also employed, especially in damp situation when the
conduit is on the surface but under ordinary conditions buried in walls it offers
little, if any, advantage over good enameled conduits.

Advantages

a) It provides protection against mechanical damage.

b) It provides complete protection against fire due to short-circuits etc.
c) The whole system is water proof.
d) Replacement and alteration of defective wiring is easy.
e) Its life is long if the work is properly executed.
f) It is shock proof also if earthing and bonding is properly done.

Disadvantages
a) It is very costly system of wiring.
b) Its erection is not so easy and requires time.
c) Experienced and highly skilled labor is required for carrying out the job.
d) Internal condensation of moisture may cause damage to the insulation
unless the system outlets are properly drained and ventilated.

Switches

A manually operated device used for closing and opening or for changing the
connections of a circuit is known as a switch.
The switches used in internal wiring may be classified in various ways. According
to the type of base material they are classified as porcelain or Bakelite switches.
According to colour of base they are either white or black or brown coloured
switches. According to operation required, they are classified as one way, two-
way, centre off, double pole etc.

Switches.
1. One-way Switch

This type of switch consists of two terminals which can be easily seen from
the back side of the switch as well, without removing the cover. The switch is
always connect* din series with the point (lamp, fan or socket-outlet) to be
controlled.

2. Two-way Switch

The switch of this type consists of four terminals, two of them being short-
circuited inside the switch. The switch of this type is usually used for the
stair-case wiring or circuits where one point is to be controlled from two different
places.

3. Two-way Centre off Switch

The switch of this type is just like a two-way switch but having three operations.
In the centre it becomes off. Such switches are used when two lamps are to
be operated alternately.

4. Double Pole Switch

This is a combination of two one-way switches, which can be

operated simultaneously as ON-OFF terminals of both the switches, are
connected together by a handle made of Bakelite. Such switches are used as
interlinked switches when the load current is less than 5A and supply voltage is
under250V.Incaseeither of the voltage or current exceeds the limits mentioned
above DPI C switch is used.

5. Push-button Switches

Such switches are used for controlling the electric bells. When the knob is
pressed, the circuit is completed and the bell rings and as soon as the knob is left,
the circuit becomes open.

6. Table Lamp Switch

This is a small on-off switch which is commonly used in table lamps.

7. Bed Switch

Such switches are used to switch off the table lamps or other lamps while going to
sleep or making the lamp on while getting up at night. It is connected in aeries
with one of the two flexible wires. The specialty with this switch is that fluorescent
material is applied to its knob so that it may glow at night and can easily be
seen in darkness. This is a pendant type switch.
The switches are of two types known as surface switches (or tumbler switches)
and flush switches (or concealed switches).

i. Tumbler or Surface Switches

Tumbler switches are those which are fixed on the mounting blocks directly
fixed on the surface of the wall. Such switches project out the surface of the wall
and are in common use. Surface switches are available in round and oblong base.
Round base switches are cheap and in common use. Oblong surface switches are
good in appearance, but being costly, are rarely used.
ii. Flush Switches

Flush switches, as obvious from their name, are fixed in flush with the wall
and do not project out. These switches are used where high quality
performance and appearance are required.

Ceiling Rose
The ceiling rose is used to connect the pendant lamps, fans or fluorescent
tubes to the installation through flexible or silk covered wires.These are not used
on a circuit, the voltage of which normally exceeds 250 volts.
Fig shows a modern form of molded ceiling rose which includes the earth
terminal and a shrouded terminal for looping in live wire.

Socket-Outlets

The socket-outlets are used to supply electrical connections whenever

required for electrical appliances such as radios, table fans, table lamps,
iron, stoves etc. Socket outlets are of two types— two pin type and three pin
type. Two pin socket-outlets have become obsolete now-a-days. The three
pin type socket-outlet has got three hollow terminals in which three pin
plugs can easily be inserted but not loosely. Two holes being of same size
are meant for making connections to the flexible wire of the appliance and the
third hole, which is bigger comparatively, is meant for earth connections. Thus
three holes or sleeves are for live, neutral and earth connections. The three pin
socket outlets are also of two types:

(i) 5 A for table fans, table lamps, radios etc, and

(ii) 15 A for power circuits as heater, stove, iron etc.

