‫ تقنيات رقمية‬: ‫اسن المادة‬

‫م علياء دمحم جواد‬.‫م‬: ‫اسن التدريسي‬

‫ الثانية‬: ‫المرحلة‬
2024_2023: ‫السنة الدراسية‬
Simplifying logic circuit:‫عنوان المحاضرة‬

Boolean Expression for a Logic Circuit

• To derive the Boolean expression for a given combinational logic
circuit, begin at the left-most inputs and work toward the final
output, writing the expression for each gate.

• Example: Determine the Boolean expression for the following logic

circuit

• Solution: A(B + CD)

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 Constructing a Truth Table for a Logic Circuit
Once the Boolean expression for a given logic circuit has been determined, a truth
table that shows the output for all possible values of the input variables can be
developed.

Step1: Evaluating the Expression

For example, to evaluate the expression A(B + CD), find the values of the variables
that make the expression equal to 1 using the rules for Boolean addition and
multiplication.
Thus, the expression A(B + CD) equals 1 only if A = 1 and B + CD = 1.
Now determine when the B + CD term equals 1. The term B + CD = 1 if either B = 1
or CD = 1 or if both B and CD equal 1.
The term CD = 1 only if C = 1 and D = 1.
Therefore, the expression A(B + CD) = 1 when A = 1 and B = 1 regardless of the
values of C and D or when A = 1 and C = 1 and D = 1 regardless of the value of B.
And, the expression A(B + CD) = 0 for all other value combinations of the variables.

Constructing a Truth Table for a Logic Circuit

• Step2: Putting the Results in Truth Table Format
• First, list the sixteen input variable combinations of 1s and 0s in a binary
sequence. Next, place a 1 in the output column for each combination of
input variables that was determined in the evaluation. Finally, place a 0 in
the output column for all other combinations of input variables. These
results are shown in the truth table below

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 Logic Simplification Using Boolean Algebra
Example: Using Boolean algebra techniques, simplify this expression:
AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C)
Solution:
Note: The following is not necessarily the only approach.
AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C)= AB + AB + AC + BB + BC
= AB + AB + AC + B + BC
=AB + AC + B + BC
= AB + AC + B
= B + AC

Simplification reduces gates for

the same function
• The figure below shows that five gates are required to implement the
expression AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C) in its original form; however, only
two gates are needed for the simplified expression (B + AC ).

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 Simplification reduces gates for
the same function
Example: Simplify the following Boolean expression
Solution:
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
= =

Simplification reduces gates for

the same function
Example: Simplify the following Boolean expression:

Solution:
=
=
=
=
=
= (using rule 11 )
=

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 Simplification reduces gates for
the same function
Example: Simplify the following Boolean expression :
Solution:
= (By applying DeMorgan’s theorem )
= (By applying DeMorgan’s theorem to each term
in the parentheses)
=

= = =

Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions

• All Boolean expressions can be converted into either of two standard
forms: the sum-of-products form or the product-of-sums form.

• Standardization makes the evaluation, simplification, and

implementation of Boolean expressions much more systematic and
easier.

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 The Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form
• When two or more product terms are summed by Boolean addition,
the resulting expression is a sum-of-products (SOP). Some examples
are:

• Also, an SOP expression can contain a single-variable term, as in

Note:
• In an SOP expression, a single overbar cannot extend over more than
one variable; however, more than one variable in a term can have an
overbar.
• For example, an SOP expression can have the term but not .

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AND/OR Implementation of an SOP Expression

• Implementing an SOP expression simply requires ORing the outputs
of two or more AND gates.
• A product term is produced by an AND operation, and the sum
(addition) of two or more product terms is produced by an OR
operation.
• Therefore, an SOP expression can be implemented by AND-OR logic in
which the outputs of a number (equal to the number of product
terms in the expression) of AND gates connect to the inputs of an OR
gate, as shown in the figure below for the expression

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 NAND/NAND Implementation of an SOP Expression
• NAND gates can be used to implement an SOP expression.
• By using only NAND gates, an AND/OR function can be accomplished,
as illustrated in figure (a) below to implement .

(a) (b)
• The first level of NAND gates feed into a NAND gate that acts as a
negative-OR gate. The NAND and negative-OR inversions cancel and
the result is effectively an AND/OR circuit.

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Conversion of a General Expression to SOP Form

• Any logic expression can be changed into SOP form by applying
Boolean algebra techniques.
• For example, the expression A(B + CD) can be converted to SOP form
by applying the distributive law:

• Example: Convert each of the following Boolean expressions to SOP

form:

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 The Standard SOP Form
• A standard SOP expression is one in which all the variables in the domain
appear in each product term in the expression.
• For example, the expression is not in the standard SOP
while is in a standard SOP expression.

• Note:
has a domain made up of the variables A, B, C, and D.
However, the complete set of variables in the domain is not represented in
the first two terms of the expression; that is, D or D is missing from the
first term and C or C is missing from the second term.

