FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY (FTK)

PROCESS AND SUSTAINABILITY IN BIOTECHNOLOGY

(BNN20403)
SEM I SESSION 2023/2024

BIOTECHNOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY: A CASE STUDY IN SUSTAINABILITY

GROUP 5

NAME OF GROUP MEMBERS 1) HAIKAL HAFIY BIN ABDUL KADIR

(CN220395)
2) NUR NEESA IRDIENA BINTI HAFISZAL
(AN220119)
3) NUR SYAFIQAH RIZA SAHLAN
(AN220143)
4) SITI SYAZLIANA BINTI MD SAAD
(AN220087)
5) SOFIAH UMAIRAH BINTI ABDUL RAHIM
(AN220031)

LECTURER’S NAME 1) TS. DR. NASRUL FIKRY BIN CHE PA

2) TS. DR. 'AISYAH BINTI MOHAMED REHAN

DATE OF SUBMISSION
 Table Of Content

Organisation Chart & Job Scope 2

1.0 Introduction 4
1.1 Implications of biodiversity loss to the viability of biotechnological advancements. 6
2.0 Literature Review 7
2.1 Habitat Loss & Fragmentation 7
2.2 Overexploitation of Resources 12
2.3 Pollutions 17
2.4 Invasive Alien Species 21
2.5 Climate Change 25
3.0 Causes and Effects 29
3.1 Habitat Loss & Fragmentation 29
3.2 Overexploitation of Resources 31
3.3 Pollutions 32
3.4 Invasive Alien Species 34
3.5 Climate Change 35
4.0 Proposed Solutions 37
4.1 Short-Term Solutions 37
4.2 Medium-Term Solutions 38
4.3 Long-Term Solutions 39
Conclusion 47
References 48
Appendix 53

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Organisation Chart & Job Scope

Figure 1: Organisation Chart

Understanding the overall objective and the composition of the project subcommittees
is crucial, as indicated by the organisation chart allocated as previously said. Our group's
assignment is to create a case study that examines the effects of biodiversity loss as specific
areas selected for the Process and Sustainability in Biotechnology course. Because they each
provide a special set of abilities and knowledge to the project, the subcommittees are essential
to reaching this goal. This cooperative framework maximises effectiveness and knowledge,
which adds to a thorough and significant case study on the relationship between
biotechnology and biodiversity degradation.

The project manager is in charge of the case study project as a whole and makes sure
it runs well. Setting goals for the project, creating schedules, and organising team members'
activities are all part of the responsibilities. In addition to managing risks and making sure the
project stays on course, the project manager is in charge of making strategic decisions.
Leadership and effective communication abilities are essential for this position.

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 The Research and Data Analysis subcommittee is in charge of acquiring pertinent
information on biodiversity loss, particularly in the context of biotechnology. This includes
performing literature reviews, interpreting scientific articles, and gathering data with other
teammates to better understand the variables contributing to biodiversity loss. The team will
also look at how biotechnology methods affect ecosystems and species diversity.

The subcommittee on outreach and communication is in charge of distributing

information within the team regarding the case study and its conclusions. Creating plans to
interact with relevant parties, conveying the value of conserving biodiversity, and increasing
public knowledge of the function of biotechnology are all included in this. Reports,
presentations, social media, and other platforms can all be used as communication conduits.

The task of creating an interesting and powerful visual representation of the case
study's conclusions falls to the Presentation and Design subcommittee. This includes making
visuals, developing any required images or illustrations, and designing presentations. The
group makes sure the data is accessible to a range of audiences and is presented in an
engaging manner.

The subcommittee responsible for resource coordination oversees the project's

logistics. This includes determining and assigning the resources required for outreach, design,
and research projects. The group makes sure that everyone on the team has access to the
resources, knowledge, and assistance they need. They might also take care of scheduling,
budgeting, and other administrative duties.

In essence, each subcommittee plays a specialised role, contributing distinct expertise

to the collaborative effort of conducting a case study on the intricate interplay between
biotechnology and the loss of biodiversity.

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1.0 Introduction

The case study of this project was constructed on a specific affected area which is “loss of
biodiversity”. Biodiversity may refer to the variety among living things from all origins,
including terrestrial, marine lives and other aquatic ecosystems (David Elisha & Jebbin Felix,
2020). This involves variations within species, among different species, and across diverse
ecosystems. Biodiversity provides ecosystem solutions that significantly contribute to human
well-being. It plays a crucial role in both human-managed and natural ecosystems. Choices made
by humans that impact biodiversity directly affect the well-being of individuals and
communities.The environmental benefits of humans such as clean air, safe water, productive
soils, fertile lands, and a balanced climate, are outcomes of the intricate workings of life.
Nevertheless, human activities including deforestation, erosion, urbanisation, industrialization,
pollution, fossil fuel consumption, and overfishing, have caused disturbances to this biodiversity.

All of these human activities can have impactful consequences that can disrupt the
ecosystem and human well- being and lead to the loss of biodiversity. Biodiversity loss indicates
a reduction in the diversity and abundance of living organisms, including the variety of species,
ecosystems, and genetic diversity within species. The ecological effects of biodiversity loss often
counteract its effects. In simple terms, biodiversity loss involves the ongoing extinction of species
globally or disappearance of species in a particular habitat.

Biodiversity loss, also known as a decrease in biodiversity, refers to a reduction in the

variety of living things in a species, an ecosystem, a specific location, or the entire Earth
(Biodiversity Loss - Habitat Destruction, Species Extinction, Ecosystems | Britannica, n.d.).
Biodiversity, also known as biological diversity, encompasses the quantity of genes, species,
individual organisms within a species, and biological communities within a specified geographic
region, ranging from small ecosystems to the global biosphere. Likewise, the loss of biodiversity
signifies a reduction in the quantity, genetic diversity, and distribution of species, as well as
biological communities within each region. This decrease in the diversity of life can lead to
disturbances in the functioning of the ecosystem experiencing the decline (Biodiversity Loss -
Habitat Destruction, Species Extinction, Ecosystems | Britannica, n.d.).

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 Biodiversity loss happens in two ways. Firstly, there is a remarkable and faster than
normal disappearance of plant and animal species. Secondly, entire ecosystems in coastal and
marine regions, inland watersheds, forests, and drylands are getting wiped out because of
pollution, changes in land use, and climate change. According to the Living Planet Index (LPI)
created by the World Wildlife Fund, which tracks population trends for various species, animal
populations were, on average, one-third smaller in 2008 compared to 1970.

Biodiversity loss is often thought of as the disappearance of wild species, focusing on

species diversity in natural areas. However, this is just one part of a larger picture. Biodiversity
also includes the variety of plants, animals, and birds that enhance our lives, the diverse foods we
consume, and the biofuels and biofibres powering our activities. It goes beyond species
supporting traditional medicine or pharmaceuticals; it encompasses the entire range of living
things affecting human, animal, and plant health. So, biodiversity loss involves more than just the
extinction of species; it touches every aspect of our interconnected natural world (Billé et al.,
2013).

There is no doubt that the loss of biodiversity affects ecosystems and human societies in a
profound way. Its effects are ecological, societal and economic. Ecological food webs can be
irritated by biodiversity loss because every species has a distinct function in keeping things in
balance. Certain species' decline or extinction can cause others to become overpopulated and
change the dynamics of the relationship between predators and prey. For societal and economic
reasons, it impacts local livelihoods. Natural resources are the primary source of income for a
large number of communities, particularly in developing nations. Industries that may be
negatively impacted by a decline in biodiversity include forestry, agriculture, and fishing (HOME
| WWF, n.d.).

A major worldwide issue with significant ecological and economic ramifications is the
loss of biodiversity, which includes the extinction of species, genetic diversity, and ecosystems.
The complex balance of ecosystems has been harmed by human activities that have accelerated
the rate at which species are disappearing, such as habitat destruction, pollution, and climate
change. Having an understanding of the seriousness of biodiversity loss is essential to creating
strategies that effectively alleviate its effects and advertise peaceful coexistence between Earth's
diverse life forms and human societies.

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1.1 Implications of biodiversity loss to the viability of biotechnological advancements.

Biodiversity loss, a consequence of various anthropogenic activities, has far-reaching

implications for the sustainability of biotechnological innovations. In this intricate relationship,
the diversity of life forms the foundation for many biotechnological applications, influencing
their efficacy, resilience, and ethical considerations.

One critical impact of biodiversity loss on biotechnology lies in the depletion of genetic
resources. Biodiversity provides a vast array of genetic traits essential for developing resilient
crops, medicines, and industrial processes. As species disappear, the genetic diversity available
for biotechnological innovations diminishes, potentially compromising the adaptability and
sustainability of engineered organisms (Salgotra & Chauhan, 2023).

Continuing, the loss of biodiversity can upset ecological balances, impacting the success of
biotechnological innovations that interact with ecosystems. Applications such as biocontrol or
bioremediation may face challenges as the dynamics of species interactions change, affecting the
stability and effectiveness of these innovations (Adla et al., 2022).

Beyond species diversity, biodiversity encompasses functional diversity, including different

ecological roles and interactions. The loss of key functional components can affect the stability
and effectiveness of biotechnological innovations relying on diverse microbial communities or
symbiotic relationships (Pretty & Bharucha, 2015).

Biodiversity loss raises ethical concerns tied to the impact of biotechnological innovations on
remaining ecosystems and their inhabitants. Sustainable biotechnological practices must navigate
these ethical considerations, ensuring that innovations contribute positively to societal well-being
without exacerbating ecological degradation (Macfarlane et al., 2022).

In conclusion, the interplay between biodiversity loss and the sustainability of biotechnological
innovations highlights the need for a comprehensive and ethical approach. Addressing these
challenges requires a holistic perspective that considers genetic, ecological, and ethical
dimensions, striving for innovations that enhance rather than compromise the intricate web of
life.