Plugs

Plugs are used to take the supply from the socket-outlets for electrical
appliances such as table lamp, table fan, heater etc. Similar to socket-outlets
plugs are also of two types namely two pin and three pin. Two pin type plugs
have become obsolete now-a-days. Three pin type plugs consist of three pins
usually made from brass. To the two pins which are thin and of same size,
flexible wires are connected and then covered up. To the third pin, which is
thicker comparatively, earth wire from the electrical appliance is connected.
Similar to 3 pin-socket outlets 3 pin plugs are also of two types—5 A and 15 A.

Lamp Holders

As the name indicates the function of lamp holder is to support the lamp
and also to connect it electrically. These are designed for quick removal and
replacement of the lamp. Lamp holders are of many types. A few will be
described here.
Lamp-holders may be either of brass or Bakelite type with porcelain interior.
Brass holders are more durable but may give shock if connections are poor.
Though Bakelite holders are not durable, but do not give shock.

The following are the different types of lamp holders

1. Batten Holders
Such lamp holders are used where the lamp is to be fitted to the roof or to
the wall I.e. it is directly fitted either to batten or to wooden boards. Such
lamp holders are bayonet type i.e. in such a lamp holder the lamp is forced
in. turned slightly and left in position.

2. Pendant or Cored Grip Holders

Such a lamp holder is used when the lamp is to be suspended from the flexible
cord. Such a lamp holder is hanged vertically downward from the ceiling with
flu flexible cord, one end of which makes electrical connections with the
ceiling rose and other with the lamp holder and thus with the lamp.

3. Angle Holders

Such lamp holders are used when the lamps are to be fixed directly on the walls
and to give light at an angle. Such lamp holders are available in various fancy
designs and colors.

4. Slanting Holders
Such lamp holders are used for lamps to be fixed on advertising boards, for flood
lights and for stage lights. Such lamp holders are used along with shades (hand
shape shades) so that light is concentrated on the material displayed and does not
trouble the viewer.

5. Bracket Holders
Such lamp holders are used to give direct light in the room or above a particular
place. These cannot be fixed on the roof or made to hang. Usually these are
fixed on the wall. These may also be used in table lamps.

6. Water Tight Bracket Holders

Such lamp holders are provided with tubular glasses fixed with water tight
cover. Such lamp holders are used outside the houses and for street
lighting where there is no cover to save the bulb from falling of water over it.

Junction Box

In joint box system of wiring all joints in conductors are made by means of
suitable connectors or joint cutouts in junction boxes. In looping back system of
wiring, which is widely used now-a-days, junction boxes are not required.

OBSERVATION/OPINION:
 Practical# 4

Series and parallel connection

OBJECTIVE:
To determine and understand the series parallel circuit connection of load.

APPARATUS:
Power cable, bulbs60w/200w,

THEORY:

If two circuit elements are in series, the same current must flow through them.
If two circuit elements are in parallel, the voltage across each element is the same.
At any junction, the current that flows in will equal the current that flows out.
For any loop in a circuit, the sum of the voltage changes around the loop is zero.
The voltage change across a resistor is negative if the change is in the direction of
the current flow (a voltage drop).
The voltage change across a resistor is positive if the change is in a direction
opposite to the current flow (a voltage rise).
The Single Bulb CircuitThe Two-Bulb Series Circuit

The Two Bulb Parallel Circuit

Series Connection

LOAD 1 L1 N1

LOAD 2 L2 N2
220VAC

LOAD 3
L3 N3

Parallel Connection
220VAC

LOAD 1 L1 N1

LOAD 2 L2 N2

LOAD 3 L3 N3

OBSERVATION/OPINION:

Practical # 5

Objective
To determine Tube light connection

Tube light connection

Theory

A fluorescent light does not have the usual glowing filament of an incandescent bulb,
but instead contains a mercury vapor that gives off ultraviolet light when ionized. The
ultraviolet light makes particles that coat the inside of the tube, and these particles glow
or fluoresce (see How Fluorescent Lamps Work for details).
Fluorescent starters are used in several types of fluorescent lights. The starter is there
to help the lamp light. When voltage is applied to the fluorescent lamp, here's what
happens:
The starter (which is simply a timed switch) allows current to flow through the filaments
at the ends of the tube. The current causes the starter's contacts to heat up and open,
thus interrupting the flow of current. The tube lights, since the lighted fluorescent tube
has a low resistance, the ballast now serves as a current limiter. When you turn on a
fluorescent tube, the starter is a closed switch. The filaments at the ends of the tube are
heated by electricity, and they create a cloud of electrons inside the tube. The
fluorescent starter is a time-delay switch that opens after a second or two. When it
opens, the voltage across the tube allows a stream of electrons to flow across the tube
and ionize the mercury vapor.
Without the starter, a steady stream of electrons is never created between the two
filaments, and the lamp flickers. Without the ballast, the arc is a short circuit between
the filaments, and this short circuit contains a lot of current. The current either vaporizes
the filaments or causes the bulb to explode.