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Converting Product Terms to Standard SOP

• Each product term in an SOP expression that does not contain all the
variables in the domain can be expanded to standard form to include
all variables in the domain and their complements.
• As stated in the following steps, a nonstandard SOP expression is
converted into standard form using Boolean algebra rule 6 (A + A = 1).
• Step 1: Multiply each nonstandard product term by a term made up
of the sum of a missing variable and its complement (you can multiply
anything by 1 without changing its value).
• Step 2: Repeat Step 1 until all resulting product terms contain all
variables in the domain in either complemented or uncomplemented
form.
• In converting a product term to standard form, the number of
product terms is doubled for each missing variable.

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 Converting Product Terms to Standard SOP
• Example: Convert the following Boolean expression into standard SOP
form:
• Solution:
= + +
= + +
= + +
= + +

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The Product-of-Sums (POS) Form

• When two or more sum terms are multiplied, the resulting expression
is a product-of-sums (POS). Some examples are

• A POS expression can contain a single-variable term, as in

In a POS expression, a single overbar cannot extend over more than
one variable; however, more than one variable in a term can have an
overbar.
• For example, a POS expression can have the term but not

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 Implementation of a POS Expression
• Implementing a POS expression simply requires ANDing the outputs
of two or more OR gates. A sum term is produced by an OR operation,
and the product of two or more sum terms is produced by an AND
operation.
• For example, the implementation of the POS expression (A + B)(B + C
+ D)(A + C) is shown in the figure below:

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The Standard POS Form

• A standard POS expression is one in which all the variables in the
domain appear in each sum term in the expression. For example,
• is a standard POS expression.
• Converting a Sum Term to Standard POS
• A nonstandard POS expression is converted into standard form by
using the following steps:
• Step1: Add to each nonstandard product term a term made up of the
product of the missing variable and its complement .
• Step2: Apply rule 12: A + BC = (A + B)(A + C)
• Step3: Repeat Step 1 until all resulting sum terms contain all variables
in the domain in either complemented or uncomplemented form.

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 Converting a Sum Term to Standard POS
• Example: Convert the following Boolean expression into standard POS
form:
• Solution

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Converting Standard SOP to Standard POS

• Step 1: Evaluate each product term in the SOP expression. That is,
determine the binary numbers that represent the product terms.

• Step 2: Determine all of the binary numbers not included in the

evaluation in Step 1.

• Step 3: Write the equivalent sum term for each binary number from
Step 2 and express in POS form.
Note: Using a similar procedure, you can go from POS to SOP.

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 Converting Standard SOP to Standard POS
• Example: Convert the following SOP expression to an equivalent POS
expression:
• Solution:
The evaluation is as follows:
000 + 010 + 011 + 101 + 111
• Since there are three variables in the domain of this expression, there
are a total of eight (23) possible combinations. The SOP expression
contains five of these combinations, so the POS must contain the
other three which are 001, 100, and 110.
• Remember, these are the binary values that make the sum term 0.
The equivalent POS expression is

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Boolean Expressions and Truth Tables

• A truth table is simply a list of the possible combinations of input variable values
and the corresponding output values (1 or 0).
• The truth table is a common way of presenting the logical operation of a circuit.
• Standard SOP or POS expressions can be determined from a truth table.

Converting SOP Expressions to Truth Table Format

Step1: construct a truth table by listing all possible combinations of binary values of
the variables in the expression.
Step2: convert the SOP expression to standard form if it is not already.
Step3: place a 1 in the output column (X) for each binary value that makes the
standard SOP expression a 1 and place a 0 for all the remaining binary values.

• Note: an SOP expression is equal to 1 only if at least one of the product terms is
equal to 1

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 Converting SOP Expressions to Truth Table
Format
Example: Develop a truth table for the standard SOP expression

Solution:

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Boolean Expressions and Truth Tables

Converting POS Expressions to Truth Table Format
Step1: list all the possible combinations of binary values of the
variables just as was done for the SOP expression.
Step2: convert the POS expression to standard form if it is not already.
Step3: place a 0 in the output column (X) for each binary value that
makes the expression a 0 and place a 1 for all the remaining binary
values.

• Note: a POS expression is equal to 0 only if at least one of the sum

terms is equal to 0.

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 Converting POS Expressions to Truth Table Format
• Example: Determine the truth table for the following standard POS
expression:

• Solution

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Determining Standard Expressions from a Truth Table

Determining the standard SOP expression represented by a truth table
• Step1: list the binary values of the input variables for which the
output is 1.
• Step2: Convert each binary value to the corresponding product term
by replacing each 1 with the corresponding variable and each 0 with
the corresponding variable complement. For example, the binary
value 1010 is converted to a product term as follows:

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 Determining Standard Expressions from a Truth Table
• Determining the standard POS expression represented by a truth
table
Step1: list the binary values for which the output is 0.
Step2: Convert each binary value to the corresponding sum term by
replacing each 1 with the corresponding variable complement and each
0 with the corresponding variable. For example, the binary value 1001
is converted to a sum term as follows:

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Determining Standard Expressions from a Truth Table

• Example: From the truth table below, determine the standard SOP
expression and the equivalent standard POS expression.