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2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Habitat Loss & Fragmentation

According to the article titled “Anthropogenic impacts on Late Holocene land-cover

change and floristic biodiversity loss in tropical southeastern Asia,” written by Zhuo Zheng, Ting
Ma, Patrick Roberts, Zhen Li, Yuanfu Yue, Huanhuan Peng, Kangyou Huang, Ziyun Han, Qiuchi
Wan, Yaze Zhang, Xiao Zhang, Yanwei Zheng, and Yoshiki Saito which was published on 27
September, 2021 (Zheng et al., 2021, 1-9). Southeast Asia, which includes southern China, is
home to tropical forests with distinctive endemic flora that dates way back to the end of the
Mesozoic Age and is a rich biodiversity hotspot. However, the increase in urban population,
changes in land use, and climate change brought on by humans are causing these forests to
deforest quickly. The main factor causing the destruction of forests is the growth of agriculture,
which also drastically affects biodiversity. As a result of human interaction with tropical
vegetation, policies in Southeast Asia are addressing habitat manipulation and biodiversity loss,
emphasizing the necessity of sustainable practices. Rice cultivation in Southeast Asia began
around 4,000 years ago, with agricultural technology and coastal plains providing ample areas for
cultivation. This expansion changed regional and global climates and produced methane
emissions due to the influence of immigrants and tropical forest cover. This emphasizes the
significance of rice cultivation in Asia. According to the study, the proportion of arboreal pollen
in Chinese forests dropped to less than 50% of total terrestrial pollen at around 2 ka. In
mountainous regions, forest cover decreased, suggesting either a drier climate or a significant
human influence on vegetation. Most sites saw a notable decline in forest cover by 1 ka, which
happened to coincide with another wave of war refugees from the Chinese Tang and Song
Dynasties. This implies increased clearing through slash-and-burn methods. A key component of
pollen identification, which usually reaches taxonomic levels, is the change in plant richness.
This study analyzes pollen data in two taxonomic hierarchies using rarefaction curves, revealing
patterns that are consistent throughout tropical and subtropical regions. Additionally, pollen
taxonomic biases were found to be negligible, and data gathered from various sedimentary
archives revealed consistent patterns across various sites. The decline of dominant trees, which
are invariably present in pollen assemblages, has resulted in a reduction in pollen richness in
tropical forests. Since two thousand years ago, other arboreal pollen taxa such as Randia,
Aphanamixis, Sterculia, Symplocos, Antidesma, and Theaceae have become rare or nonexistent,

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suggesting a decrease in floral biodiversity. The DCA data show that there has been a noticeable
shift in the vegetation and pollen composition in tropical and subtropical areas, which suggests
that widespread deforestation has begun. Because of the decrease in arboreal pollen levels,
rarefaction analysis shows notable changes in vegetation composition, underscoring the negative
effects of human-induced deforestation on floristic diversity.

Next, based on a journal titled “Land-use history impacts functional diversity across
multiple trophic groups,” written by Gaëtane Le Provost, Isabelle Badenhausser, Yoann Le
Bagousse-Pinguet, Yann Clough, Laura Henckel, Cyrille Viollei, Vincent Bretagnolle, Marilyn
Roncoroni, Peter Manning, and Nicolas Gross and published on 6 January, 2020 (Provost et al.,
2020, 1573-1579). Changes in land use have a major impact on biodiversity, causing habitat
destruction and a decline in biodiversity worldwide. Limiting species extinctions and the decline
of biodiversity requires an understanding of how species respond over the long term to changes in
land use. It is challenging to generalize biodiversity responses to land-use changes because
species can differ greatly in how they react to these changes. An ecosystem's ability to adapt to
upcoming environmental changes is largely dependent on its trait diversity, which is critical to
agricultural landscapes. Gaining insight into how functional diversity responds over time to
changes in land use may help us better manage agricultural biodiversity and ensure the long-term,
sustainable functioning of agroecosystems. The study examines the effects of various land-use
historical factors on western French agricultural landscapes, with a particular emphasis on crop
productivity. For agricultural landscapes to retain biodiversity, permanent grasslands are
essential. The conversion of grasslands into cropland has negative impacts on agroecosystems
both immediately and over time, especially among low-mobility organisms and species with
restricted feeding niches. Preserving permanent grasslands in the surrounding landscape helps to
offset this loss by offering numerous species stable, diverse, and abundant habitats in which to
persist and migrate. The diversity of mobility traits decreases linearly with the amount of time
that the landscape has been converted to cropland, whereas the diversity of resource-acquisition
traits responds hump-shaped. The productivity of grassland fields has a negative impact on the
diversity of resource-acquisition traits because it homogenizes species' resource-use strategies
globally at higher trophic levels. Determining how long this effect lasts is crucial to preventing
the extinction of species. The results show that land-use changes that happened up to 20 years
ago continue to have an impact on functional biodiversity. The study highlights how important it
is for conservation programs to take land-use legacies into account, especially when it comes to

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maintaining permanent grasslands in agricultural landscapes, in order to maintain functionality
and prevent future extinction debt.

Furthermore, according to the article “Quantification of habitat fragmentation reveals

extinction risk in terrestrial mammals by Kevin R. Crooks, Christopher L. Burdett, David M.
Theobald, Sarah R. B. King, Moreno Di Marcoe, Carlo Rondinini, and Luigi Boitani, which was
published on 03 July 2017 (Crooks et al., 2017, 7635-7640). Global biodiversity is seriously
threatened by human activity, with 27% of mammalian species facing extinction. One of the main
causes of habitat degradation is habitat fragmentation, which is the division of continuous habitat
into smaller, spatially distinct patches. Natural patchiness and human disturbances can cause this
fragmentation, which can result in decreased animal mobility, a decline in population, and a
destruction of the connectivity of the landscape. The extent of terrestrial mammal habitat
fragmentation and its correlation with extinction risk remain poorly understood, despite the
importance they hold. Mammals are most at risk of going extinct because of fragmentation, even
though it plays a vital role in their survival. Mammals with smaller bodies, limited ranges, and
fragmented habitats are most at risk of going extinct. Fragmentation raises the risk of extinction,
especially for small-range species. While range-restricted species have specific habitat
preferences and narrow environmental niches, large-ranged species are typically habitat
generalists. There are fewer high-suitability habitats and protected areas within their range as a
result of this fragmentation. Only 48.6% of the 4,018 terrestrial mammal species evaluated in the
study were found to have high-suitability habitat, and only 3.6% were found to be within
recognized protected areas. This demonstrates how inadequate the worldwide network of
protected areas is. There is widespread habitat degradation in the world's hotspots for mammal
habitat, especially in the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Human development
has caused the Amazon Basin, a vital global hotspot of core mammalian habitat, to deforest
quickly; however, recent policy-driven government action has slowed this destruction. Mammals'
worldwide fragmentation must be addressed immediately to ensure their survival and well-being.
This can be done by implementing efficient conservation strategies such as mapping
fragmentation hotspots, phylogenetic comparative analysis, fragmentation as a predictor of
extinction risk, and habitat-suitability models.

According to a journal titled “Invasive predators and global biodiversity loss” written by
Tim S. Doherty, Alistair S. Glen, Dale G. Nimmo, Euan G. Ritchie, and Chris R. Dickman on

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July 16 of 2016 (Doherty et al., 2016, 11261-11265). Invasive mammalian predators pose a
significant risk to biodiversity, such as stoats, rats, cats, and mongooses. These predators are the
cause of competition, disease transmission, extinction of native species, and predation.
Degradation of landscapes and a reduction in nutrient input are two outcomes of native species
extinction and decline on ecosystems that can cascade together. Although international
conservation organizations strive to mitigate these harmful consequences, there is a lack of global
understanding regarding the role invasive predators play in the decline and extinction of species.
Mammalian species, including 596 threatened and 142 extinct, have suffered at the hands of
thirty invasive mammalian predators from eight families and thirteen orders. Invasive predators
pose a threat to 596 species, of which 23 could become extinct, 217 are vulnerable, 223
endangered, and 156 are critically endangered. The highest number of species extinctions have
happened in Madagascar and Central America; these are followed by Australia, Madagascar,
New Zealand, Hawaii and Polynesia. Controlling invasive predators on islands is crucial to global
conservation because they have an impact on most affected species. The expense of controlling or
eradicating these predators could make their detrimental effects on native species worse.
Predator-proof fencing, improved management of land, and deadly surveillance are all
components of a whole-ecosystem approach needed to stop the ecological release of undesirable
species.

Lastly based on a journal titled “Targeted habitat restoration can reduce extinction rates in
fragmented forests” written by William D. Newmarka, Clinton N. Jenkins, Stuart L. Pimm,
Phoebe B. McNeally, and John M. Halleye on July 21,2017 (Newmark et al., 2017, 9635-9640).
Habitat loss is a primary cause of species extinction, although it can frequently be postponed
since species can coexist in fragmented landscapes. A chance for habitat restoration and
conservation presents itself in the form of faunal collapse or relaxation, as this delay is known.
Habitat restoration increases population size and viability by expanding the amount of available
habitat. Research from national parks in Tanzania and North America, artificial islands in Chiew
Larn Reservoir, and remnants of Amazonian forests provides valuable insights into the challenges
of mitigating species loss in habitat remnants. By regenerating forest fragments at eleven sites,
conservation attempts to delay the extinction of species in Brazil and Tanzania. By regenerating
about 8,100 hectares of forest in the Eastern Arc Mountains and 6,500 hectares in the Atlantic
Forest, it is possible to reconnect 77% of the remaining forest in the Eastern Arc, 23% in Rio de
Janeiro, and 33% in the Pontal do Paranapanema region of São Paulo. This rapid regeneration is

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crucial to minimizing the loss of species over time and restoring connections between the largest
forest fragments. The study focuses on the possibility that understory bird species can
successfully disperse between forest fragments through reforested linkages. These species are
dependent on the age and habitat structure of the linkage. The study regions' mean time to first
extinction of less than ten years for all forest fragments suggests that reforestation might not be
enough to save extinction-prone species. A recent review of reforestation in the Atlantic Forest
found that the regeneration of biologically diverse and structurally complex forests takes 10–40
years. We need species-specific data on bird movement through regenerated forest with different
ages and habitat types to assess whether understory bird species that are most at risk of
extinction—insectivores and forest interior species, in particular.

In light of this discovery, habitat loss and fragmentation pose the biggest risks to the
diversity of life currently existing on Earth. We could observe that the current state of natural life
is perilous, since it is being threatened by human materialism. The flora and wildlife of Earth
will gradually diminish due to human destruction of the environment, eventually becoming
extinct. Thus, we should begin to take biodiversity seriously right now because healthy
ecosystems—which are necessary to give us access to food and air—cannot exist without a
diverse range of plants, animals, and microorganisms.