Tube light:Starter:

Ballast:

Connection of
tube light:

220VAC N
L
Starter Ballast Tube holder

A B C D E F
G H
Tube holder

OBSERVATION/OPINION:
 Practical # 6

Analog Energy meter connection

OBJECTIVE:
To determine and understand the KWH meter connection of load.

APPARATUS:
Power cable, KWH meter

Theory
An electric meter or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electrical
energy supplied to or produced by a residence, business or machine.
The most common type is a kilowatt hour meter. When used in electricity retailing, the
utilities record the values measured by these meters to generate an invoice for the
electricity. They may also record other variables including the time when the electricity
was used.
The electromechanical induction meter operates by
counting the revolutions of an aluminum disc which is
made to rotate at a speed proportional to the power. The
number of revolutions is thus proportional to the energy
usage. It consumes a small amount of power, typically
around 2 watts.
The metallic disc is acted upon by two coils. One coil is
connected in such a way that it produces a magnetic flux in
proportion to the voltage and the other produces a
magnetic flux in proportion to the current. The field of the
voltage coil is delayed by 90 degrees using a lag coil. [1]This produces eddy currents in
the disc and the effect is such that a force is exerted on the disc in proportion to the
product of the instantaneous current and voltage. A permanent magnet exerts an
opposing force proportional to the speed of rotation of the disc - this act as a brake
which causes the disc to stop spinning when power stops is being drawn rather than
allowing it to spin faster and faster. This causes the disc to rotate at a speed
proportional to the power being used.
The type of meter described above is used on a single-phase AC supply. Different
phase configurations use additional voltage and current coils.
Reading
The aluminum disc is supported by a spindle which has a worm gear which drives the
register. The register is a series of dials which record the amount of energy used. The
dials may be of the cyclometer type, an odometer-like display that is easy to read where
for each dial a single digit is shown through a window in the face of the meter, or of the
pointer type where a pointer indicates each digit. It should be noted that with the dial
pointer type, adjacent pointers generally rotate in opposite directions due to the gearing
mechanism.
The amount of energy represented by one revolution of the disc is denoted by the
symbol Kh which is given in units of watt-hours per revolution. The value 7.2 is
commonly seen. Using the value of Kh, one can determine their power consumption at
any given time by timing the disc with a stopwatch. If the time in seconds taken by the
disc to complete one revolution is t, then the power in watts is . For example, if Kh = 7.2,
as above, and one revolution took place in 14.4 seconds, the power is 1800 watts. This
method can be used to determine the power consumption of household devices by
switching them on one by one.

Single phase meter connection

Single phase meter:

220V
Load

A B C D

CALCULATION:

S.NO TIME INITIAL METER LOAD CALCULATED ACTUAL

READING LOAD LOAD
1 5min

2 10min

3 15min
 4 20min

5 25min

6 30min

TASK:

Make a graph between actual load and calculated load

OBSERVATION/OPINION:

Practical # 7

Digital Energy meter connection

OBJECTIVE:
To determine and understand the KWH meter connection of load.

APPARATUS:
Power cable, KWH meter
Theory

Electronic meters display the energy used on an LCD or LED display, and some can
also transmit readings to remote places. In addition to measuring energy used,
electronic meters can also record other parameters of the load and supply such as
instantaneous and maximum rate of usage demands, voltages, power
factor and reactive power used etc. They can also support time-of-day billing, for
example, recording the amount of energy used during on-peak and off-peak hours.

the meter has a power supply, a metering engine, a processing and communication
engine (i.e. a microcontroller), and other add-on modules such as RTC, LCD display,
communication ports/modules and so on.
The metering engine is given the voltage and current inputs and has a voltage
reference, samplers and quantizes followed by an ADC section to yield the digitized
equivalents of all the inputs. These inputs are then processed using a digital signal
processor to calculate the various metering parameters such as powers, energies etc.