Solution:

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 Karnaugh map
• A Karnaugh map provides a systematic method for simplifying
Boolean expressions and, if properly used, will produce the simplest
SOP or POS expression possible, known as the minimum expression.
• A Karnaugh map is similar to a truth table because it presents all of
the possible values of input variables and the resulting output for
each value.
• The Karnaugh map is an array of cells in which each cell represents a
binary value of the input variables.
• The cells are arranged in a way so that simplification of a given
expression is simply a matter of properly grouping the cells.

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Karnaugh Map
• The 3-variable Karnaugh map is an array of eight cells, as shown in the
figure below:
010 cell is adjacent to the 000 cell, the 011
cell, and the 110 cell

• The 4-variable Karnaugh map is an array of sixteen cells, as shown in the

figure
In “wrap-around” adjacency, the cells in the
top row are adjacent to the corresponding cells
in the bottom row and the cells in the outer
left column are adjacent to the corresponding
cells in the outer right column.

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 Karnaugh Map SOP Minimization
Mapping a Standard SOP Expression
• For an SOP expression in standard form, a 1 is placed on the Karnaugh map for
each product term in the expression.
• Each 1 is placed in a cell corresponding to the value of a product term. For
example, for the product term ABC, a 1 goes in the 101 cell on a 3-variable map.
• When an SOP expression is completely mapped, there will be a number of 1s on
the Karnaugh map equal to the number of product terms in the standard SOP
expression as shown in the figure below.

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Karnaugh Map SOP Minimization

• Example: Map the following standard SOP expression on a Karnaugh
map:
• Solution:

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 Mapping a Nonstandard SOP Expression
• Note: A Boolean expression must first be in standard form before you
use a Karnaugh map. If an expression is not in standard form, then it
must be converted to standard form.

• Numerical Expansion of a Nonstandard Product Term

• Assume that one of the product terms in a 3-variable expression is B,
then it can be expanded numerically to standard form as follow:
Write the binary value of the variable; then attach all possible values
for the missing variables A and C as follows:

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Mapping a Nonstandard SOP Expression

• Example: Map the following SOP expression on a Karnaugh map:

Solution:

• Notice that some of the values in the expanded expression are

redundant.

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 Karnaugh Map Simplification of SOP Expressions
The process that results in an expression containing the fewest
possible terms with the fewest possible variables is called
minimization.

After an SOP expression has been mapped, a minimum SOP

expression is obtained by grouping the 1s and determining the
minimum SOP expression from the map.

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Karnaugh Map Simplification of SOP Expressions

Grouping the 1s
You can group 1s on the Karnaugh map according to the following rules by
enclosing those adjacent cells containing 1s. The goal is to maximize the size of
the groups and to minimize the number of groups.
A group must contain either 1, 2, 4, 8, or 16 cells, which are all powers of
two. In the case of a 3-variable map, 23 = 8 cells is the maximum group.
Each cell in a group must be adjacent to one or more cells in that same
group, but all cells in the group do not have to be adjacent to each other.
Always include the largest possible number of 1s in a group in accordance
with rule 1.
Each 1 on the map must be included in at least one group. The 1s already in
a group can be included in another group as long as the overlapping groups
include noncommon 1s.

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 Grouping 1s on the Karnaugh map
• Example: Group the 1s in each of the Karnaugh maps

• Solution

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Determining the Minimum SOP Expression from

the Map
1. Group the cells that have 1s. Each group of cells containing 1s creates
one product term composed of all variables that occur in only one
form (either uncomplemented or complemented) within the group.
Variables that occur both uncomplemented and complemented within
the group are eliminated. These are called contradictory variables.
2. Determine the minimum product term for each group.
3. When all the minimum product terms are derived from the Karnaugh
map, they are summed to form the minimum SOP expression.

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 Determining the Minimum SOP Expression from
the Map
Example: Determine the product terms for the Karnaugh map in the
figure below and write the resulting minimum SOP expression.

Solution:
• The resulting minimum SOP expression is the sum of these product
terms:

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Determining the Minimum SOP Expression from the Map

Example: Determine the product terms for each of the Karnaugh maps in the figures below and
write the resulting minimum SOP expression.

Solution: The minimum SOP expressions for each of the Karnaugh maps in the figures are:

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 Karnaugh map
• Example: Use a Karnaugh map to minimize the following standard SOP
expression:

• Solution:
• The binary values of the expression are 101 + 011 + 001 + 000 + 100
• Map the standard SOP expression and group the cells as shown in the figure below:

• Then, the resulting minimum SOP expression is

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Karnaugh map
• Example: Use a Karnaugh map to minimize the following SOP
expression:

• Solution:
• The first term must be expanded into and to get the
standard SOP expression, which is then mapped; the cells are
grouped as shown below:

• The resulting minimum SOP expression is

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