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2.2 Overexploitation of Resources

According to the article "Present and future biodiversity risks from fossil fuel
exploitation," although fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas still power most of modern
human society, it also ultimately depends on the products and services that biodiversity provides.
The extraction of fossil fuels has an indirect impact on biodiversity due to climate change,
increased accessibility, habitat loss, and pollution. The influence that fossil fuel extraction can
have on biodiversity and the benefits it offers to human society today and in the future was
discussed in this article. Exploration activities such as drilling exploratory wells and surveys can
cause habitat modification and noise pollution, which can affect biodiversity even before fossil
fuels are extracted. Marine seismic surveys can induce physiological effects and disturb the
behaviour of species. They can emit some of the most extreme anthropogenic noises in the ocean.
(Di Lorio and Clark,2 010). Fossil fuel extraction has two primary effects on biodiversity: either
directly through habitat disturbance, pollution, or deterioration at the extraction sites, or indirectly
through increased access for farmers, hunters, and loggers. These effects go beyond species that
live on the surface of the earth. Following extraction, the distribution, processing, and use of
fossil fuels have an immediate negative influence on biodiversity due to habitat destruction
brought on by pollution and infrastructure expansion (Parish et al., 2013). By releasing
greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, the combustion of fossil fuels also
plays a role in climate change. The direct effects of fossil fuel exploration and exploitation on
biodiversity have received far less attention. Six global and spatially explicit data sets were
successfully assembled for the study. Existing on-the-ground oil and gas extraction infrastructure
(wells, pipelines, and refineries, HIS,2014)

1) The gas and oil fields. The reservoirs referred to as "near-future fields" are those
where either commercial hydrocarbon production has been established (exploited fields)
or a decision to develop has been made by April 2014 (IHS, 2014). The surface footprint
of subterranean reservoirs is known as a field. Shortly (near-future fields) or present
(exploited fields), biodiversity may be directly impacted by the extraction of oil and gas.

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 2) Contract blocks for gas and oil. This is the region where, as of April 2014, tenders
were requested for future exploitation blocks or where exploration and production
licenses have been granted (referred to as "licensed blocks"). This is because blocks
identify regions where hydrocarbon exploration has previously taken place or is planned,
they facilitate the examination of possible future effects or larger-scale exploration
endeavors, and they demarcate areas where hydrocarbon exploration has previously taken
place or is planned. "Future-exploration blocks" are areas that are expected to have
hydrocarbon production and further exploration in the future.

3) The locations of coal mines, either operational or exploratory. Since there were
significantly fewer data points for coal than for oil and gas infrastructure, any signal from
the coal data would be overshadowed by that from the oil and gas, they often treated coal
mines independently from the infrastructure.

4) 37,583 terrestrial, freshwater, and marine species' distributions were evaluated and
mapped in preparation for the 2014 IUCN Red List (BirdLife International & Nature
Serve). These data can be used to compute two biodiversity metrics, such as species
richness and the range of rarity of the organisms that reside there, as well as the number
of species present in a given area.

5) The dispersal of the 192, 121 officially designated protected areas and places,
which are meant to safeguard ecosystems, wildlife, and the products and services they
offer.

They were able to identify the patterns of global biodiversity thanks to the methodologies.
On land, tropical latitudes had the greatest species density, whereas high latitudes had the lowest
species density. The richness of assessed species varied with latitude. The same latitudinal
gradient is seen in the oceans, but there is an additional gradient that runs from greater species
diversity near coasts to comparatively lower species diversity in open waters. Subsequently, the
majority of the exploitation infrastructure (i.e., 95% by area) was situated on land, with the
majority of oil and gas resources being concentrated in the east of the Arabian Peninsula, Europe,
and North and South Africa. The ability to monitor biodiversity overlap using this method causes
the existing oil and gas infrastructure to be found in both terrestrial and marine habitats with
significantly higher species and range rarity where no exploitation was taking place.

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 Another article by Patrick Greenfield, Phoebe Weston, and Ajit Niranjan titled "A
Biodiversity Catastrophe: How the world could look in 2050- unless we act now" demonstrates
just how terrible biodiversity exploitation is. Experts have warned that by the middle of this
country, the ongoing devastation of the environment will have severely impacted food supplies
and clean water sources, led to the extinction of rare species, and destroyed landscapes essential
to human culture and leisure. If humankind fails to address the five primary drivers of nature loss
by 2050, vital environmental systems may collapse at the same time as the population is expected
to peak. If nothing is done before the middle of the century, there could be extinctions, a sharp
increase in the number of alien species (which frequently bring new diseases), widespread plastic
pollution, declining fish populations, and diminishing forests. According to biologist Sandra
Myrna Diaz (2019), "the proportion of nature in direct contact with the wider public will continue
shrinking." Over the past 10,000 years, humans have cut nearly a third of all forests for farming,
and scientists believe that we are already destroying important ecosystems, such as the world's
most biodiverse tropical rainforests. Furthermore, specialists caution that distinctive dry
environments are equally vulnerable. "South Africa's Karoo landscape is changing, shaped by
changing farming systems, increased investments in mining and renewable energy, and by climate
change," said Emma Archer, a professor of geography and environmental science at the
University of Pretoria. "If humans do not take necessary actions to conserve biodiversity, the
world's future and that of our people can be described in one word which is desert”, she said.
According to researchers, humans would need 1.7 planet Earths to sustain the current rate of
consumption. As reported by Unai Pascual of the Basque Centre for Climate Change, if resource
demand is not adequately managed, population growth and urbanization will increase. She also
added that effective management should guarantee that there is room for wildlife in urban areas.
This is because, by 2050, almost two-thirds of the world's estimated 10 billion people will reside
in cities. There's little doubt that this will raise the amount of energy needed to control the
increasingly complicated urban metabolism. There will probably be more extreme human
suffering if we fail to preserve and improve urban biodiversity, particularly for the most
vulnerable urban residents on the planet.

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 Several scientists have identified the consumption and collapse of fisheries as a hazard
following decades of overfishing of important species for human consumption. "Without decisive
action, the action's productivity and consequently the world fish catch is set to decline sharply
due to seawater warming and acidification caused by climate change," stated Dr. Jean-Marc
Fromentin of the marine protection organisation UMR Marbec. In tropical oceans, where wild
fish are crucial to the food security of nearby coastal communities, this reduction will be
particularly severe. This article by Ray Hilborn and Anthony R.E. Sinclair (2021) titled
"Biodiversity protection in the 21st century needs intact habitat and protection from
overexploitation whether inside or outside parks" can help us learn more about marine
biodiversity. In the ocean, target species abundance has been reduced by 60-70%, and non-target
species, especially marine birds, mammals, and reptiles, have frequently suffered greatly from
fishing, and only 15 marine birds, mammals, and fish have gone extinct and none in the last 50
years despite major increases in fishing pressure, major declines in target species have been
linked to expanding industrial fisheries from 1950 to 1995. Ocean fishing has a considerably
smaller impact on ecosystems, and if exploitation is controlled, all species can survive outside of
no-take zones. Where fisheries management is successful, these decreases have now mostly
reversed and stocks are rising (Hilborn, 2020). Non-target species and delicate ecosystems like
coral reefs, which are prone to a variety of pressures like land runoff, warnings, and overfishing
in some areas, are currently the main concerns for ocean biodiversity. The primary distinction
between terrestrial and marine environments is that the former is characterised by extensive
human habitation and agricultural practices, which radically change the trophic levels and disrupt
the food chain. On the other hand, when fishing is controlled, marine ecosystems usually
maintain the majority of their low-trophic level food chain structure. Protected areas may be
required as undisturbed reference sites in maritime systems. Additionally, parks are the most
efficient way to maintain biodiversity in areas where extraction rates can be effectively managed
inside them but not outside of them. However, the majority of marine biodiversity is found
outside of marine protected zones, meaning that MPAs are insufficient to safeguard it. As human
pressures increase, enforcing MPAs will become more difficult, therefore, the main source of
protection must come from improved management of outside fisheries. Future research in these
fields must concentrate on figuring out how to combine increased human food security with the
long-term viability of biota required for ecological stability.

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 To sum up, it is undeniable that the uncontrolled exploitation of these natural resources
has a great impact on the loss of biodiversity. If it is not controlled now, it is up to the next
generation to bear the consequences. All this cannot be denied because it is an inattentive and
greedy human activity. It is people like this that are the reason why we have to bear the
consequences such as lack of natural resources such as food, water and so on. All the adverse
consequences and phenomena of nature will occur more frequently if these exploitative activities
continue to be ignored. Extreme exploitation will also expose us to a host of new diseases. This
can all be clearly seen when we are exposed to a new virus, namely COVID-19, which was hit
the world in 2020. We have already seen how difficult human life and survival were then.

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2.3 Pollutions

Have you ever wondered about chemical pollution in Eastern Africa? This issue has been
widely separated in those countries. This article will explain about ‘Chemical pollution as a
driver of biodiversity loss and potential deterioration of ecosystem services in Eastern Africa’.
This article was written by Walter Cristiano, Cristina Giacoma, Mario Carere and Laura Mancini
on 15 February 2021. This topic is related to a global environmental issue which is biodiversity
loss with chemical pollution as a major contributor. After a thorough search of the literature, it
was only able to locate 43 studies on the effects of chemical pollution on wildlife in Eastern
Africa that were published between 2001 and 2021. Other than that, it also determined the
percentages of published articles about ecosystems on land and in water. In this article, chemical
pollution is an underestimated risk for the health of tropical ecosystems in middle and low
income countries. Unfortunately, the effect of chemical pollution that releases on biodiversity and
the possible consequences for declining ecosystem products and services in this region have not
been researched. It increases the chemical pollution. There are some examples which are holistic
ideas such as Eco-Health and One Health have surfaced in the past few years. Rich nations have
developed the ideas to reduce and stop the danger of chemicals. This article also expresses the
few studies that have explored the effects of chemical pollution in tropical regions, in contrast to
temperate ecosystems where the effects on biodiversity have been studied for decades. By
examining how pollution affects the animals that live in this ecosystem, the two studies
conducted in Uganda have a shot to discourse the issue of pollution. To sum up, a comprehensive
and cooperative strategy is needed to inscribe the loss of biodiversity brought on by chemical
pollution. Therefore, a responsibility and commitment should be collaborated to change this
harmful effect especially to the world.

As stated in article ‘Pollution and Health’ (2022), this article is focused on pollution that
is caused to human health. It is proven in data analysis that pollution caused 9 million deaths and
US$ 4.6 trillion in economic losses in 2015 with air pollution causing about 6.7 million and water
pollution for 1.4 million deaths. This article evaluates the trends since 2000 and provides an
updated estimate of the health effects of pollution. This becomes worse when the pollution is
increasing day by day. The case of disease and premature death also stated in data analysis. This
is because pollution is the largest factor for the cause of death and disease. This article also stated
that the number of deaths caused by people who smoke. Other than that, chemical pollution is
17
included in this case. Unfortunately, pollution has gone up everywhere, especially in Asia. This
article also highlights the pollution that have been searched since 2010, 1794677 of articles have
been found. It shows that the pollution increases with the largest data in the range of 2017-2019
years. An increasing amount of research indicates that air pollution may move far in the wind,
water, food chain, and consumer goods, even though the majority of it stays close to the sources
of pollution in the countries of origin. Besides, lead, arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and pesticide
pollution of soil and water results in contaminated grains, seafood, chocolate, and vegetables
grown in LMICs that are exported. To cut a long story short, pollution is a serious worldwide
problem that needs to be addressed immediately and requires cooperation from all sectors of
society, including governments, businesses, and communities. Numerous types of pollution pose
serious risks to biodiversity, human health, and the environment. A sustainable and healthy future
for future generations is contingent upon our collective efforts to safeguard the environment,
maintain biodiversity, and protect it.

Another article is ‘Biodiversity Loss - introducing the next environmental crisis’ which
discusses the impact of biodiversity loss on natural capital and the rapidly changing regulatory
and policy landscape (Ann Meoni, Harry Spence-McCarthy, May 2022). Earth Overshoot Day
has been observed annually since 1970, and rising global economic activity is speeding up the
loss of biodiversity. The variety found in living things from all sources, such as terrestrial,
marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, is known as biodiversity. Biodiversity loss is not just about
environmental issues but it also involves an interconnected challenge to existing environmental
issues and give increase to new crises. Due to their reliance on natural resources and the
ecosystem services that biodiversity provides, most businesses have a significant direct and
indirect impact on the loss of biodiversity. However, society is typically responsible for economic
activity and is in charge of the outstanding rate of biodiversity loss. There is evidence of growing
regulatory interest and engagement on the topic, and investors can play a significant role in
resolving the problem. This destruction comes from economic loss. Ecosystems must remain
appropriate in order to continue providing ecosystem services and losses in biodiversity result in
comparable economic losses. It also stated about pollution prevention for preventing biodiversity
loss. Businesses and policy makers are taking action to stop the loss of biodiversity, but some
others take the matters lightly. In order to appropriately price the externality and value of natural
capital, stronger government regulations and policies are required. Overall, historically, and even
now, the economic and social value of biodiversity has not been adequately taken into
18
consideration. Governments, businesses, and individuals still do not internalise the costs of
biodiversity loss into their decision-making processes. The biodiversity crisis stems from this
failure, making the need to develop more sustainable solutions urgently growing.

One of the most serious environmental issues that the world is currently dealing with is
pollution. All the information that is required about the pollution will be summarised in this
article which is titled ‘Smoke pollution disrupted biodiversity during the 2015 El Nino fires in
Southeast Asia’. This article was written by Benjamin P Y-H Lee, Zoe G Davies and Matthew J
Struebig that was published on 20 September in 2017. This study used acoustic activity data from
a flyover to investigate how the Southeast Asian haze of 2015 affected Singapore's wildlife
population (Benyamin P Y-H Lee, Zoe G Davies, Matthew J Struebig, 2017, September 20). The
findings revealed an inhibition in acoustic activity during the haze, which suggested a decline in
ecosystem functioning and biodiversity. Millions of people were impacted by an air pollution
crisis brought on by the smoke-induced haze that resulted from forest and peatland fires during
the 2015 El Nino drought, which was a major source of carbon emissions across Southeast Asia.
It is possible that air pollution brought on by smoke directly resulted in the death of important
members of the ecological community. Furthermore, in this article, it's possible that important
members of the ecological community died directly as a result of smoke-induced air pollution
that are some of the explanations for the observed death trends. However, it provides evidence
that air pollution from 2015 Southeast Asia had a negative impact on biodiversity. To get more
understanding about how the air pollution crisis will affect the environment, it will require more
research in the future.

Lastly, this article is about ‘Impact of Pollution on Biodiversity.’ In this article, it stated
that pollution has a greater impact on plants than on animals. Human activity-related
environmental pollution is a worldwide problem that may cause diseases, allergies and even
death to plants and animals including humans. Invasive species, pollution, climate change,
overexploitation, and habitat degradation pose threats to biodiversity, which is valuable
economically and necessary for maintaining the health of ecosystems. Changes in the distribution
of species, the extinction of species, modifications in the behaviour of diseases, and both
beneficial and detrimental effects on ecosystems are some of the ways that climate change affects
biodiversity. Pollution poses a threat to biodiversity and has toxicological effects on climate
change, particularly air pollution. Biodiversity is also adversely affected by overexploitation,
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habitat degradation, and invasion by exotic species. One of the biggest problems of the past few
decades is air pollution, which has a significant toxicological influence on climate change.
Additionally, it constitutes a severe risk to biodiversity. Furthermore, aphids are susceptible to the
effects of air pollution, and they can proliferate to take up the space left by more delicate species.
Unfortunately, environmental pollution is affecting the lives of about 40% of the world
population. (Dev Brat, I.R. Pathak, 2020, August)

In conclusion, pollution is a dangerous factor of causes of biodiversity loss that includes

the domains of soil, water, and air. It is also one of the issues that demands immediate and
sustained attention. Everyone knows that pollution is caused by human activities, industrial
processes that may contribute to the harm to the ecosystem and human well-being. Pollution has
serious and wide-ranging effects on soil fertility, water purity, and air quality. It also will affect
the respiratory and diseases to the degradation of biodiversity and disruption of ecological
balances. Moreover, in order to deal with these causes, there are some steps that should be done
which are: use sustainable transportation, reduce, reuse and recycle and apply energy
conservation. Last but not least, pollution can prevent a healthier and sustainable environment.

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2.4 Invasive Alien Species

The journal article "Alien flora causes biotic homogenization in the biodiversity
hotspot regions of India" addresses the issue of biotic homogenization, specifically in the
context of India's biodiversity hotspots. Biotic homogenization refers to the process by which
non-native species invade and cause the local flora and fauna to become more similar over
time. The article discusses the causes and consequences of biotic homogenization, focusing
on the invasion of alien flora in India's biodiversity hotspots. The objective of the article is to
provide a comprehensive understanding of the causes and consequences of biotic
homogenization in the biodiversity hotspot regions of India, with a focus on the invasion of
alien species (IAS) of alien flora. The article finds that the invasion of alien flora is a key
cause of biotic homogenization in the biodiversity hotspot regions of India. The study
highlights the alien flora can lead to the loss of native biodiversity, as they can outcompete
native species for resources and establish themselves in disturbed habitats. Next, alien flora
can also disrupt ecosystem functioning, as they can alter the structure and function of
ecosystems, leading to a decline in native species and an increase in the dominance of
invasive species. The article also identifies several issues related to biotic homogenization,
particularly in the context of India's biodiversity hotspots contributing to the invasion of alien
flora which can lead to the loss of native biodiversity, as they can outcompete native species
for resources and establish themselves in disturbed habitats. Alien flora can also disrupt
ecosystem functioning, as they can alter the structure and function of ecosystems, leading to a
decline in native species and an increase in the dominance of invasive species. In conclusion,
the journal article "Alien flora causes biotic homogenization in the biodiversity hotspot
regions of India" provides valuable insights into the causes and consequences of biotic
homogenization and the need for comprehensive solutions to address this issue. By
understanding the dynamics of biotic homogenization and its impact on native biodiversity
and ecosystem functioning, it is possible to develop effective management strategies to
conserve native species and maintain the integrity of ecosystems in India's biodiversity
hotspots (Wani et al., 2023).

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 Another journal article titled "Impacts of biological invasions: what's what and the
way forward" discusses the consequences of biological invasions on ecosystems and
communities, as well as the need for a comprehensive approach to address these issues. The
article's objective is to review the current state of knowledge on biological invasions and
propose a way forward to address the challenges they pose. Biological invasions can lead to
significant impacts on ecosystems, communities, and human societies. There is a need for a
shift in focus from individual species to prevention, early detection, and rapid response as the
primary management strategies. The article highlights the importance of integrating
ecological perspectives, socioeconomic considerations, and human perceptions of invasions
to address the gaps in management. The objective of this article is to review the current state
of knowledge on biological invasions and their impacts and to propose a comprehensive
approach to address the challenges posed by biological invasions. The article findings consist
of biological invasions which can lead to ecosystem and community transformations, such as
the reduction of habitat complexity and species richness. The article also identifies common
causes and effects of biological invasions, including the introduction of invasive consumer
populations and the resulting changes in ecosystems. Furthermore, the article discusses the
need to bridge the gap between growing scientific understanding of impacts and management
action, emphasising the importance of integrating various perspectives and knowledge. In this
article, it states that prevention, early detection, rapid response, and possible eradication
should be the preferred management strategies for biological invasions. Next, the article also
discusses the underlying ethnic issues related to invasion management and proposes a way
forward towards consensus and social agreement by acknowledging the legitimacy of
different ethnic commitments and working towards overcoming theoretical disagreements
through collective search for practical solutions to problems related to specific invasions. In a
nutshell, the journal article provides a comprehensive review of the impacts of biological
invasions and proposes a way forward to address these challenges. The article emphasises the
need for a shift in focus, integrating various perspectives, and adopting comprehensive
solutions based on scientific principles and practical considerations (Simberloff et al., 2013).

There are also some newspapers which cover the issues related to the invasive alien
species such as the newspaper article "Alien threats to the environment" discusses the impact
of invasive alien species on the environment and the measures taken to address this issue. The
article highlights the continuous inspection and damage control on crops and animals, which

22
incur costs and contribute to pollution due to the use of chemical pesticides and tree cutting
by the invasive alien species management team. This emphasises the economic and
environmental consequences of invasive alien species. The objective of the article is to raise
awareness about the serious threats posed by invasive alien species to the environment,
economy, and health. The findings underscore the increasing severity of the threats and the
need for prioritising actions to mitigate the impacts of invasive alien species on biodiversity,
native species richness, and abundance, as emphasised by experts in the field (‘Alien’ Threats
to the Environment | The Star, n.d.).

Besides, the newspaper article "World losing high-stakes fight against alien species"
discusses the increasing spread of invasive alien species across the globe and the failure of
humanity to control their spread. The article cites a major scientific assessment by the
intergovernmental science advisory panel for the UN Convention on Biodiversity (IPBES),
which highlights the economic and environmental costs of invasive alien species, estimated to
be over US$400 billion per year in damages and lost income. The article also mentions the
Montreal treaty to protect biodiversity, which sets a target of reducing the rate at which
invasive alien species spread by half by 2030, and the three lines of defence against invasive
alien species: prevention, eradication, and containment. The objective of the article is to raise
awareness about the severity of the issue and the need for prioritising actions to mitigate the
impacts of invasive alien species on biodiversity, native species richness, and abundance. The
findings underscore the increasing severity of the threats posed by invasive alien species and
the need for urgent action to address the issue (World Losing High-Stakes Fight against Alien
Species | Malay Mail, n.d.).

Finally, the newspaper article titled "Tackling an emerging biodiversity threat" from
the New Straits Times discusses the challenges posed by invasive alien species to
biodiversity. The article highlights the increasing spread of invasive alien species and their
detrimental impact on native species and ecosystems. It emphasises the need for urgent and
coordinated action to address this emerging threat. The objective of the article is to raise
awareness about the severity of the issue and the need for prioritising actions to mitigate the
impacts of invasive alien species on biodiversity, native species richness, and abundance. The
findings underscore the increasing severity of the threats posed by invasive alien species and

23
the need for urgent action to address the issue, as emphasised by experts in the field (Tackling
an Emerging Biodiversity Threat, n.d.).

To sum up, invasive alien species are a significant driver of biodiversity loss, causing
the decline or extinction of native species and negatively impacting ecosystems. These
species, which include animals, plants, fungi, and microorganisms, often out-compete native
species for resources and are a leading cause of global biodiversity loss. The movement of
people and goods around the world has increased the rate of new introductions, while climate
change is making new areas more hospitable to these species. Invasive alien species also
break down biogeographic realms, affect native species richness and abundance, and increase
the risk of native species extinctions. The negative effects of these species on biodiversity can
be intensified by climate change, habitat destruction, and pollution, with isolated ecosystems
such as islands being particularly affected. The impact of invasive alien species extends to
human health, food security, and livelihoods, making it a critical issue that requires urgent
and coordinated action to address.

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2.5 Climate Change

Based on the article “Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity and Associated Key
Ecosystem Services in Africa: A Systematic Review”, it is emphasised that climate change has
become a significant threat that can impact biodiversity and natural ecosystems. This article also
found that African biodiversity is currently encountering more significant challenges than before
primarily due to climate change. There are two main factors that make the situation worse. First,
the places where species live are now smaller which means there are fewer of them, and they
have less variety in their genes. Having less variety makes it harder for them to adapt to changes
in their environment. Secondly, habitats are more fragmented which hinder the ability of
individuals to change their distribution in response to effects associated with climate change. The
potential loss of species could lead to a decline in their value to humans and a reduction in their
aesthetic appeal. It is predicted that the impact of climate change on biodiversity can lead to rapid
extinction, loss of natural habitats, and shifts in species distribution and abundance in the
twenty-first century. Next, pressures on biodiversity may push ecosystems beyond a "safe
functioning space," entering a danger zone where a limit may be crossed which results in an
irreversible shift to an alternative state. This article also discusses that recent analyses indicate
that rising atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations may trigger major biodiversity
transformations, especially in tropical regions. This issue cannot be underestimated as even a
slight and gradual increase in the Earth's temperature can lead to adverse effects on the numbers
and locations of species, especially in highly varied environments such as tropical forests. This
article also highlighted that African biodiversity is essential in providing ecosystem services
crucial to human well-being and faces potential threats from climate change. The negative
impacts on key services such as crop and livestock production, disease regulation, and climate
control, pose challenges to human benefits. Therefore, this issue should be addressed, and all
parties should put a comprehensive effort into it. These efforts should be focused on growing
public knowledge, educating the public, and putting adaptable approaches for sustainable
development and better livelihoods into practice.. (Dejene W. Sintayehu, 2018)

Another journal article “Investigating the Effects of Climate Change on Biodiversity”,

this article emphasises that climate change significantly pressures biodiversity through
temperature and precipitation pattern shifts, habitat loss, and altered ecological interactions. It is
identified that different taxonomic groups, ecosystems, and regions respond differently, thus

25
specific conservation methods are needed. It also highlights the connections of biodiversity,
climate change, and ecosystem services, emphasizing the need to consider socio-economic
consequences in conservation efforts. The article recognizes the combined impacts of climate
change with other human-induced factors, stressing the importance of addressing these
cumulative effects. Adaptive capacity within species and various conservation strategies, such as
habitat restoration and protected areas are crucial for enhancing biodiversity's resilience to
climate change. Other than that, understanding ecological cascades and feedback loops,
integrating social and ecological dimensions in conservation planning, and considering the
implications of range shifts and altered species interactions are vital for effective biodiversity
conservation. The article's implications extend to policy and decision-making, emphasising the
need to integrate climate change considerations into conservation strategies and reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. Public awareness and engagement are recognized as crucial for
fostering support and ensuring active participation in biodiversity preservation efforts.
Additionally, the article also stresses that climate change is not just an environmental issue but
also a socio-economic and ethical challenge. Its impacts on biodiversity have far-reaching
consequences for human well-being, underscoring the interdependence between biodiversity,
climate change, and human society in policy and decision-making. (Dr. Bireshwar Bera et al.,
2023)

Next, another journal article with title “Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity and
Food Security: A Global Perspective” validates that climate change impacts global biodiversity
and food security. The article points out how both human activity and climate change have a
negative impact on biodiversity, which is essential to life and provides 60 to 80% of the world's
healthcare. This was shown when temperatures increased by 0.798 °C due to climate change and
carbon dioxide concentrations increased from 280 to 379 ppm which caused changes in the
timing of plant and animal seasons. This has directly and indirectly affected species, ecosystems,
and their functions, leading to modifications in framework, ecology, and behaviour. The increase
of global temperature eventually led to the increase of sea level in the north region. As a result,
species are forced to migrate globally in response to changes in climatic variables. Climate
change also poses a threat by reducing the adaptability of certain species, resulting in an
increased risk of extinction. According to this article, changes in climatic variables are imposing
selective pressures that are driving the current rates of species extinction, which are estimated to
be 100 to 1000 times faster. This article also emphasises that climate change also contributes to

26
significant shifts in the range and geographical distribution of species and ecosystems. Findings
found that long term changes in weather conditions have significant effects on food security
which impact availability, accessibility, and utilisation. Changes in temperature and rainfall affect
the suitability of land for crops, pasture, and marine resource productivity. This in turn leads to
increased pest and disease incidence, loss of biodiversity, declining ecosystem functioning, and
reduced water availability for crop, livestock, and inland fish production. Lastly, this article
addresses that a difficult yet comprehensive effort needs to be put in order to face this climate
change effects towards biodiversity. (Melese Genete Muluneh, 2021)

Besides, there is a newspaper article entitled “Loss of Biodiversity is just as Catastrophic

as Climate Change” discusses the alarming decline in biodiversity and the urgent need to address
climate change. Nature undoubtedly provides services to human well- being such as foods, clean
water and also breathable air. However, the boundless consumption and unsustainable use of
nature is now seriously threatening our future generations. This newspaper article emphasises that
climate change has long been considered as the most pressing environmental issue that led to the
loss of biodiversity. It also highlights examples of environmental challenges, such as
disappearing fish populations and water shortage. One of the findings of this article is the
evaluation by The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services (IPBES) which revealed a significant connection among climate change, the decline in
biodiversity, and the well-being of humans. Climate change is recognized as a leading cause of
biodiversity reduction that impacts all aspects of the natural world. Similarly, the decrease in
biodiversity plays a role in climate change, for instance, the destruction of forests leads to the
release of carbon dioxide which is a major greenhouse gas produced by human activities. Lastly,
the article emphasises the inadequacy of current efforts has led to the urging of significant policy
changes, sustainable practices, and global cooperation. For instance, the G7 environment
ministers and policymakers worldwide are called upon to take decisive action to avert
catastrophic consequences for the planet and future generations. (Loss of Biodiversity Is Just as
Catastrophic as Climate Change |The Guardian, 2019, May 16)

Last but not least, the newspaper article entitled “Our Response to Climate Change Is
Missing Something Big, Scientists Say” from The New York Times highlights the need to treat
the issues of climate change and biodiversity collapse as interrelated rather than as distinct crises
and emphasises the connection between addressing these two issues It also points out that certain

27
environmental solutions may harm the other while addressing one problem. The article
underscores the fundamental connection between climate and biodiversity through carbon, which
is both a greenhouse gas contributing to global warming and a fundamental building block of the
natural world. The article also emphasises the need for emissions reduction while debating the
disadvantages of current approaches like depending on planting trees to naturally balance out
emissions. It also cautions against oversimplifying problems like planting trees all over the world,
as these can have a negative impact on biodiversity. For instance, the agricultural systems planted
in Brazil that resulted in ecological disasters. Lastly, this newspaper article suggests that climate
interventions often harm biodiversity but it also outlines the potential solutions such as reducing
damages through strategies like feeding livestock around solar farms and improving carbon soil
stocks. (Our Response to Climate Change Is Missing Something Big, Scientists Say | The New
York Times, 2021, June 10)

In a nutshell, it is discovered that climate change has become a remarkable factor

driven to the loss of biodiversity. This is proven when some findings identified that climate
change significantly put biodiversity under pressure through the temperature and precipitation
pattern shifts, habitat loss and the altered interaction between species. Other than that, climate
change not only impacts global biodiversity but also food security that can affect species,
ecosystems, and their functions. The loss of biodiversity caused by climate change is
undoubtedly impacting all the living organisms negatively. Therefore, it is crucial for us to
save and protect the Earth from continuous damage. It is also important for us to sustain the
Earth for the sake of future generations’ needs.

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3.0 Causes and Effects

3.1 Habitat Loss & Fragmentation

The loss and fragmentation of habitats are the main causes of biodiversity decline. The
removal of natural habitats that provide a home for specific plants and animals is referred to as
habitat loss. In addition, the term "habitat fragmentation" describes the division of natural regions
into smaller segments. While fragmentation limits migration and shrinks their ranges, animals in
these areas are more vulnerable to extinction. Wildlife populations can become divided due to
habitat destruction, which lowers genetic diversity.

The devastation of habitat worldwide demonstrates how habitat loss and fragmentation
contribute to the current decline in biodiversity. .The goal of building urban areas led to greedy
people's desire to destroy forests and habitats that house a diverse range of animals and plants,
resulting in the destruction of habitat. These days, it is evident that, throughout the previous few
decades, urbanisation has accelerated globally. Urbanisation has resulted in the degradation of
natural ecosystems and the extinction of rare plant and animal species by turning them into
impermeable surfaces. Further aggravating the problem of habitat loss, the construction of roads
and railroads also leads to habitat fragmentation as animals search for new places to live. There is
currently ten times more deforestation than there could ever be regeneration, which results in the
disappearance of around half of the world's original forest cover. About 17 million hectares are
cleared annually, which is an enormous decline considering that tropical forests are home to at
least half of all species on Earth. Their actions not only have an effect on the specific species but
also on the state of the global ecosystem as they remove or modify the circumstances required for
plants and animals to survive

Additionally, the loss and fragmentation of habitat had a detrimental effect on the
environment by increasing erosion and lowering nitrogen levels in terrestrial ecosystems through
the removal of plants and trees that should have stabilised the soil. Natural habitats have been
transformed into farms and pastures, and soils have deteriorated as a result of fertiliser and
pesticide pollution. By obstructing these waterways, it has increased pollution and sedimentation
in streams and rivers, increasing the risk of flooding and contributing to the extinction of fish and
other species. Because the soil is not in a good enough condition for trees to flourish, this may
also result in a decline in agricultural yield. It can also cause disruptions to food webs and other

29
interactions between species, which can have a domino effect on biodiversity and upend entire
ecosystems.

Ultimately, given that the population of animals is declining throughout the year, the loss
and fragmentation of habitat have also had an impact on their mobility. Due to farms and other
human-built infrastructure obstructing their path, animals must continue to roam across terrestrial
landscapes. There is a direct decrease in the amount of space available for wild species to live,
feed, and reproduce as a result of habitat fragmentation, which prevents all animals from existing
in their natural habitat. Several species become extinct due to their inability to survive when their
habitats are damaged or destroyed. The reduction of available space for wild species to live, eat,
and procreate, coupled with the potential to upend entire ecosystems, makes habitat loss a serious
threat to biodiversity.

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3.2 Overexploitation of Resources

Based on the articles "Present and Future Biodiversity Risks from Fossil Fuel
Exploitation," 'A Biodiversity Catastrophe': How the World Could Look in 2050- Unless We Act
Now" and "Biodiversity Protection in the 21st Century Needs Intact Habitat and Protection from
overexploitation whether inside or outside parks" commented on above is very clear that the loss
of biodiversity occurs due to uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources either on land or in
the sea. Overexploitation, the unrelenting depletion of species, threatens thousands with
extinction. Biodiversity, as we know, is necessary for the mechanisms that sustain all life on
Earth. People naturally cherish some aspects of biodiversity, but as biodiversity research
advances, it becomes increasingly clear that all elements including germs and insects are
significant. For instance, humans rely on biodiversity in many different ways, which is why it
needs to be preserved.

Therefore, if we ignore and continue to do this exploitation, of course, this biodiversity

will disappear shortly. Overexploitation of plants and animals is the second major cause of
biodiversity loss around the world behind habitat loss (Jacqueline Covey, 2023). For the
environment, The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) states that more than
42,100 species are currently threatened with extinction, which means that 28% of the species
assessed to date are threatened. Not only that, 33% of the world’s soils are moderately to highly
degraded and more than 90% could be degraded by 2050, according to the United Nations Food
and Agriculture Organization (FAO). If the erosion of fertile soil continues at the same rate,
agricultural commodity prices will inevitably soar. Air pollution will increase if we fail to
maintain the forest, as it would reduce the amount of CO2 sinks. The World Health Organization
(WHO) reports that nearly all people on Earth (99%) breathe air that is polluted, with low- and
middle-income countries bearing the brunt of the effects. The organisation even sets suggested
limits for air quality. Therefore, quick action that is both harsh and effective is required to
guarantee the sustainability of biodiversity.

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3.3 Pollutions

The sustainability of our world is seriously threatened by pollution, which is a complex

and multifaceted environmental problem. It is the release of pollutants into the environment,
which has a negative impact on ecosystems, biodiversity, and public health. There are many
different types of pollution and each of them have their own difficulties and effects. These
include air, chemical and smoke pollution. The source of pollution includes human activities,
emission vehicles and industrial processes that may have some consequences especially for the
environment.

From the article ‘Chemical pollution as a driver of biodiversity loss and potential
deterioration of ecosystem services in Eastern Africa’, the effect that is caused from chemical
pollution is impacting tropical areas of middle and low income countries. It stated that chemical
pollution releases anthropogenic chemical substances into the environment. It also declares that
chemical pollution is one of the biggest threats to the health and survival of living things
including humans. This is because heavy metals and organic pollutants are considered to be the
main threats that chemical pollution indicates to wildlife. Moreover, oxidation stress that is
caused by heavy metal exposure might have several negative effects, including protein
modification and DNA damage. Moreover, chemical pollution also has an impact on the
freshwater ecosystem which affects marine life. The results show that the fish were affected by
high levels of organic pollutants (Walter Cristiano, Cristina Giacoma, Mario Carere and Laura
Mancini, 2021).

Figure 3.3.1 Fish were affected by chemical pollution.

32
 Furthermore, smoke pollution is the one that causes air pollution that affects millions of
people. The haze that produced had an impact on biodiversity. Same goes with chemical
pollution, it also impacts the wildlife. It shows that the amount of ecological community acoustic
activity decreased dramatically during the haze, and that the decrease was substantially correlated
with the amount of air pollution that the general public considered to be "unhealthy." Four
standard indices of soundscape activity showed acoustic disruption, and 16 weeks after the smoke
cleared, there was only a partial recovery to pre-haze levels. The effects on ecological
communities were probably worse in the vicinity of the fires. Other than that, smoke pollution
also impacts the plants. Smoke-induced haze has been caused by fire burning. It established that
the ecological community was clearly negatively impacted by the cross-border fog crisis. Due to
the impact on vegetation, animals may have breathing problems and lose their habitat. For plants,
it will reduce plant growth (Benyamin P Y-H Lee, Zoe G Davies, Matthew J Struebig, 2017)

Figure 3.3.2 Smoke pollution affects the plant growth.

Last but foremost, air pollution is a serious threat to biodiversity. This fact sheet focuses
on the consequences of acidification, nitrogen fallout, and ground-level ozone, with particular
sources from sulphur dioxide, nitrogen compounds, and volatile organic compounds. As A
consequence, it releases greenhouse gases. The increased migration of tree species towards high
altitudes can be attributed to the greenhouse effect. The expansion of alpine and boreal forests is
anticipated to occur at higher latitudes and elevations, along with an upward shift in tree lines at
the expanse of low-lying tundra and alpine communities (Srivastava et al., 2019). Around 9% of
all known plant species are on the verge of extinction as a result of these changes, according to
FAO (2000). Air pollution will affect the forest when sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides lead to
the formation of acid rain. So, acid rain can harm soil, vegetation and aquatic ecosystems.

33
Figure 3.3.3 Effect of air pollution to forest.

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3.4 Invasive Alien Species

The common causes and effects of biotic homogenization, as found in the journal article
"Alien flora causes biotic homogenization in the biodiversity hotspot regions of India," are
significant in understanding the impact of non-native species on native biodiversity and
ecosystem functioning. The invasion of alien flora is identified as a key cause of biotic
homogenization in biodiversity hotspots. Non-native plant species can outcompete native species
for resources and establish themselves in disturbed habitats, leading to the loss of native
biodiversity. This displacement of native species by alien flora is a primary cause of biotic
homogenization, as it results in the increased similarity of species composition across different
locations

The effects of biotic homogenization, particularly in the context of India's biodiversity

hotspots, are profound. The loss of native biodiversity due to the invasion of alien flora can have
far-reaching ecological and evolutionary consequences.. Alien flora can alter the structure and
function of ecosystems, leading to a decline in native species and an increase in the dominance of
invasive species. This can have cascading effects on ecosystem processes such as nutrient
cycling, primary productivity, and the provision of ecosystem services, ultimately impacting the
resilience and stability of ecosystems in the biodiversity hotspot regions of India.

This shows that the invasion of alien flora is a common cause of biotic homogenization in
India's biodiversity hotspots, leading to the loss of native biodiversity and the disruption of
ecosystem functioning. Understanding these common causes and effects as a proof is crucial for
developing comprehensive solutions to address the detrimental impacts of biotic homogenization
and conserve native biodiversity in the face of increasing non-native species invasions.

On the other hand, the journal article "Impacts of biological invasions: what's what and
the way forward" identifies common causes and effects of biological invasions itself. The article
highlights that biological invasions can lead to significant impacts on ecosystems, communities,
and even human societies. The introduction of invasive consumer populations is one of the
common causes of biological invasions. The article provides examples of ecosystem and
community transformations caused by invasive consumer populations, including introduced
herbivores, introduced predators, and rainbow trout.

35
 Instigate herbivores, such as the gypsy moth, hemlock woolly adelgid, black-tailed deer,
North American beaver, and rabbitfish, can cause nutrient pulses to forest floors, alter soil
organic matter dynamics, replace understory plants with plants producing poor-quality litter, alter
nutrient cycling and the soil food web, change watershed hydrology and nutrient cycling,
transform forests into meadows, reduce habitat complexity and species richness, and alter food
webs. These transformations can have significant impacts on the ecosystem and community
structure, leading to a decline in understory vegetation, reduction of arthropods and songbirds,
and changes in soil fertility.

Introduced predators, such as the yellow crazy ant, ship rat, Norway rat, Arctic fox, and
rainbow trout, can also cause significant impacts on ecosystems and communities. These
predators can cause dramatic reductions in red crab populations, increase tree seedling density,
reduce litter decomposition, change below ground community, nutrient cycling, and
decomposition, thwart nutrient transfer from ocean to land, and cause native char to shift to
foraging for insects feeding on bottom algae, increasing algal biomass, and decreasing species
richness.

Succinctly, both of the articles highlight that biological invasions can lead to significant
impacts on ecosystems and communities. The introduction of invasive consumer populations is
one of the common causes of loss of biodiversity, and it can cause significant ecosystem and
community transformations. The articles provide examples of these transformations caused by
introduced invasive herbivores and predators. Understanding these common causes and effects is
crucial for developing effective management strategies to address the challenges posed by
invasive alien species (IAS).

36
3.5 Climate Change

One of the common causes of the loss of biodiversity that is found in the reviewed articles
is climate change. Climate change significantly puts biodiversity and ecosystems under pressure
in many ways. Some of the ways are through the shifting of temperature and precipitation pattern
shifts (Dr. Bireshwar Bera et al., 2023). Climate change is also the consequence of the release of
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere by inconsiderable activities of man on the environment,
which in turn create the enhanced greenhouse effect by an increase in the earth’s average
temperature. Since many species have evolved to thrive in temperature ranges, even slight
variations can cause problems for their regular migratory patterns, behaviour, and reproduction.
Certain species might not be able to adapt to changed climates, which could result in population
decreases or local extinctions. Other than that, climate change may cause the change of habitats
which forces species to migrate in search of better conditions. Certain ecosystems may see
changes in their ranges due to changes in precipitation and temperature. There may be a loss and
fragmentation of habitat due to certain species' inability to migrate or adapt rapidly enough. As a
result, there may be a decrease in genetic diversity as isolated populations become less able to
interbreed and more vulnerable to environmental changes.

Figure 3.5.1: Migratory animals that are affected by climate change.

Besides that, rising global temperatures contribute to the rising sea levels as a result of
glaciers and polar ice caps melting (Melese Genete Muluneh, 2021). This may result in the loss
of coastal habitats, which would influence the animals that rely on these places for habitation,

37
food, and breeding. Coastal ecosystems such as mangroves and coral reefs are especially
susceptible to the increased sea levels. The balance of ecological interactions among species such
as prey- predator interactions and the timing of natural events are also affected by climate change.
For instance, changes in the timing of flowering and the appearance of insects can have an impact
on pollination patterns and cause a disturbance in the interactions between pollinators and plants.

Figure 3.5.2: Honeybee as the primary pollinator for sunflowers.

Last but not least, many species may see a change in their habitats range towards polar
regions or higher altitudes due to the temperature changes (Melese Genete Muluneh, 2021). This
is because species are often adapted to specific temperature ranges, and their distributions are
influenced by these temperature preferences. As temperatures change, certain habitats may
become more or less suitable for particular species. Certain species might not be able to migrate
quickly enough or adapt which could cause decreases or extinctions in some locations. For
example, the home of the polar bear which is a symbol of the Arctic undergoes a significant
change. Rising temperatures result in sea ice to melt which forces these animals to travel further
in search of suitable regions for hunting and sleeping.

38
 Figure 3.5.3: Polar bear is one of the species affected by climate change.

In summary, it is found that the loss of biodiversity is largely caused by climate change
and has become a remarkable factor. This has been revealed by certain research that found altered
interactions between species, changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, habitat loss, and
other factors that significantly stress biodiversity as a result of climate change. Aside from that,
food security is impacted by climate change, which has an effect on species, ecosystems, and
their functions. Undoubtedly, the loss of biodiversity brought on by climate change is having a
detrimental effect on all living things. Thus, it is vital for us to preserve and safeguard the planet
from any continuing harm. Moreover, maintaining the Earth's resources is also critical for
meeting the needs of future generations.

39
4.0 Proposed Solutions

4.1 Short-Term Solutions

One of the short- term solutions that can reduce the effects of climate change towards
biodiversity is by doing habitat protection and restoration. In order to protect biodiversity and
reduce the effects of climate change, this work is essential. Creating and maintaining natural
places like reserves, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and other protected areas is one way to
safeguard habitat. This is significant because these locations support biodiversity preservation by
safeguarding ecosystems and providing refuge to a range of species in the face of climate change.
However, the preservation and repair of threatened environments like forests, wetlands, and coral
reefs should come first. Furthermore, protected designations allow for the protection and
restoration of habitat. It is possible to create laws and rules that forbid human activities like
mining, logging, and development within officially designated protected areas that could harm
ecosystems.

Figure 4.1.1: Example of human activity that needs strict legal action.

There are also several ideas that provide valuable insights that can be used to propose
comprehensive solutions to counter the detrimental effects of invasive alien species (IAS). The
short-term solutions to help control the IAS, implementing early detection and rapid response
40
programs based on the study's findings helps identify and manage incipient IAS. This can involve
the use of remote sensing technologies, citizen science initiatives, and targeted surveys to detect
and respond to new invasions quickly. Other practicable methods are by utilising the study's
practical implications to raise public awareness about the negative impacts of IAS and educate
the public about the importance of native biodiversity conservation. This can involve the use of
social media campaigns, educational programs, and outreach activities to engage the public and
promote behaviour change.

We should begin educating the public to ensure that they are aware of the problems facing
the world as a short-term solution. Whenever the chance presents itself, observers should seize
the chance to support journalists by securely recording the process of habitat destruction. Videos
and images can be used to graphically illustrate the terrible situations that environmental
degradation may result in, arousing feelings in viewers that encourage them to help protect
natural areas. In order to promote a culture of ethical and sustainable behaviour, it is imperative
to educate the public about the value of protecting wildlife. Educating the public about the
negative effects of human activity on wildlife requires both public awareness-raising and school
programs. People can gain a deeper understanding and respect for nature by learning about
various species and their distinctive traits. People may be inspired to take action to save wildlife
and their habitats as a result, developing a sense of duty and responsibility.

There are some short-term solutions for pollution which include public awareness
campaigns. For example, launch campaigns that educate the public about the impact of pollution.
It should provide information on the impact and source of the pollution that has many types of
pollution such as chemical pollution and air pollution. Everyone should know the consequences
of pollution that may impact animal, human health and environment. Identification of sources
such as vehicle emissions, industrial activity, power plants, and the burning of fossil fuels is a
part of air pollution education. It will make the individuals know that their daily activities
actually contribute to air pollution. Sources of chemical pollution are from industrial activities,
agricultural practices and waste disposal. Each of the sources may cause the biggest effect on the
world. The implementation of diverse communication channels, such as schools, community
workshops, online platforms, and public awareness campaigns, is imperative for the effective
teaching of pollution sources. The intention is to arm people with information so they can

41
actively contribute to efforts to reduce pollution and make decisions that are environmentally
responsible.

4.2 Medium-Term Solutions

Land-use planning is one of the comprehensive and flexible medium-term solutions that
may reduce the impact of climate change on biodiversity. This approach can incorporate climate
change concerns into the decision-making process on the usage and development of land. This
planning strategy considers the way climate change may affect communities, ecosystems, and
biodiversity. The land use planning includes the climate risks assessment by determining and
evaluating the possible effects of climate change on the area while taking into account variations
in temperature, precipitation patterns, extreme weather, and rising sea levels. It is essential to
understand these hazards in order to make appropriate decisions on land usage. Additionally,
vulnerable areas identification is also important in land use planning as it helps to identify the
places that are most prone to the effects of climate change, such as low-lying coastal zones, areas
that are prone to flooding, or areas that could become desertified. The areas that need to be
prioritised for protection, restoration, or conservation are helped by this information.

Figure 4.2.1 : Example of land- use planning.

Medium-term solutions for controlling IAS, developing restoration and rehabilitation

programs based on the study's findings to restore native plant communities in areas affected by
biotic homogenization. The community area can be utilised to restore damaged ecosystems and
encourage the recovery of native biodiversity by using strategies such as habitat restoration,
ecological restoration, and the utilisation of native plant species.. Next, strengthening and

42
enforcing regulations based on the study's findings to prevent the introduction and spread of IAS
through trade and transport. This can involve the use of quarantine measures, import/export
controls, and biosecurity protocols to reduce the risk of new invasions and limit the spread of
existing alien species.

Secondly, I suggest creating regulations to safeguard natural habitats as a medium-term

measure to ensure that habitat loss and fragmentation can be avoided in the future. Plans and
regulations should be established to allow for the legal modification of a specific area for human
benefit. Regarding the issue of what is happening to nature as a result of human activity, the
government ought to start enacting specific laws. They would be subject to severe penalties under
certain laws. For the benefit of biodiversity, we can give wildlife more time to adapt and more
areas to remain unaltered by exercising greater restraint. It might stop insatiable humans from
upsetting wildlife due to their own greed.

Next, another suggestion for the medium-term is to use one of the technical tools
available to save animal life and lessen the number of endangered species, which is the smart
collar. Humans can monitor an animal's movements with smart collars. An accelerometer,
magnetometer, and GPS are all part of the smart collar. By analysing various characteristics
including an animal's movement and the locations of their habitats, we may gain a deeper
understanding of them thanks to the integration of these three scientific measuring platforms into
the smart collar. First, by observing how long an endangered species stays in one place, we can
determine its habitat thanks to a GPS built into the smart collar. This can lessen habitat loss, one
of the numerous challenges to biodiversity, and the rate of overharvesting in places where
endangered animals are found. By using smart collars, we can track the movements of individual
species, protecting them from overexploitation and preserving biodiversity by preserving a stable
food chain. However, there can be limitations to this solution. One limitation is that there are
many difficulties in inserting smart collars into every single endangered species.

Next, a mid-term solution for pollution to reduce pollution quickly is to get alternatives
for transportation. It encourages the user to use public transit, carpooling and ridesharing,
walking and electric vehicles to help reduce the number of vehicles on the road. Public
transportation systems include buses, trains that are efficient ways to move numbers of people.
Bus systems are often more cost-effective to implement and operate compared to other forms of

43
public transit but trains have high passenger capacity that allows them to accommodate large
numbers of commuters during peak hours. This is essential for reducing traffic congestion.
Furthermore, carpooling involves multiple individuals sharing the vehicle for travel or going to
work together while ridesharing is facilitated by mobile apps that connect drivers with passengers
heading in the same direction. One example of ridesharing is Grab. Walking is also an efficient
way to reduce pollution. This is because walking can contribute to a healthier lifestyle rather than
transportation. Electric vehicles are transitioning from traditional internal combustion engine
vehicles to electric vehicles that can significantly reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions.

4.3 Long-Term Solutions

One of the solutions that I propose for a long-term solution is wetland restoration,which is
a crucial process to prevent biodiversity loss in the future. It involves modifying the physical,
chemical, or biological properties of degraded or former wetland areas to restore their original
functions. Regulations and laws play a crucial role in regulating and offsetting the impacts on
wetlands, while voluntary restoration involves actions not mandated by laws. Both types of
efforts aim to maintain or enhance the general state of natural wetlands. Voluntary wetland
restoration and protection often involve on-the-ground partnerships between industry, local
government, and nonprofit organizations. These efforts focus on wetland functionality to
optimise ecosystem health and services. .The repair and maintenance of wetlands is mostly done
on a volunteer basis by numerous state and local programs. Since it is possible to improve water
quality naturally through processes involving soils, microbial life, and wetland vegetation,
scientists and engineers design artificial treatment wetlands that imitate the characteristics of
natural wetlands. These man-made treatment wetlands are less expensive to construct than
traditional stormwater treatment alternatives, have low running and maintenance expenses, and
can tolerate fluctuations in water levels.

One of the comprehensive long- term solutions proposed that can reduce the effects of
climate change towards biodiversity is by reducing greenhouse gas emissions to the environment.
Methane, nitrous oxide, and carbon dioxide are examples of greenhouse gases that trap heat in the
Earth's atmosphere and lead to climate change. Some practices like transition to renewable
energy can be done in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This practice aims to minimise
the use of fossil fuel- based energy sources like coal, oil and natural gas but instead maximise the
44
use of renewable energy resources such as wind, geothermal, solar, hydropower and biomass
energy. When compared to fossil fuels, renewable energy sources like wind and solar power emit
fewer greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Switching to renewable energy helps prevent
climate change by lowering dependence on fossil fuels, which can have significant effects on
biodiversity by changing habitats, disrupting migration patterns, and affecting species survival.

Figure 4.3.1: Wind turbine as renewable energy that can generate electricity.

Green urban planning is one of the long-term solutions for pollution. This is sustainable
urban planning practices that include green spaces, energy efficient building and efficient waste
management system. It integrates environmental sustainability into urban design, infrastructure,
and policies. Green spaces will increase air quality improvement which are incorporating parks,
green belts, and urban forests that helps absorb pollutants and enhances air quality. Trees and
plants filter out particulate matter and absorb pollutants like carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and
sulphur dioxide. Shade from green areas lowers surface temperatures and lessens the impact of
the urban heat island. Pollution can be reduced by using less energy due to lower temperatures
and the emission of fewer pollutants from cooler surfaces. Pollution in urban areas can be greatly
decreased with the use of green urban planning.

This step must be correctly finished in order to have a long-term impact on the
sustainability of biodiversity. To help preserve and restore the forest, plant native trees in places
that have been destroyed by fire or other natural disaster. Native trees are more likely to thrive,
need less upkeep, and provide food and shelter for nearby species. For instance, research by
entomologist Doug Tallamy has shown that whereas ginkgos, a commonly planted Asian
landscape tree, only support five distinct species of caterpillars, natural oak trees are home to

45
over 500 different species. Given that it takes about 6,000 caterpillars to develop one brood of
chickadees, there is a significant difference. In landscaping, using native plants can help combat
climate change. In addition to lowering noise and carbon pollution, mower exhaust efficiently
stores carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, in a variety of native plants, particularly in evergreens
like oaks and maples that have a long lifespan. Next, experts advise that since the switch to green
energy will need more resources, mining and fuel extraction businesses should create new
extraction methods that minimise environmental damage. The quality of freshwater supplies and
marine ecosystems will be ensured by doing this. In addition, the government must constantly
uphold the regulations on severe exploitation and logging. For instance, the Natural Forestry Act
of 1984 declared that the State Authority would own all forest products found, growing, or
originating within a permanent reserved forest or on State Authority unless the rights to such
forest output have been expressly assigned in line with this Act's or any other written law's
provisions. If subsection (1) is broken, the offender faces punishment in the form of a fine or
even jail time.

46
Conclusion
In summary, biodiversity is an idea for which there is no universal definition. It is
typically used to emphasize the importance of paying attention to our living environment and
making sustainable use of natural resources. Numerous elements of human well-being, such as
security and the means of subsistence, are directly and indirectly impacted by biodiversity,
including provisioning, regulating, and ecological services. Over the past century, the change of
natural ecosystems to human-dominated ecosystems and the exploitation of biodiversity have
benefited a great number of people. However, some people's well-being has declined as a result
of these losses in biodiversity and modifications to ecosystem services, exacerbating poverty in
particular social groups.We truly appreciate biodiversity highly in our lives. It is anticipated that
the impoverished will bear a disproportionate share of the costs and hazards linked to biodiversity
loss. The marginal value of biodiversity rises when some environmental services and biodiversity
decline. People in poor poverty are disproportionately affected by several facets of the reduction
of biodiversity. For instance, communities who depend on fish as a major source of protein and
artisanal fishermen alike are significantly impacted by the fall in fish populations. The poor and
vulnerable bear the brunt of the degradation of dryland resources.

As has been previously investigated, the causes of biodiversity loss are quite complicated. The
primary causes include overuse of resources, pollution, invasive alien species, habitat loss and
fragmentation, and climate change. The biggest link in biodiversity is human dominance, which
abuses its authority and depletes resources by putting other species' lives in jeopardy.

With their lockup potentials, we might not be able to rescue the extinct species, but we might be
able to prevent the extinction of comparable threatened and endangered species. In order to
maintain both healthy lives for ourselves and good interactions with the ecosystems, humanity
must live in a way that is accommodating of other species. This will help to foster a robust and
healthy dynamic among species. Stopping the rate of biodiversity loss and ensuring a stable
ecosystem as soon as feasible are the ultimate goals. Inaction on our part today could result in the
extinction of endangered biodiversity once more, upsetting the delicate balance of the natural
world.

47
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Appendix

Meeting Minutes 1

Meeting Date: November 2, 2023

Meeting Time: 9:00 p.m. to 9:30 p.m.
Location: Kolej Kediaman Pagoh Cafe

Attendees:
1. Haikal Hafiy Bin Abdul Kadir
2. Siti Syazliana Binti Md Saad
3. Nur Syafiqah Riza Sahlan
4. Sofiah Umairah Binti Abdul Rahim
5. Nur Neesa Irdiena Binti Hafiszal

Agenda:
1. Division of Positions
2. Group Project Rubric
3. Discussion on "Loss of Biodiversity"

Minutes:

1. Division of Positions:

The meeting was called to order at 9:00 p.m. Siti Syazliana chaired the meeting and presented the
agenda. It was decided that the project should have five distinct roles to effectively address the
theme "Loss of Biodiversity."

The following roles were proposed and assigned:

1. Project Manager: Haikal Hafiy Bin Abdul Kadir

2. Research and Data Analysis: Siti Syazliana Binti Md Saad
3. Outreach and Communication: Nur Syafiqah Riza Sahlan
4. Presentation and Design: Sofiah Umairah Binti Abdul Rahim
5. Resource Coordination: Nur Neesa Irdiena Binti Hafiszal

Everyone agreed to emphasise the importance of collaboration and communication among the
team members throughout the project.

2. Group Project Rubric:

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The group discussed the need for a project rubric tailored to the specific area of the theme, "Loss
of Biodiversity." It was agreed that the rubric should encompass criteria such as research quality,
communication skills, creativity, and alignment with the theme. Everyone agreed to draft the
initial rubric, which would be circulated for feedback before finalisation.

3. Discussion on "Loss of Biodiversity":

We briefly discussed the significance of the theme and the importance of addressing biodiversity
loss. Each team member shared initial thoughts and ideas for the project. It was decided that the
next meeting would focus on brainstorming project objectives and research strategies.

Minutes Prepared By:

Haikal Hafiy Bin Abdul Kadir

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Meeting Minutes 2

Meeting Date: November 5, 2023

Meeting Time: 3.30 p.m. to 4:30 p.m.
Location: Bilik Kuliah 7

Attendees:
1. Haikal Hafiy Bin Abdul Kadir
2. Siti Syazliana Binti Md Saad
3. Nur Syafiqah Riza Sahlan
4. Sofiah Umairah Binti Abdul Rahim
5. Nur Neesa Irdiena Binti Hafiszal

Agenda:
1. Project Rubric Review
2. Distribution of Parts

Minutes:

1. Project Rubric Review:

The meeting was planned to order at 3.30 p.m. right after Process and Sustainability in
Biotechnology class . Haikal Hafiy chaired the meeting and presented the agenda. The objectives
and specific contents of the project were being discussed together. Each group member did some
reviews on articles related to the “Loss of Biodiversity”. The findings such as causes and effects
that are related to the “Loss of Biodiversity” were being discussed together according to the
project rubric.

2. Distribution of Parts:

The project parts were discussed based on the project rubric, and it was decided that the
following distribution would be made:

Content 1
1. Organisation chart- was assigned to Haikal Hafiy
2. Job scope explanation- was assigned to Haikal Hafiy
3. Objectives and Project Scope- was assigned together
4. Overall Project Introduction- was assigned to Sofiah Umairah and Syafiqah Riza

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Content 2
Ten articles review- was assigned to all members where two articles will be reviewed by each
member.

Content 3
1. Common causes findings:
● Habitat loss and fragmentation- was assigned to Neesa Irdiena
● Overexploitation of resources- was assigned to Siti Syazliana
● Pollution- was assigned to Sofiah Umairah
● Invasive alien species- was assigned to Haikal Hafiy
● Climate change- was assigned to Syafiqah Riza

2. Effects: assigned to all members based on their own articles.

3. Propose solutions for the effects: assigned to all members based on their own articles and
ideas.

Conclusion- was assigned to Neesa Irdiena and Siti Syazliana.

Everyone has agreed to do more researching and brainstorming in doing their own distributed
parts in order to achieve the project objectives. It was decided that the next meeting would focus
on the progress of each distributed part, so some continuous improvement can be made.

Minutes Prepared by:

Nur Syafiqah Riza Sahlan

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Meeting Minutes 3

Meeting Date: December 8, 2023

Meeting Time: 10:15 p.m to 10:45 p.m.
Platform: Google Meet

Attendees:
1. Haikal Hafiy Bin Abdul Kadir
2. Siti Syazliana Binti Md Saad
3. Nur Syafiqah Riza Sahlan
4. Sofiah Umairah Binti Abdul Rahim
5. Nur Neesa Irdiena Binti Hafiszal

Agenda:
1. Explain how to visualise the video.

Minute:

1. Explain how to visualise the video.

The meeting was arranged at 9:45 p.m. Haikal Hafiy is in charge of the meeting and hands over
the agenda. How the video is visualised will be discussed together in this minute meeting. The
video will be done as voice over. The resource of the video will be taken from youtube. The
editing will be done by Haikal Hafiy. Every content in the report has been divided for each
person and the following content will be assigned as below:

Content 1:
1. Introduction will assigned by Sofiah Umairah

Content 2:
1. 25 articles review will be voice over by all members regarding the video that was taken
from the youtube.

Content 3:
1. Common causes
● Habitat loss and fragmentation will assigned by Neesa Irdiena
● Overexploitation of resources will assigned by Siti Syazliana
● Pollution will assigned by Sofiah Umairah
● Invasive alien species will assigned by Haikal Hafiy
● Climate change will assigned by Syafiqah Riza

2. Effects due to common causes will be assigned by all members by voice over.

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 3. Solution for the common cause and effect also will be assigned by all members by voice
over.

Content 4:
1. Conclusion will be assigned by Sofiah Umairah.

Minutes prepared by:

Sofiah Umairah binti Abdul Rahim

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