Single phase meter:

220V Load

P N N P

Single phase meter connection

CALCULATION:

S.NO TIME INITIAL METER LOAD CALCULATED ACTUAL

READING LOAD LOAD
1 5min

2 10min

3 15min

4 20min

5 25min

6 30min

TASK:
 Make a graph between actual load and calculated load

OBSERVATION/OPINION:

Practical # 8
 Stair wiring connection

OBJECTIVE:
To determine and understand the Stair wiringconnection.

APPARATUS:
Power cable, Bulb

Theory

Stair case wiring circuit diagram, OR How to control a lamp from two different places by
two, 2-way switches?

Staircase wiring circuit diagram very simple

This is the staircase wiring circuit diagram. Here we can control a bulb from two
different places by using two, 2-way switches.
Now consider this circuit diagram. In this case you can see that circuit is
complete and bulb is ON. Suppose you want to OFF bulb from the upper switch at top
of stair, simply Switch OFF the switch then circuit will break and the bulb will be OFF.
You can switch ON the bulb again to switch ON this Switch. In other words you can
OFF and ON bulb from upper switch at the top of stair. Obviously; you can do same
from the upper and bottom switch, so let’s see how we can do that from that switch at
the bottom of stair.
Now return to circuit again in the pic, In this case you can see that circuit is
complete and bulb is ON. Suppose you want to OFF the bulb from the lower switch at
bottom of stair. Simply OFF the switch, then again circuit will break and the bulb will be
OFF. You can switch ON the bulb again to switch ON this Switch
Conclusion:
This is a stair case circuit diagram by which we can control a bulb from two
different places. We can switch OFF and Switch ON the bulb from both switches at the
same time. In other words we can control (OFF or ON) the bulb from upper and lower
switches.
Stair wiring connection

G H

220VAC

A B C D E F
OBSERVATION/OPINION:
 Practical # 9

Door bell connection

Objective
How to connect common door bell.

Theory

A doorbell is a signaling device typically placed near an entry door to a building. When
a visitor presses a button the bell rings inside the building, alerting the occupant to the
presence of the visitor. Although the first doorbells were mechanical, activated by
pulling a cord, modern doorbells are electric. They are actuated by an electric switch. A
precursor to the electric doorbell, specifically a bell that could be rung at a distance via
an electric wire.

A typical residential doorbell system includes a transformer (to convert 120VAC to

24VAC), a bell/buzzer, and button for ringing the bell. Residential door bell wiring uses
low voltage except the line side of the transformer. The line side of the transformer must
be terminated in an approved electrical box, similar to a light switch or wall outlet. The
transformer is used to step the voltage down from 120V to 16, 18 or 24 volts. One or
two buttons for front and back door can be used to activate your doorbell system. Below
is a standard doorbell wiring diagram. Since transformers come in a variety of voltages,
be sure your transformer provides the correct voltage for your particular doorbell
system. They often come together as a k
 it, but sometimes
you buy them separately.

Door bell connection

L1 N1 L2 N2

220V
OBSERVATION/OPINION:
 Practical # 10

Universal board connection

Theory

Residential outlets are common in every room of the house, with standard outlets in
bedrooms, halls and living rooms, and special Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter outlets
installed in kitchens, bathrooms, utility rooms and other areas where there is high water
use. Both styles of outlets connect to the same type of electrical cable

Three pins. Two pins. Slanting pins.Straight.Circular. In a world where there is no global
standard for plug design, taking electrical items abroad can be fraught with difficulties

Thus we have flimsy American two-pin sockets which are sometimes splayed in other
countries. Two round pins in Europe, with German ones apparently minutely further
apart than in France to frustrate the electric shaver.

There are also mighty British three-pines with an enormous earth socket that seems
rarely to be used, themselves a 1950s replacement for several curious smaller three-
pines which must have dated back to the days when electricity was invented.
CONNECTION:

L1 N1 E1 L2 N2

220V 220V
GND
OBSERVATION/OPINION:
 Practical # 11

Single & double pole breaker and fuses connection

Theory
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an
electrical from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect
a fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical
flow. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then must be replaced, a circuit breaker
can be reset (either manually or automatically) to resume normal operation. Circuit
breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that protect an individual
household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits
feeding an entire city.
All circuit breakers have common features in their operation, although details vary
substantially depending on the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit
breaker.
The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in low-voltage circuit breakers this is
usually done within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high
voltages are usually arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate
the trip opening mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch is usually
energized by a separate battery, although some high-voltage circuit breakers are self-
contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power
source.
Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the
circuit; some mechanically-stored energy (using something such as springs or
compressed air) contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although
some of the energy required may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit
breakers may be manually operated, larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism,
and electric motors to restore energy to the springs.
The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and
must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting (opening) the circuit.
Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys, and other highly conductive
materials. Service life of the contacts is limited by the erosion of contact material due to
arcing while interrupting the current. Miniature and molded case circuit breakers are
usually discarded when the contacts have worn, but power circuit breakers and high-
voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts.
 1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and
reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the
status of the circuit breaker (On or
Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed
so they can still trip even if the lever is held
or locked in the "on" position. This is
sometimes referred to as "free trip" or
"positive trip" operation.
2. Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts
together or apart.
3. Contacts - Allow current when touching
and break the current when moved apart.
4. Terminals
5. Bimetallic strip.
6. Calibration screw - allows
the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the device after assembly.
7. Solenoid
8. Arc divider/extinguisher

Fuse

Terminology ‘Fuse’ does require any introduction. We all know from experience that
‘Fuse’ blows out on short circuits, over currents etc. Thus, they limit over current and
protect power apparatus. An enormous variety of fuses
are available today. Fuses are characterized by
‘thermal’ and interrupting characteristics. Thermal
characteristic are quite intuitive and relate to the
following.

-current rating

-melting characteristics

-Interrupting characteristics refer to

-voltage rating

-interrupting rating
Connection

OBSERVATION/OPINION:
 Practical # 12

Bulb holder connection

Theory

Light bulbs are usually inserted in light bulb sockets which provide electrical
connections to the bulb and support it in the lighting fixture. The use of sockets allows
lamps to be safely and conveniently changed out at the end of life. There are many
different standards for these sockets, created by de facto and by various standards
bodies. A very few miniature lamps have wire leads suitable for direct connection to
wires; some reflector lamps have screw terminals for wire connections

The construction of a socket defines and limits its intended use. Ceramic insulation can
withstand considerably higher operating temperatures than Bakelite or other plastics.
The electrical components and wires must be designed to carry the intended current
plus a safety factor.
The contact surface area, thickness and conductivity of the metal, connection methods
and maximum operating temperature must all be considered in the design of a new
socket. In addition, mechanical factors such as shape of the socket, fixture mounting
and attachment, bulb support, ease of re-lamping and total cost of manufacture must be
considered. Sockets designed for ordinary household and industrial use have much
more design leeway than those used in precision applications.
CONNECTION:

OBSERVATION/OPINION:
 Practical # 14

FAN CONNECTION

Theory

Most fans use a type of motor known as a "permanent split capacitor motor". These
motors have two coils, a "start" and a "run" winding. A capacitor is connected in series
with the start winding to insert a phase shift, but once the motor is up to speed it
becomes an auxiliary winding. In order to reverse the motor, the capacitor is applied to
the "run" winding which then becomes the "start" winding. In some cases the windings
may have taps to provide different speeds, in others the value of the start/run capacitor
is lowered to provide lower speeds. Yet other designs will have additional capacitors
wired in series with the motor as a whole to regulate speeds.

Signs of a bad capacitor in a ceiling fan include:

 Fan runs slowly or not at all on all speeds

 Fan will not start but will spin if started by hand

 Certain speeds are slow or do not work

 The motor hums and turns freely by hand but will not spin

The capacitor is usually a black box inside the switch housing of the fan. If this box
appears burnt or melted in any way, that is also the sign of a bad capacitor and it should
be replaced.

Replacing a capacitor is easy; you simply unhook the wires, and hook the new one in its
place. The only difficulty is finding an appropriate replacement capacitor. Within a
certain degree of tolerance, the values of the replacement have to match the values of
the original capacitor. In fans with two wire capacitors this is easy, capacitors are
measured in "microfarads" (ex. 4uf) and you simply install a replacement 4 microfarad
(4 uf) capacitor in its place. However fans that use more than one capacitor for speed
regulation will often have a capacitor with more than one value, and, therefore, more
than two wires. For example, a three wire capacitor (ex. 7uf+2.5uf) is simply two
capacitors (a 7uf and a 2.5uf) sharing the same casing and one common wire. For
capacitors with more than 3 wires, usually there is a schematic drawn on the side
explaining the various values.
FANConnection:

OBSERVATION/OPINION:
 Practical # 15

Load calculation

Theory

This is a simplified method for doing a very rough calculation. Remember, electricians
and designers use rules that are much more complicated, so don't get ahead of
yourself. Let's look at a simple formula. HOUSE LOAD = BASIC LOAD + LARGE
APPLIANCES + SPECIAL LOADS BASIC LOAD

 include lighting, outlets, and smaller appliances including oil or gas furnaces,
central vacuums, pool pumps, waste disposals, etc., but NOT baseboard heaters

 based on house size (square feet)

LARGE APPLIANCES

 include electric stove, electric dryer and electric water heater

SPECIAL LOADS

 include saunas, fixed electric heaters (most commonly baseboard heaters),

electric furnaces, central air conditioners, kilns, etc.

Follow these five steps:

1. BASIC LOAD Estimate or measure house square footage. Include 75% of any
basement floor area. Don't use measurements based on the outside wall
surfaces. Calculate interior space. For the first 1,000 square feet, allow 5,000W.
For each of the next 1,000 square feet, or part thereof, add 1,000W. This gives a
BASIC LOAD, in watts.

2. LARGE APPLIANCES A typical house has an electric stove and dryer, and an
electric water heater. Note: Include these in the calculation even if the house
presently has a gas stove, for example, if you plan on changing appliances. Allow
6,000W for the stove. Allow 1,000W for the dryer. Allow 750W for the electric
water heater. Allow 1,500W for any additional stoves. The total of these gives
you the LARGE APPLIANCES LOAD, in watts.
 3. Add the BASIC and LARGE APPLIANCES LOAD, and divide by 240V to get
a subtotal, in amps. Subtotal = (BASIC + LARGE APPLIANCES) ? 240 = amps.

4. SPECIAL LOADS Find out any special loads the house may have. The load in
amps is read off the data plate on each appliance. Common special loads are
a.Sauna b. electric furnace c. electric baseboard or wall mounted heaters add up
the wattage on each data plate; divide the total by 240V to get amps d. central air
conditioner use the FLA (full load amps) e. kiln If you can't find or can't read the
data plate, use the amp rating of the supply cable to the appliance, or the rating
of the fuse or breaker.

5. HOUSE LOAD The house load is the sum of the Subtotal and the Special
Loads. Let's run through an example with a 2-story, 1,500 square foot home with
100-amp service.

1. BASIC LOAD Each story is 750 square feet (1,500 2). Seventy-five percent of the
basement area is: 75% x 750 = 562 sq. ft. Total area for calculations = 1500 +
562 = 2062 sq. ft. Use 5,000W for first 1,000 sq. ft.: 5,000W Use 1,000W for next
1,000 sq. ft.: 1,000W Use 1,000W for the last 62 ft.: 1,000W BASIC LOAD:
7,000W

2. LARGE APPLIANCES Electric Stove: 6,000W Dryer: 1,000W LARGE

APPLIANCE LOAD: 7,000W

3. Subtotal: (7,000W + 7,000W) 240V = 58.3 Amps

4. SPECIAL LOADS 2-ton air conditioner with full load amperage rating (FLA) = 12
Amps 2 x 1,000W baseboard heaters = 2,000W 240V = 8.3 Amps Sauna data
plate says 25-amps

5. HOUSE LOAD TOTAL (Subtotal plus special loads) 58.3A + 12A + 8.3A + 25A =
103.6 Amps

This house doesn't look like it has quite enough electricity. It's close, though, so we
recommend that the homeowner try it before committing to a service upgrade.
Remember that the baseboard heaters won't be on when the A/C is, and the sauna will
only be used occasionally. But this service cannot support any additional loads.
LOAD OF DIFFERENT APPLIANCES:

HOME APPLIANCES WATT

Lamps (Bulb) 40
Lamps (Bulb) 60
Lamps (Bulb) 100
Energy Saver (CFL) 14
Energy Saver (CFL) 22
Tube Lights 40
Tube Lights (Electronic Choke) 60
Electric iron 600- 1000
Immersion heater 1500
Water heater/Geyser 1000-2000
Toaster 750
Refrigerator (165 liters ) 200
Air -conditioner (Window)( 1.5 ton) 1500-2000
Air -conditioner (Split)( 1.5 ton) 1200-1800
Desert cooler ( medium) 200
Room cooler 60-200
Table fan/ceiling fan 60-100
Exhaust fan 150
Washing machine 700
DVD Player 40
Television 200
Mixer-cum-grinder 200
Computer 200
Pump motor (Half HP) 370
Pump motor (1 HP) 740
Pump motor(1.5 HP) 1110
CALCULATION:

S.NO LINE VOLTAGE LINE CURRENT TOTAL POWER LOAD

RESISTANCE
1

OBSERVATION/OPINION:
 Practical # 15

Iron connection

OBJECTIVE:
To determine and understand the iron connection of load.

APPARATUS:
Power cable, iron, C.T, ammeter

Theory

An electric iron works with the principle that a thermostat is used to adjust the heat
according to the temperature you have set allows heat to come through the vent to
allow straightening as you press down on the cloth with it.
On the bottom exterior of the iron is the soleplate, made of aluminum, stainless steel or
nonstick coating. Ports are embedded in the soleplate to allow steam to exit when the
iron heats up.
Inside the iron is a heating element set into the soleplate that heats up in accordance
with the heat control mechanism. A heat control lever rotates a cam that regulates the
opening between the contacts located on the thermostat.
 Fig.1
Connection:

2. To measure continuity, set the selector of multimeter to symbol, and choose . In this setting,
when the line has continuity, the display will produce sound and show zero value. It shows OL
when no continuity detected.

Figure 4.5-10 Iron wiring diagram and socket arrangement.

3. In the figure above, the socket position is on connection between each parts.

4. Assume that in this condition the power cord of iron in good connection. (In this
application, the power cord is connected to terminal 1 and 4)
5. First, test the Bimetal Temperature Control, turn its controller counter clockwise fully,
until a 'click' sound heard. Then put the multimeter test lead onto sockets 1 and 2.

6. In this measurement, the display will show OL (open circuit). But if the display show
zero value and heard sound from the multimeter, this indicate the bimetal temperature
control is defect, in the bimetal strip particularly. Check the bimetal, if it still has contact
then give a pulling treatment little by little by using pincers until it has no contact.

7. Then turn its controller until 'click' sound heard. Put the multimeter test lead to sockets 1 and
2. If the display shows zero value and the sound heard from the multimeter, the bimetal is fine
(close circuit). But, if the display shows OL, the bimetal is defect. A carefully pulling treatment
can be given.

8. Then move the other to heater element. Put the test lead to sockets 2 and 3.

9. If the display shows zero value and the sound heard, the heater element is fine. But if the
display shows OL and no sound heard, then it is defect. A heater element repairing is difficult,
commonly the element is a joint construction with the iron body.

10. Next, move the test lead to sockets 3 and 4. If the display shows zero, the overload is all
right. But if the display shows OL, the overload is defect. Replace the overload with the new
one.

OBSERVATION/OPINION:
 Practical # 16

Transformer connection

OBJECTIVE:

To determine and understand the step down transformer connection of load.

APPARATUS:

Power cable, step down transformer, volt meter

Theory

Step down transformer: is one whose secondary voltage is less than its primary voltage.
It is designed to reduce the voltage from the primary winding to the secondary winding.
This kind of transformer “steps down” the voltage applied to it.

As a step-down unit, the transformer converts high-voltage, low-current power into low-
voltage, high-current power. The larger-gauge wire used in the secondary winding is
necessary due to the increase in current. The primary winding, which doesn’t have to
conduct as much current, may be made of smaller-gauge wire.
Connection:

STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER VOLT-METER

P1 P1 S1 S2 N
L1 L2 L3

220v 220V

OBSERVATION/OPINION:
 Practical # 17

WATT meter connection

OBJECTIVE:

To determine and understand the watt meter connection of load.

APPARATUS:

Power cable, watt-meter and bulb

Theory

The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or the supply rate
of electrical energy) in watts of any given circuit. Electronic wattmeters are used for
direct, small power measurements or for power measurements at frequencies beyond
the range of electrodynamometer-type instruments. A modern digital electronic
wattmeter/energy meter samples the voltage and current thousands of times a second.
Connection: BULB
WATT-METER

N L1
L2 L3 L N

S,No Given load Calculated Actual Remarks

load load
OBSERVATION/OPINION: