Chapter-1

Introduction
The magnificent Ellora caves are now part of UNESCO‟s World Heritage list. It
is locally known as „Verul Leni‟.1 It is located on the Aurangabad-Chalisgaon
road at a distance of 30 km north-northwest of Aurangabad, in Maharashtra.
Ellora represents the epitome of Indian rock-cut architecture and group of
varied rock-cut designs. The Buddhist caves of Ajanta are 60 K. M. North and
the Pitalkhora, also in North, is around 40 K.M. from Ellora.2 The caves are
excavated in the scarp of a large plateau, running in a north-south direction for
nearly 2 K. M., the scarp being in the form of a semi-circle, the Buddhist group
at the right arc on the south, while the Jaina group at the left side on the north
and the Brahmanical group at the centre.

In terms of simple geography, Ellora and its surroundings falls in a relatively

flatter region of the mountain ranges called the Western Ghats. Geologists
called this basalt scrap as “Deccan Trap”, Deccan being a term to refer south
India in general and Trap often refers to the step like formations of rock.3
Nature had prepared the region right for rock-cut architecture by the way of
ancient volcanic activities. The intense volcanic activity that went on for many
millions years in this part of the south Indian plains brought out the mineral rich
rocky crust on to the surface. There are many horizontal and tentatively parallel
lines postulating the fact that molten lava once flowed and solidified. 4 One can
also notice the alternating shades of grey strips on the walls and carvings at
Ellora on a close up view.

1
Dhavalikar, M. K. (2009). Monumental Legacy. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 6-7.
2
Ibid 8.
3
Gazetteer of Aurangabad. (1884). Bombay: The Times of India Steam Press. p. 11.
4
Ibid, pp. 18-19.

Introduction 1
Geological formations:

Geological formations of the Ellora, beginning with the lowest, are as follows: 5

1. Middle Traps of the Deccan Tertiary.

2. Older Alluvial Deposits of the Godavari. \ Post-Tertiary

3. Modern Alluvial Deposits of the Godavari and other rivers.

The lowest rocks belong to the great trappean region of the Deccan trap, which
covers an area of approximately 2, 00,000 square miles.6 They consist of a
series of basaltic flows, nearly horizontal or presenting the appearance of having
been so originally. In some parts of the Western Ghats, their vertical thickness
is from 4,000 to 5,000 feet, and probably, thickest may amount to 6,000 feet and
more.7 But this is the thick end of the formation, and the flows thin out towards
the extremities in a series of broad ledges or steps. The rocks are believed to
have been formed between the highest Mesozoic8 and the lowest Cainozoic9
periods10, or between the Upper Cretaceous11 and the Lower Eocene12
formations.13

5
Ibid, p. 16
6
Gazetteer of Aurangabad, op. cit., p. 16.
7
Ibid, p. 17.
8
Mesozoic: The Mesozoic Era is an interval of geological time from about 250 million years ago to about 65
million years ago. It is often referred to as the Age of Reptiles because reptiles, namely non-avian
dinosaurs, were the dominant terrestrial and marine vertebrates of the time.
9
Cenozoic: The Cenozoic era, meaning "new life" is also known as the Age of Mammals, just as the
Mesozoic era was the Age of Reptiles. The Cenozoic spans the time period covered from the final
extinction at the end of the Cretaceous, approximately 65 million years ago, to the present. The Cenozoic
era is divided into three periods, and seven systems
10
Gazetteer of Aurangabad, op. cit., pp. 16.
11
Upper Cretaceous: The Upper Cretaceous was a period in Earth history, from 100 to 65 million years ago.
The Cretaceous is traditionally divided into Lower Cretaceous (early), and Upper Cretaceous (late), because
of the different rocks.
The rocks reflect the conditions in which they were formed as sediment.
The Upper Cretaceous is the chalk. It is composed of countless millions of calcareous (CaCO3) plates
called coccoliths. They are so small they can only just be seen with a light microscope; details require an
electron microscope. The plates are formed by single-celled planktonic algae called coccolithophores, and
were laid down in the off-shore seas.
12
Lower Eocene: The Eocene epoch, lasting from about 56 to 34 million years ago is a major division of the
geologic timescale and the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the Cenozoic Era. The Eocene spans
the time from the end of the Palaeocene Epoch to the beginning of the Oligocene Epoch. The start of the

2 Introduction
The compact and amorphous rock, with semi-vitreous texture known as basalt,
occurs on the highest summits of the hills. It is dark in the interior, containing
small cavities coated generally with a reddish or black vitreous glaze, while the
exterior is of a yellowish-brown colour.14

There are some magnificent

groups of monuments in India
which are famous for their
aesthetic appeal and enormous
size. Ellora caves are one of
them. Even in the array of the
monolithic architecture, it
touches a new peak of grandeur
in terms of architectural
Figure 1: A View of Kailash Temple
techniques. The 34 excavations Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts,
New Delhi
on the vertical face of the
Charanandri hills – being Buddhist, Hindu and Jain cave temples and
monasteries are supposed to have been built between the 5th century and 10 th
century15. The 12 Buddhist (caves 1-12), 17 Hindu (caves 13-29) and 5 Jain
caves (caves 30-34), built in vicinity16, demonstrate the religious harmony
prevalent during this period of Indian history.

Without a doubt, the most ambitious and impressive of these indeed, perhaps in
all of South Asia is Cave 16, the Kailaśa temple. The proud patronage which
created the magnificent Kailaśa has been ascribed to Raśtrakutas of Ellora.17 It

Eocene is marked by the emergence of the first modern mammals. The end is set at a major extinction event
called the Grande Coupure (the "Great Break" in continuity) or the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event,
which may be related to the impact of one or more large bolides in Siberia and in what is now Chesapeake
Bay. As with other geologic periods, the strata that define the start and end of the epoch are well
identified,[2] though their exact dates are slightly uncertain.
13
Gazetteer of Aurangabad, op. cit., p. 17.
14
Gazetteer of Aurangabad, op. cit., p. 18.
15
Dhavalikar,M. K., op. cit., p. 10.
16
Ibid, pp. 9-12.
17
Havell, E. B. (2000). Encyclopaedia of Architecture in the Indian Subcontinent Vo.1. Ancient and Early
Medieval. New Delhi: Aryan Books International. p. 203.

Introduction 3
became an immortal monolith which enshrines the ages of faith and skills of the
artisans. One of the last important Hindu excavations, it represents not only the
most striking cave temple at the site, but also the culmination of the rock
architecture in South Asia.18 It is a complex with all the essential elements of
contemporaneous free-standing southern type temple units. It includes a main
building, Nandi shrine, gateway, surrounding cloisters, and subsidiary shrines.19
Architectural details seem to be inspired from the narratives of Hindu
mythology. It is believed that abode of lord Śiva is in mount Kailaśa, so great
care has been taken in carving the temple as a unique and apparently divine in
beauty and grandeur.20 The Kailaśa temple as name suggests is dedicated to
Śiva as the Lord of mount Kailaśa. The temple has a Śivalinga in its sanctum
sanctorum. The Vaishnava images were given prominent position and
complementary to that of Śaiva images.21 On the other hand Śiva-Śakti Āgama,
sees in every manifestation of universe a product and outflow of the dynamic
life power inherent in the God.22

Kailaśa is situated near Ghriśnesvar Jyotirlinga, now a temple of nāgar style

made in late Maratha phase.23 According to legends, the word Ghriśnesvar
means Śiva whose abode is in a meticulously carved out magnificent monolithic
temple. The Elāpur or Ellora is one of the eight Jyotirlinga and it is mentioned
in the Dvādaś jyotirlingastrotam.24

Elāpure ramyavisālake sminsamullasṁtam cha jagatvatvareṇyam /

Vaṁde mahodāratarsvabhāvam ghriṣneśvarākhyam sāranam prapadye //

18
Ibid, p. 204
19
Dhavalikar, M. K. (1988). “Kailasa: A Structural Analysis” in Ellora Caves: Sculpture and Architecture,
Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannal, Shivaji Pannikar, et. al. New Delhi: Books & Books. pp. 351-52.
20
Ibid, p. 353
21
Berkson,Carmel.(2000). The Life of Form in Indian Sculpture, Delhi: Abhinav Publications. p. 17.
22
Boner, Alice. (1990). Principles of Composition in Hindu Sculpture, Cave Temple Period. New Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. and Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. pp. 40-41.
23
Gazetteer of Aurangabad, op. cit., 355.
24
Deshpande, M. N. (988). „Kailāśa: A Study in its symbolism in the Light of Contemporary Philosophical
Concepts and Tradition‟, in Ellora Caves: Sculpture and Architecture, Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannal,
Shivaji Pannikar, et. al. New Delhi: Books & Books. pp. 250-51.

4 Introduction
The above mentioned verse gives the description of the Kailaśaa temple‟ „it is
delightful, extensive resplendent and pre-eminent.‟25 The word Ghriṣneśvara
itself mean to rub or to chisel or polish which can be further elaborated as to
carve out of rock and polished to become magnificent.26

It seems that Raśtrakutas had faith on Brahmanical tradition and they were
trying to create the loftiest and loveliest monuments to demonstrate the devotion
towards Śiva. Narratives from myths and epics of Brahmanical traditions were
taken as a subject for representation. Narratives from Puranas27 were
conceptualised as a theme for the depiction of sculptures28. The well-sculpted
panels around the temple enhance the sacredness of temple complex.

The tradition of rock-cut dwellings in India is supposed to have been developed

during the Maurayan period in Barabar hills.29 This in the succeeding centuries
spread widely and resulted in the blooming of a large number of cave temples
across the country. These rock-cut version of the architecture were
predominantly wooden prototypes which were copied into stone. 30 In the
beginning, the rock-cut enterprise was nurtured by the votaries of Buddhist faith
and later by the Jaina and Brahmanic faith as well. The Guptas were the first to
patronise Brahmanical cave excavations as evidenced at Udaigiri caves near
Vidiśā.31 Scholars have unanimously agreed that under Guptas the resurgence of
Brahmanic faith took place on a national level.32 Udaigiri caves are the first site
for the Brahmanical cave temples in India. The cave no. 7, locally known as
Tawa cave, is a monolith with well finished chamber. A medallion is carved out
on the ceiling.33 It is basically a Śaiva temple as shown by the Śaiva guardian on

25
Ibid, p. 252
26
Ibid, p. 252
27
Boner, Alice op. cit., p. 40.
28
Bhattacharya, Ashok K.(1988). „Ellora Sculpture: A Stylistic Analysis‟ in Ellora Caves: Sculpture and
Architecture, Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannal, Shivaji Pannikar, et. al. New Delhi: Books & Books. pp.272-73.
29
Dhavalikar, M. K. op. cit., p.1.
30
Srinivasan, K.R. (1998). Temple of South India. New Delhi: National Book Trust, India. pp. 23-24.
31
Dayalan, D. (1995). Monolithic Temples of Madhya Pradesh. Delhi: Bhartiya Kala Prakashan. p. 2.
32
Ibid, p.3
33
Ibid, p. 4

Introduction 5
the doorway. The germs of monolithic architecture, however, lies in the stūpas
and chaityas of Western Ghats.

Rock-cut shrines of the early fifth century C.E. present two imperative
metaphors for the temple: the sanctum as womb (garbha), in which the seed of
divinity can be made manifest, and the temple as mountain. 34 As the cave opens
up the earth, so the sanctum opens up the temple. It is the concept of divinity
made manifest and the practice of devotional worship (bhakti) that make the
temple possible. The cosmic mountain and its cave ultimately shelter a divinity
in the form of an image. It gives shelter to the worshipper, who approaches the
central point of cosmic manifestation along a longitudinal axis.35

Ellora‟s is multidimensional aspect of architectural heritage transcended during

the three major phases of different patronages. These phases were contemporary
with the age of Ajanta and Badami for the first. The second phase was
associated with the Raśtrakutas. The third phase was associated with the closing
stages of the Raśtrakuta Empire before it was superseded by Vajrayana
Buddhism together with rising Brahmanical religions were preoccupations of
the first stage.36 In the second stage, the focus shifted to Digambara Jaininsm.37
Ellora began where Ajanta of Vakataka ended. The decline of Ajanta‟s
Buddhist art is very crucial after the end of Hrisena‟s branch dynasty in the late
fifth or early sixth century.38 It transformed the shift of patronage from
Buddhism to Brahmanism. A segment of this picture was enacted further east in
Vidarbha, extended the period of transition of Ajanta and Ellora.39

34
Narjary, Janak Jhankar. (1988). “A Hindu View of Unity: Its Impact on the Styles of Hindu Sculpture of
Mahabalipuram, Ellora and Elephanta” in Ellora Caves: Sculpture and Architecture, Ratan Parimoo,
Deepak Kannal, Shivaji Pannikar, et. al. New Delhi: Books & Books. pp. 124-25.
35
Meister, Michael W. (1982). "The Hindu Temple: Axis of Access" in The Art of Gupta India, ed. Joanna
Gottfried Williams. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 271.
36
Rajan, K. V. Soundara. (1998).Rock-cut Temple Styles. Bombay: Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd.p. 156.
37
Cort, John E. (1991). "Murtipuja in Svetambar Jain Temples" in Religion in India, ed. T.N. Madan. Delhi:
Oxford University Press. p. 213.
38
Rajan, K. V. Soundra, op. cit., p. 135.
39
Ibid, p. 136

6 Introduction
 Figure 2: A Panoramic View of Ajanta
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

The difference between Buddhistcaves Ellora is much greater than the latest
Buddhist caves compared with Ajanta. Hence, studying changes in conventional
features, like pillars or Buddha images can be fruitful at Ellora. 40 The
distinctions with assessments of situation generally found in other western
caves, where changes in suchconventionalized elements create confusion for
chronology.41

Comparisons of sculpture and architecture of the other regions in India show

that general trends in art of the period are reflected at Ellora. It also confirms the
proposed seventh to early eighth century dates.42 The Ellora caves were destined
to be a new political power centre which by the time moved into the next stage
of Krishna I. Apart from influences from the Chalukya‟s Pattadkal a similarity
to Ganga and Pallava sculptural style, progressively tinged with the early Chola
as well as time progressed from the eighth into the ninth and the early part of
the tenth century CE.43

40
Malandra, Geri H. (1993).Unfolding a Mandala: The Buddhist Cave Temples at Ellora. Albany: State
University of New York Press. pp. 23-24.
41
Mahajan, Malti. (2004). A Gate to Ancient Indian Architecture. Delhi: Sharada Publishing House. pp. 92-94.
42
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit., p. 24.
43
Ibid, p. 146.

Introduction 7
The cross current of the Badami Chalukyas carried forward the same
composition in essentially two dimensional relief sculpture. 44 At Ajanta, mural
painting was often than its stone sculpture. Even at Badami, in cave no. 3 mural
painting was a shade superior to its glorious sculpture. But when we come to the
second stage of Ellora, painting receded to a secondary position, produced by a
technique different from the tempera of Ajanta.45 Sculptural art, at Ellora carved
in nearly three-dimensional relief is a vibrant compositions.46 It denotes a
pervasive sensualism of the earth. The third stage was the end of an era but
tediously it repeated its Raśtrakuta heritage. From this perspective, both the first
and last stages were derivative, carrying forward antecedent traditions. 47 Only
the middle stage achieved a level in tone, technique and culture. Its great visual
power is central element of the grandeur of Ellora.

Figure 3: A View of Badami

Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

44
Rajan, K. V. Soundra, op. cit., p. 128.
45
Ibid, p. 132.
46
Ibid, p. 140.
47
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., pp. 4-15.

8 Introduction
The sculptural programme of Ellora became remarkable as they were trend
setting. Monoliths were already designed by the time of Dantidurga, as visible
in the Mandapa unit in front of his Dasavatara Cave no. 15. 48 In some cases as
in the upper story of cave 15, Brahmanical images were carved in deep relief to
replace existing Buddhist panel.49 Here was the origin of relief sculpture in three
dimensional form. It gave rise to a new urgency for regular monolithic
architecture. And it was, no doubt, inspired from the rathas of Mamallapuram.50

The early stage both Buddhist and Brahmanical, continued Gupta-Vakataka and
early Chalukyas forms of mellowness and technique.51 The style of execution
into the second stage was thus abrupt, charismatic and vibrant. There was true
insight into modelling. Soft fleshy contours of the first stage are shed in favour
of slender figures contributing to the portrayal of the body in flexibility.52
Multiple movements in group compositions within the same panel show a trend
toward the release of physical energy. The mithunas of cave 16 are among the
most sensitive renderings of responsive, intertwining couples.53 Limbs are
portrayed in realistic manner. This style of execution has been ascribed to the
Raśtrakutas. They have been criticized as medieval by some scholars, but
Soundra Rajan54 has the view that “in the south it had not started until the
beginning of the tenth century and surely does not mark early Raśtrakuta art at
Ellora. Here it is evident from the style of execution that this sight might had
nourished South Indian sculptures.”

48
Rajan, K. V. Soundara,Rock Cut Temple Styles, op. cit., p. 138.
49
Ibid, p. 141.
50
Ibid, p. 160.
51
Tadgell, Christopher. (1990). The History of Architecture in India, New Delhi: Penguin Books (India) Ltd.
pp. 43-45.
52
Kannal, Deepak H. (1996). Ellora- An Enigma in Sculptural Styles. New Delhi: Books & Books, 1996. pp.
76-78.
53
Ibid, 79
54
Rajan, K. V. Soundra, op. cit., p. 115.

Introduction 9
An unbroken series of rock-cut art at Ellora for nearly five hundred years is in
itself an unrivalled phenomenon. This suggests that guilds of sculptors were
permanently stationed in the area.55 There seems a planning, both necessary for
major presentations of sculptural art. When it subsequently became the capital
of the Raśtrakutas, Ellora benefited from this multi-faceted background. It had
the prolific and intense tradition of rock-cut art that developed there. Its guilds
had not only a continuous tradition of artisanship but also knowledge of their
rituals and tradition.56

Throughout its history, form a little earlier than CE 600 up to the end of the
9thcentury, its artisans had consistently assimilated a variety of art and
architectural forms and ad skilfully and sensitively transformed them to serve
the aims of Mahesvara Shaivism.57 It can be said as a perfect blend of Agmic
Brahmanical religion like Shaivism, Vaishnivism and Shaktism, as well as the
sublime Jaina faith.58 There is no doubt that it was Ellora‟s location in the
golden triangle that supplied the initiative, stimulated by political
transformations, which brought under the control of imperial circumstances
more favourable to the Brahmanical faith.

The presence which originates in the cliff is communicated through the spaces
made within it, both from the point of view of the architect and the worshipper.
The divinity which is embedded in the cliff is expressed through and
experienced within the caves themselves, especially since caves are understood
to be the ancient residences of the gods.59 Kramrisch refers to the Vayu
Puranawhen she writes "on the Visakha Mountain there is a great dwelling
belonging to Guha, the secret one...the god who is very fond of living in

55
Havell, E. B., op. cit., p.190.
56
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit. pp. 4-5.
57
Boner, Alice, op. cit., p. 47.
58
Ibid, 48
59
Kramrisch, Stella. (1976).The Hindu Temple. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p. 169.

10 Introduction
caves."60 Then cave is basically the middle of the earth, a place of formation,
conception and generation.

The presence of Ellora was conspicuous before any excavation began there, the
combination of cliff and waterfall serving as a dramatic backdrop and
inspiration for construction.61 This presence is literally expressed in the act of
making the caves, for in that process human activity and natural effect become
inextricably linked. What is felt in presence is made visible in form, and the
form then affords the means and inspiration for the activities which allow access
to that presence again. The cave temples at Ellora might be considered first as a
site. As already mentioned, Ellora is a village located Northwest of Aurangabad
in the Western Deccan, and the thirty four carved temples line one of its rocky
cliffs for a mile. A waterfall interrupts the linear progression of the caves as
they stretch just underneath the crest of the cliff. Given Ellora's place in history
as a tirtha, or center of worship and ritual, the element of water is almost
expected as a purifying, fertilizing element.62 Quite visibly, the caves are at
once a subtle and dramatic addition to the dry, rugged landscape. Because of
their location in the cliff, they are not visible from above, on the side of the cliff
where the waterfall originates. This might explain their use as a place of refuge
after their status as a tirtha began to fade in the thirteenth century.63 They are
located on a well-travelled, ancient route which once connected Paithan on the
Godavari River with Aurangabad, Maheshwar and Ujjain.64

Inscriptions in Buddhist cave sites throughout the Western Deccan indicate that
monks, nuns and lay devotees travelled this route.65 There was a strategic

60
Ibid, 170
61
Havell, E. B., op. cit., pp. 189-190.
62
Kramrisch, Stella, op. cit., pp. 16-17. (Kramrisch points out that the word "tirtha" refers to a ford or
passage, and water is clearly related to both).
63
Malandra, Geri H. op. cit., p. 10.
64
Ibid.(Malandra notes that a famous Maharashtrian Saint, Cakradhara, used the Ellora caves for protection in
the early thirteenth century).
65
Geri H. Malandra, op. cit., p.2.

Introduction 11
connection between Ellora's role as a religious center and its position on a
commercial path. During that time, Ellora might have served the immediate
recognizable as the juncture of spiritual and physical paths.

The making of the caves involves a complex series of preparations similar to

those engaged by the worshipper in many Indian rituals. The earth and the
architect must be readied before construction is to begin, since the architect's
work is to be an image and reconstitution of the universe.66 The ground is
purified, the soil is judged for smell, sound, taste, shape etc., and any extraneous
matter in the soil is removed. According to Kramrisch, "magic is active and
divinatory science establishes the correspondence between the soil to be built
on and the body of the builder."67 This correspondence is later extended to the
worshipper as well, who prepares his body and mind to meet the spirit of the
architecture and the character of its foundation. The presence which is originally
recognized in the natural site is preserved in the architect's sense of wonder
about the architectural operations at hand. The architect is guided by a priest,
and when the work is done the architect must be able to say "Oh, how was it
that I built it."68 While the architect is recognized as a master, he cannot claim
mastery of his work for it is dependent on the spirit of the site as much as on his
own spiritual state. Here, it seems that architecture is, like enlightenment,
something to be attained. As Kramrisch has written, “a settlement...takes place
in the intellect itself at the moment when its work is being given concrete form.
The substance is its support and form is the nature of its activity. The form of
the concrete work is the final seal of the process which leads to it. 69This can be
said appropriately in case of Kailaśa Temple.

66
Chandra, Lokesh. (1988). Ellora as Sunyata and Rupam” in Ellora Caves: Sculpture and Architecture,
Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannal, Shivaji Pannikar, et. al. New Delhi: Books & Books. pp. 131-32.
67
Kramrisch, Stella, op. cit., p. 14.
68
Ibid, p. 9.
69
Ibid, p. 17.

12 Introduction
The difficult part in the study of Ellora is in asserting its time lines and the
patrons behind its execution. That‟s mainly because the historic evidences
available in the form of inscriptions. And what little is available is sketchy
leaving it open for challenging interpretations. Things get complicated by the
fact that Ellora was active as a centre for cave architecture for many centuries,
even before the intensified cave excavations began during the latter part of the
6th century CE.70 On top of it separate groups of caves were built by the three
religious sects – Hindus, Jains and Buddhists have overlapping chronology.

However, Ellora was yet to come to limelight, rather the caves were still to be
made at Ellora, at least in a significant way. Those days the important spiritual
centres were Pitalkhora, Nasik, Ajanta and so on.71 All with its own cave
complexes. Once those sites along with prime locations suitable for cave cutting
got saturated Ellora was the natural choice for building newer cave complexes.
This can be compare with to modern day situation where a city expands into
suburbs and satellite locations for its growth. The Ellora was too tempting from
a rock cut architectural point of view.

So for the first time the focus was shifted to Ellora. Historians put this around
the period 475-575 CE.72 That‟s when the activities at the Ajanta Caves started
declining. This theory of coincidence was one of the assumptions made with
respect to the beginning of Ellora‟s history.

The interesting thing about Ellora is from its origin till present it was in the
constant know of people. That stands in stark contrast with the case of Ajanta
caves that was lost into oblivion by around 500 CE and later „discovered‟ some
1200 years later when a hunting team of colonial officers ran into one of the
caves.73

70
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit., pp. 5-7.
71
Mahajan, Malti op. cit. pp. 59-61.
72
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit., p. 25.
73
Jamkhedkar, Arwind P. (2009). Ajanta: Monumental Legacy, New Delhi: Oxford University Press. p.3.

Introduction 13
For the sake of simplicity historians classified the cave making at Ellora into
following phases-early Hindu, Buddhist, later Hindu and Jain. However, Ellora
is notable for smooth, apparently peaceful artistic transitions from period to
period. So, while we see a distinct shift around 600 CE. 74 It may be inferred that
the architectural style is shifted from Hindu to Buddhist activities. The similar
style of the late sixth century Hindu and early seventh century Buddhist cave
temples suggest that the same artisans shifted from one end of the site to the
other. They were also set at work by a new set of patrons.75 This physical
continuity illustrates the power of the tirtha to attract patrons, resources and
artisans.76 This further resulted in creation of a cultural and economic
momentum that carried over into a Buddhist phase not connected in any
doctrinal way to the Hindu basis of the tirtha.

There was a parallel and inter-related growth of temple architecture in the cities
of the Chalukyas and the Pallavas. The developments of style and the Dravidian
idiom stems from the same school of craftsmanship. It draws the same point of
origin illustration of migration of design across vast distances reaching the
Deccan ruled by the Raśtrakuta dynasty. The Raśtrakuta consisting of several
closely related but individual clans ruled large parts of southern, central and
northern India between the sixth and the thirteenth centuries. The earliest known
Rshtrakuta inscription is a seventh century copper plate grant that mentions
their rule from the Malwa region of Madhya Pradesh.77 Several conflicting
claims exist regarding the origin of early Rashtrakutas, their native place and
their language. The clan that ruled from Elichpur was a feudatory of the Badami
Chalukyas and during the rule of Dantidurga, it overthrew Chalukya
Kirtivarman II78 and went on to build an impressive empire with the Gulbarga

74
Malndra, Geri H., op. cit., p. 23.
75
Ibid, pp. 4-5.
76
Soar, Micaela. (1988). “The Tirtha at Ellora” in Ellora Caves: Sculpture and Architecture, Ratan Parimoo,
Deepak Kannal, Shivaji Pannikar, et. al. New Delhi: Books & Books. pp. 103.
77
Dawne, S. G. (1966). Ellora and Environs,Aurangabad: Mukund Prakashan. p. 6.
78
Prasad, B. Rajendra. (1983). Chlukyan Temples of Andhradesa. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. pp. 6-7.

14 Introduction
region in modern Karnataka as its base.79 This clan came to be known as the
Raśtrakutas of Mayakheta, rising to power in South India in 753. During their
peak reign, the Raśtrakutas of Manyakheta ruled a vast empire stretching from
Ganga and Yamuna doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the South. 80 Their
political expansion corresponded to an impressive period of architectural
achievements.81 The gigantic monolithic Kailaśa temple at Ellora is one of the
most spectacular and awesome accomplishments of the multifaceted Raśtrakuta
kings in India.82

Figure 4: A View of Shore Temple of Mahabalipuram

Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

The Raśtrakuta ruler who numbered 23 in succession ruled Mahrashtra and the
adjoining territories from 570 to 974 CE. Some of them are in followings: 83

79
Ramesh, K. V. (1984). Chalukyas of Vatapi. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. pp. 12-13.
80
Altaker, A. S. (1934). Rastrakuta and their Times. Poona: Oriental Book Agency. p. iii.
81
Meister, Michael W. & Dhaky, M. A. & Deva, Krishna. (1986). Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple
Architecture: South India, Upper Dravidadesa. New Delhi: America Institute of Indian Studies. pp. 104-107.
82
Ibid, 108
83
Dawne, S. G., op. cit., p. 6

Introduction 15
1. Nannarja Yudhasu (630-650)

2. Govindraja (690-730)

3. Karaka I (710-730)

4. Dantidurga Khadgavaloka (745-56)

5. Shubhatunga Krishnaraja or Krishna I (756-775)

6. Dhruva Dharvarsha (780-793)

7. Amoghvarsha I (814-880)

8. Karka II (972-974)

The Aurangabad District Gazetteer asserts that they were the Rajputs.84 The
Raśtrakuta ruler were tolerant in the religious matters. The opening verse in the
Raśtrakuta copperplates pays homage to both Śiva and Vishnu. Also at the site
of Ellora, caves related to Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina are carved in the vicinity.
Their seal is sometimes the eagle (garuda) the vehicle of Vishnu and sometimes
in the posture of a seated Mahayogi in contemplation. The Raśtrakutas were
originally the natives of Latur in the present Osmanabad District in the
Maharashtra State. Govindaraja was a staunch Shaivite while his successor
Karka I was a Vaishnavite.85 A Sanskrit rock cut inscriptions in cave No. 15 at
Ellora testifies that Dantidurga, a Śaiva, had visited this cave. Krishna I was
mainly responsible for getting excavated the famous Kailaśa cave at Ellora and
it was again he who had adorned the great Śivalinga enshrined therein with gold
and jewel ornaments. Amoghavrsha I ruled for about 66 years. 86 He was a great
patron of Digambara Jainism. It can be said that the Rshtrakuta period was the
most flourishing in the history of Jainism. Therefore, Digambara Jain caves at
Ellora can be attributed to later Raśtrakuta ruler.87

84
Gazetteer of Aurangabad, op. cit., p.294.
85
Altaker, A. S., op. cit., pp. 8-12.
86
Meister, Michael W. & Dhaky, M. A. & Deva, Krishna, op. cit., pp. 104-107.
87
Altaker, A. S. op. cit., 76-77.

16 Introduction
 Figure 5: A View of Kailash Temple from South West
Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

Review of Literature:

In the study of the Ellora most scholars have confined their approached to the
study of chronology, pillar and other design elements, iconography and the
spirit of the art. While all these are legitimate concerns, they seems to sideline
the scheme of genesis of monolithic architecture at Ellora.

The holistic vision of the artists encompassed the idea that the place was not
only built as sacred spot but also was deemed a sacred place of royalty.
Especially in Raśtrakutas times, multiple models in the caves and monolithic
styles were introduced from stage to stage, in caves of Western India which
resulted in the natural grouping of the various creations.88

Most of the western caves including Ellora, have been studied by several
western scholars Indian and European. However, researches on Ellora are
limited to research articles and few books. The first exhaustive work on Ellora
was done by Dr. R. S. Gupte who wrote his thesis on the iconography of the

88
Rajan, K. V. Soundra, op. cit., p. 125.

Introduction 17
Buddhist sculptures at Ellora and an earlier book on Buddhist, Jain and Hindu
iconography at Ellora. There were several scholars worked on Ellora, including
Charles Mallet, Thomas Daniell, John Seely, James Fergusson, James Burgess
and R.G. Bhandarkar, Herman Getoz, Sengupta, M.K. Dhavlikar, K.V. Soundra
Rajan, Walter Spink, Ratan Parimoo and Geri H. Malandara.

Ellora is the one of the most complex group of caves with a profusion of
sculptures and architecture. An attempt had been made to study these caves
exhaustively through a seminar in 1985 at Ellora with wide range of themes and
different perspectives it came in a book form in 1988. 89

Because of multi-faceted aspect of the seminar no attempt was made for its
systematic integration. Scholars to this day have been trying to achieve
intellectual ownership of Ellora in different aspects of the art and architecture.
The most exhaustive work on Ellora has been by K. V. Soundra Rajan. He has
covered various aspects of the Ellora caves and even written a book on typology
of Ellora monoliths. The book has inspired the present research work to bring
out further work in the direction of tracing the genesis of the monolithic
architecture at Ellora.90 The Kailaśa temple has been chosen as a reference point
in this regard. Even writing Soundra Rajan has said about the Kailaśa temple,
“How was it actually achieved? Much have been said about this, but it merits
fresh scrutiny.”91

The way the work Spink has done for Ajanta, there is no such work on Ellora
done by a single scholar, though attempts have been made but lack of
consistency kept the work incomplete.

89
The proceeding of the seminar on Ellora was published in book form in 1988. Ratan Parimmoo, Deepak
Kannal and Shivaji Panikkar edited the papers of many scholars like M.N. Deshpande, Geri H. Malandra
and others.
90
The book „The Ellora monoliths‟ by K. V. Soundra Rajan has ample evidences of monoliths at Ellora and
their architectural designs. The book talks about different aspects of cave temple architecture.
91
Soundra Rajan, K. V., Rock-cut Temple Styles, op. cit., p. 159.

18 Introduction
A progress on the studies of Ellora had started with the first full length
descriptive work by Burgess and Fergusson. During the 1960‟s proceeds a step
further to Dr. Ramesh Gupte first full length work devoted completely to Ellora
as an Iconographical study. The later work started including the study of social
and political picture in those days. Michela Soar has gone to study the spiritual
context of caves and writes on the puranic accounts and in the mahatmaya of
Ellora does suggest the social/religious context of the tirtha.92 M. K. Dhavalikar
in an article written during a seminar on Ellora, Kailaśa- A structural analysis
also mention the tirtha and a Medieval Marathi story about the queen
Manikavati and the king of Elāpura.93

The previous work has been limited to the different aspects of monuments either
it is structural or artistic, in this investigation I have tried to investigate e
Genesis of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora. Its methodology is driven by a
primary question and its content by a series of related queries of the
evolutionary process.

Regarding the evolution of Kailaśa temple, the indigenous origin of technique

and methodology cannot be ignored. The ritual and formal importance of that
culture which will be discussed in the following chapters. Instead, it
acknowledges biases and usages to gain access to an aspect of Ellora which has
not often been clarified in the scholarship about it.

The texts are devoted specifically to Ellora are less in numbers. It is normally
considered in the general context of Indian temples. The works mentioning
Ellora or which take the cave temples as their primary subject still lack the
comprehensive theory. The aim of this study is not filling the gaps of this
history by providing a theoretical base. In order to extend ideas about genesis of

92
Soar, Micaela op. cit., pp. 102-03.
93
Dhavalikar, M. K. (1988). Kailāśa: A Structural Analysis‟ in Ellora Caves: Sculpture and Architecture,
Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannal, Shivaji Pannikar, Deepak Kannal, Shivaji Pannikar et. al, (New Delhi:
Books & Books, 1988), p. 218.

Introduction 19
monolithic architecture at Ellora the current theme has been selected to work on
the available sources.

The objects which constitute Ellora's physical existence are not only the
supports for ritual or the frames for culture but also they exist individually. The
artisans at Ellora made use of its picturesque setting for symbolic purposes.
Most of the rock-cut cave shrines of Buddhist as well as Brahmanical religions
are found in secluded and naturally stimulating environments. Interestingly,
Ellora stands out with its major water fall and cascade to the south of the
Dhumar Lena (cave 29)94 rising from and running over an upper slope of the
hill. At present there is a running stream at the foot of the hill. This stream helps
other streamlets in other parts of the hill slope to flow and enhances the natural
appeal of the Ellora caves.

94
Rajan, K. V. Soundra, op. cit., p. 129.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 21

Chapter-2

Development of Rock-cut Architecture

Architecture is the art and science of enclosing and decorating the space created
by nature. In terms of built heritage, it has been the most dominating art in
Indian history and all the other modes of art are sometimes considered as
accessories to it. Especially, temples constitute the most significant architectural
forms in India are found almost everywhere- on mountains and hilltops, in the
plains, by the riversides, in deep ravines and inside the dark and uninhabited
caves, amidst thick jungles, on the seashore, in deserts, on the frontiers as well
as in the centres of the villages and towns. These can be tiny or huge, ordinary
or magnificent, simple or gorgeous and sometimes very powerful.

The temple architecture is simply not a representation of the skill of the

architect or a craftsperson, but it is the realization and culmination of the
religious concept. It is an embodiment of devotion which inspire their existence
in a visible form. In ancient times, religious considerations were not only behind
the forms and structure of temple, but also the aesthetic idioms at particular
point of time when they were commissioned. T. V. Sairam has aptly said “They
are the symbols of art and religion”1.

The architecture of any region has influences of its geographical position,

climate, social-political conditions and other related factors. In ancient India,
the water bodies were the hubs for the settlements of human civilization. For
example, the Indus Civilization had its maximum settlements alongside the
rivers or other water bodies. 2 The water bodies were source of varieties of
building materials for construction. Even after the decline of Indus civilization

1
Sairam, T. V. (1982). Indian Temple forms and Foundations. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. p. 12.
2
Qureshi, Dulari. (2010). Rock-cut Temple of Western India. Delhi: Bhartiya Kala Prakashan.p.9.

22 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

water bodies have been mentioned as an important component of town planning
3
in the Vastushastras text of India, and also been mentioned in the
Arthashastra4of Kautilya and Smaranganasutradhara5 of King Bhoja.

Being situated near the water bodies, clay was the easily available material in
Gangetic plains6. Also along with the clay, in forested region, wood played an
important role of useful construction material. Here, not only the wood but
sometimes different species of grass, reed bamboo were also frequently used7.

The availability of local building material was the obvious choice to be used for
construction. For instance, trap in Deccan and granite were used in the region of
south around Halebid8. Besides, the topographical features such as mountains,
hills, ravines provided opportunities to experiment different artistic skills.
Certainly, due to these experimentation, we find rock-cut activities in region
naturally blessed with hills9.

The setting up of sacred spaces such as tumuli, hut, temples, groves and
enclosures has been a characteristic feature in the religious movements
throughout history of the world. All such temple structures have remained the
expressions of deeply ingrained religious sentiments and spiritual values. In
India various types are known as Devagriham, Devagra, Devayatnam,
Devalaya, Devakulam, Mandiram, Bhavanam, Mandir10 etc.

3
Shukla, D. N. (1998). Vastu Shastra, vol. 1, Hindu Science of Architecture. New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal. pp.37-41.
4
Otter, Felix. (2010).Residential Architecture in Bhoja‟s Samaranganasutradhara. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass. pp. 46-47.
5
Acharya, P.K. (1979). An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture: Manasara Series Vol. VII. New Delhi:
Oriental Reprint. p. XVIII.
6
Sairam, T.V., op. cit., p.22.
7
Sundaram, K. (1974). Monumental Art and Architecture of India. Bombay: D. B. Taraporevala. p.22.
8
Ibid, p. 26
9
Shukla, D. N. op. cit., pp. 486-87.
10
Ibid, 488

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 23

Etymologically, the term temple is derived from the Latin word, templum,
which, in its original sense would mean a square or a rectangular place marked
out by the augur for the purpose of his observations. In extended sense it gave
the meaning of a consecrated place or building inaugurated by an augur.
Though, in its primitive sense, this word corresponds to a place marked off as
sacred to a god, in which the house for god may be erected.11

Indian architecture is essentially an architecture laid on principles of

vastushastra and it has given space to the imagination while crafting the various
decorative elements. Stone or brick is articulated in terms of forms derived from
timber construction to create an expressive language architecture.12

In terms of structure, it is a matter of heavy, piled up masonry, beams and

corbelling rather than arches and true domes. Imagination and expression are
chiefly utilized in the sculpted exterior. Expression of structure of load and
support seems no issue in this universe of weightlessness, inter-penetrating
heavenly structures.13

With the beginning of the second phase of urbanization (6th Century B.C.)
sixteen Mahājanapadas came into existence. The substantial archaeological
relics provide ample evidences about the circumstances of that period. The
growth of Jainism and Buddhism were two popular sects which were briskly
taking over the Brahmanism during that period.14

Due to popularity of these two sects, Brahmanical lineage had to struggle for
some time when these sects were prominently patronized by the royal court.
There was a gradual change in mode of worship. Transformations in the

11
Srinivasan, K. R. (1985). Temples of South India. New Delhi: National Book Trust. pp. 1-3.
12
Srinivasan, P. R. (1982). Indian Temple Art and Architecture. Mysore: University of Mysore. p. 85.
13
Ibid, p. 86
14
Mahajan, Malti. (2004). A gate to Ancient Indian Architecture. Delhi: Sharada Publishing House. pp. 92-93.

24 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

Religious order were also accepted by the masses due to the over-burdened
rituals and the rigid low-caste status.15

The kingdom itself protected the Buddhist monasteries, where trader got shelter
and sometimes, probably deposited their money. Gradually, it created a vast
network among the traders of India and outside. The chaityas and vihāras began
to flourish along with the ancient trade routes also known as „Silk Route‟.16

Figure 6: Wooden Construction from Rock-Cut Examples

Courtesy: Brown, Percy. (1971), Indian Architecture: Buddhist and Hindu Period, Bombay

15
Tadgell, Christopher. (1990).The History of Architecture in India from the Dawn of Civilization to the End
of Raj. London: Phaiden Press. p. 73.
16
Owen C. Kail. (1975). Buddhist Cave Temples of India. Bombay: D. B. Taraporevala. pp. 22-23.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 25

In addition to the natural factors, contemporary socio-political, economic and
most importantly religious conditions also played pivotal role. It is evident in
history that in politically unstable society the importance was given to security
than artistic embellishments. Similarly, when the society or state was
prosperous, it provided a conducive environment for the development of
sophisticated arts17.

Before the advent of Buddha (6th century B. C.) the perishable and less durable
materials such as wood, bamboo, brick, reed, cloth and clay were used. As per
the Hindu traditions wood was considered as the best suited medium for making
sacred objects 18 . Also, the wood was easy to transform in any shape; for
instance bamboo could be easily bent to obtain curvature, architraves etc.

The solidarity of the rock carved down by the artisans who were professional.
The arduous job of creating dwellings inside the stone by chiselling was not an
easy task though the carving of the rock was based on the earlier wooden
prototypes of the contemporary region.19 It seems that the sound of chisel was
alike the sound of tinkling of bells for the artisans. The continuous flow of
frequency of sound created the music of mysticism and bound them to the
prolonged work without tiring. The chiselling of stone started a new phase of
experiments. The motto was to create stylistic edifice from a living rock for the
deity and the followers.

It is to the Buddhism that we owe the earliest monumental architecture still

more or less intact in South Asia, consisting of mounded reliquaries or stupas,
monasteries and rock-cut sanctuaries 20 . As per Tadgell 21 , „the great

17
Mahajan, Malti, p.19.
18
Shukla, D. N., op. cit., p. 329.
19
Srinivasan, K. R., op, cit., p. 4-5.
20
Srinivasan, P. R. op. cit., p.85.
21
Tadgell, Christopher op. cit., p. 12.

26 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

transformation in Buddhism was accelerated from the 3rd century B.C‟. The
beginning of earlier rock-cut cave architecture goes back to the Mauryan period.

During the Mauryan rule

the stone was used as
medium for column and
statues. The Mauryan
emperor Ashoka (268 BCE-
232 BCE) used stone as a
medium of proclamation
for the message of law and
tolerance known as
„Dhamma‟ through the rock
edicts and pillar edicts. The
rock edicts were carved on
the living rock which later
became as a source of
encouragement for the
architectural activities in
the rock. The architectural
remains from Mauryan
dynasty onwards are
overwhelmingly Buddhist
but Vedic traditions of

Brahmins also flourished,

Figure 7: Stages of development in cave architecture
22
as did the Jainism. Courtesy: Brown, Percy. (1971), Indian Architecture: Buddhist
and Hindu Period, Bombay

22
Beck, Elisabeth. (2006). Pallava Rock Architecture and Sculpture. Pondicherry: Sri Aurbindo Society. p. 5-7.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 27

Later on, devotional worship through sculpted images increased in popularity
among various cults which grew and merged into later forms of Hinduism,
becoming the dominant form of religion under the Gupta dynasty (320-550 CE).
This required monumental temples in which to enshrine the divine
embodiment.23

The inner sanctum of a temple the idol of main deity, most often Vishnu or
Shiva, was established. As pantheon grew, the entourage or as the
manifestations of the central god, was encased in the temple walls, especially
outside, requiring niche to frame their images, or to evoke their presence.
Buddhist practices, by the Gupta period, also entailed the use of images.24

Though originally atheistic, by this time Buddhism in India had developed into
forms known as the Mahayana (greater vehicle). It became more pantheistic,
more accessible to the congregation and more devotional in attitude. Images of
the Buddha were enshrined, along with those of past and future incarnations of
the Buddha.25

The bodhisattavas got prominent position in Buddhist pantheon. To serve this

purpose, Buddhist architecture was tending towards aedicular26 structure even
though the Hindu temple architecture was its preliminary stages of
development. Analogous trends can also be seen in Jainism, having begun like
Buddhism, as an atheistic philosophy, Jainism developed a pantheon of its great
teachers (Tirthankaras).27

23
Ibid, p. 8
24
Huntington, Susan L. (1985). The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain. New York and Tokyo:
Weather Hill. pp. 124-25.
25
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 126
26
An opening such as a door or a window, framed by columns on either side, and a pediment above
27
Preira, Jose, op. cit., p. 23.

28 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

These Tirthankaras populated its heavens alongside some of the Hindu gods
and throngs of celestial beings. Jain temples, therefore came to require a
profusion of images installed in aedicular architecture and for a given region
and period, Jain temple architecture is still distinguishable from Hindu temple
architecture mainly by its iconography and to some extant its layout.28

The architecture of Indian temples, with its aedicular components, grows from
an earlier tradition of timber construction, known to us through early Buddhist
stone structures dating from 1st century B.C. Monastic remains and worship
halls, built of masonry or carved in solid rock, reserve the shapes and details of
structures made of wood and roofed in thatch. A greater variety of such
structures is depicted in relief carvings. Certain building types with distinctive
roof forms stand out, which were clearly in common use for both secular and
sacred purposes. These types, transformed into masonry, are the basis for the
simpler forms of image housing shrines, which in turn are reflected in the early
range of aedicules from which more
complex temples are composed.29

There are seven rock-cut chambers,

four on Barabar hills and three on
Nagarjuni hills in Bihar (Gaya).
Archaeologically, these chambers are
important as they are the earliest
example of rock-cut technique copied
Figure 8: Facade of Lomas Rishi cave evidently
from wood and thatch architecture. displaying the wooden curvature into the rock supported
On the Barabar hills, Sudama and by two upright beams © Archaeological Survey of India
Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts,
Lomas rishi caves are most significant New Delhi

28
Ibid, p. 24
29
Hardy, Adam. (2007). Temple Architecture of India. Chichseter: John Wiley. p. 15.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 29

example. The doorways of both these chambers have been carved in the fashion
of wooden arch.30

As far the ground plan concerned,

they are not different from one
another. Both of these consist two
parts-hall with barrel vaulted roof
and separate circular cell with
domical roof interior doorway in
the centre at the end of hall. The
exterior wall of Sudama cave has
perpendicular grooves and it has
an enamel like polish which is
evidently a feature of Mauryan
artistic excellent. The facade of
Lomas Rishi cave appears to be
the exact copy of wooden
doorways.31 Figure 9: Floor Plans of Hinayana Chaityas
(A) Bhaja; (B) Kondane; (C) Pitalkhora No. 3; (D) Ajanta
No. 9; (E) Bedsa; (F) Ajanta No. 10
These stone monuments imitate Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi
beam and rafter constructions and
their reliefs depict houses and other buildings completely constructed in wood.
The toranas (gateways)of the Buddhist stupa has its origin in a portal consisting
of two wooden or bamboo uprights super-imposed by single wooden plaque
which later on developed into three super imposed cross bar, made by banana
stems for creating sacred space. Historically, the existence of palaces are
mentioned by Megasthnese (4th century B. C.) completely made of wood not of
stone32.

30
Dhavalikar, M. K. (2003). Monumental Legacy: Ellora. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 1.
31
Mahajan, Malti, op. cit., p. 46
32
Bakshi, S. R. (2008). Architecture in Indian Sub-Continent. Delhi: Vista International Publishing. p.2.

30 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

It has been generally accepted that the germs of monolithic carvings lay in the
rock-cut Buddhist stupas 33 . The genesis of monolithic architecture may be
assumed from the dwelling units of monks, which later on developed as a centre
of religion, trade and other cultural festivities. The pre-historic man also used
the caves as a residential complex. The rock-cut architectural term may be
introduced as manipulation of natural rock for the purpose of utility.34

During the early phase of developments of the monolithic architecture, there are
several sub-regional developments, which cover the activities under the rock-cut
cave architecture in Indian sub-continent. Here need to be mentioned those
activities of cave architecture as they can be regarded as Genesis of monolithic
architecture.

Development process in rock-cut caves

As one can notice in many rock-cut caves, the carving technique was in
developmental process throughout the phases of rock-cut architecture in the
country35. The rock-cut activities are mostly associated with Buddhist, Jaina and
Hindu sects. The association of Buddhist monasteries along with the trade
routes shows that these rock-cut caves were not only the place for meditation
but were also exploited as trade centres by the traders. The chiselling out of
resting places demonstrated the skill of artisans.36

It seems that these artisans were deliberately associated with the religious
system. It may be proposed that the philosophy working behind the excavation
of caves was inspired from the Vedic philosophy which mentions „the deep

33
Pathy, T.V. (1988). „Architectural Interaction among the Buddhist, the Jain, the Hindu Cave Temples at
Ellora‟ in the Ellora Caves: Sculpture and Architecture, Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannel and Shivaji
Panikkar (ed. all). New Delhi: Books & Books. p. 369.
34
Beck, Elisabeth, op. cit., p. 7.
35
Sundaram, K.,op. cit., pp. 44-46.
36
Shukla, D. N., op. cit., p. 483.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 31

knowledge resides in caves‟. In the Atharva Veda37, cave (guha) assumes the
mystical meaning of the „secret, mysterious, concealed place‟.

Arvaganyah paro anyo divaspristhad guha nidhi nihito brahmanasya I

Tau rakshti tapsa brahmchari tat keval krinute brahm vidvan II38

Bettina Baumer39 has opined that „expressions like guhachara, nihito guhayam
and the like the Agni in the Rig Veda (e.g. RV III: 11, 9) and they are
transferred to the Atman in the Upanishads. Agni is born in secret and is hidden
in the secret place (guha): Though you are hidden (guha), you are visible
everywhere (vishvadarshtam), O auspicious One” (RV V:8, 3)‟.

During the Mauryan rule, the use of stone had become common for column and
statues, the sort employed being sandstone, which was to survive for centuries.
Buddhist stone relief of 1st century B.C. fortunately make an attempt to depict
more ancient building which had been existed.40 The apartments are cut along
the face of the rocks and doorway of the latter carries at the top of arched shape
framework imitating the pattern of the curved roof in wood. This series of caves
indicate that the simplest form of such temples consisted of a circular cell or
shrine alone. T. V. Sairam41 has pointed out – „with such simple beginnings, the
cave-architecture in India attained great skill and impressiveness as in Ellora.

The narratives carved on the reliefs of the gateways and railings of the stupas
such as Sanchi and Bharhut provide details about the wooden architecture of
that period. City gates, huts, shrines, palaces have been depicted in detail. We
can have a better idea about the wooden architecture into rock-cut

37
Chand, Devi. (1982). The Atharvaveda. Delhi: Munshiram, Manoharlal. pp. 27,
38
Ibid, p. 506
39
Baumer, Bettina. (1988). „From Guha to Akasa: The Mystical Cave in the Vedic and Shaiva Traditions, in
the Ellora Caves: Sculpture and Architecture, Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannel and Shivaji Panikkar (ed.
all). New Delhi: Books & Books. pp. 62-63.
40
Beck, Elisabeth, op. cit., p. 5.
41
Sairam, T. V., op. cit., p. 41.

32 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

architecture. 42 These gateways are profusely carved, illustrating the Jataka
stories and various episodes from the life of Buddha. The wooden buildings are
shown as multi-storey shrines, pavilions, palaces with master strokes of the
carpentry. The inhabitants of these wooden buildings are depicted peeping out
of the balconies43.

K. R. Srinivasan44 has opined that “With the predominantly brick and timber
architecture of early times there arose movement at the time of Ashoka which
resulted in series of temples and other religious resorts being excavated into
living rock. Being made of more permanent material, these have survived to the
present day”. By the orders of the king, the carver imitated the contemporary
thatch and brick structures to give an immortal expression of integrity in the
living rock. All the architectural details of the period in their frontal and interior
aspects were produced. This enables us to form an idea about the front and
interiors of contemporary temples which were cut into rock and created partial
45
or total imitations of structural examples. T. V. Sairam also testifies the
notion- „the style with which the stone media has been treated so as to erect
pillars, carve out friezes and architraves and built up facades and toranas
reflect the translation of wood carving techniques on the stone medium.‟ The
Buddhist stupas, monasteries and chaitya halls grew up from 3rd century
onwards along the ancient trade routes of India. It is well-known fact that
Ashoka himself built stupas made of brick which were later encased by the
stone during Śunga and Sātvāhanas period46. The phase of rock architecture
extended approximately over a period of more than a thousand years from the
time of Ashoka, and is found scattered over different parts of India.

42
Hardy, Adam, op. cit., p. 15.
43
Ibid, p. 74
44
Srinivasan, K.R., pp.23-24.
45
Sairam, T. V., op. cit., p.23.
46
Bakshi, S. R., op. cit., p.4.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 33

The well preserved stone railings of Bharhut stupa in Indian Museum Kolkata
provide a pictorial representation of the contemporary wooden building. The
narratives from Jatakas have been evidently depicted with perfection and
continuation. The episodes in stone are so well carved that give a pictorial
details of everyday life of the society. The flora and fauna, human figurines,
rituals, shrines are well represented in the bas-relief of the railings. More
interestingly, the images of Yakshas, Nagas etc. represent the synthesis between
the Buddhist and Hindu religion47.

The rock-cut viharas also transform timber detailing into stone but there is a
limitation of copying the whole due to the inside out nature of the carving
technique. These rock-cut shrines increasingly shared the tradition of the
structural one48.

The rock-cut architecture consists of pillars and pilasters representing the

various wooden prototype such as erecting a wooden post into a kalasha full of
water, serving both the purpose symbolic and utilitarian. The early chaitya halls
are almost a replica in rock of wooden prototype is evident from their design
and execution which are peculiar wooden architecture.49

The rock architecture seems to appealing to different sects. It was not only a
permanent/posterior material but was also immovable being a part of living
rock. It provided a permanent shelter and impressed the people who were
accustomed to reside in the houses made of wood, brick, reed, wattle and
daub.50

47
Ibid, p.3.
48
Ibid, p.82.
49
Brown, Percy, op. cit., p. 23.
50
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p.10.

34 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

As there was not any previous example existed in rock-cut architecture, the only
alternative was probably the wooden architecture to be copied. In earlier rock-
cut examples, several forms and fitments were directly copied. The artisans
reproduced arches, ribs to strengthen curved roof, pillar to support, lattice
windows for light and ventilation and railings for the protection of the edifice.
The wooden constructions had been a long part of architecture due to abundance
of forests. The people developed skill in working on wood. The carpenter held a
place of honour among the villagers as they were depended on his handiwork
for routine goods. In Ellora there is a cave known as „Vishwakarma‟ or
carpenter‟s cave51. It is well known fact that Vishwakarma is regarded as the
God of carpenter community in India which also celebrated every year as
Vishwakarma Day.

Architectural forms

The architectural forms varied across

India due to the availability of the raw
materials. It is quite possible and evident
that the vernacular wooden architecture
influenced the later rock-cut architecture
throughout the Indian sub-continent.
Especially, the Buddhist monuments
were predominantly decorated by the
wooden impression in the rock. In early
reliefs of stupa at Sanchi, square, circular
Figure 10: A bas-relief from
and rectangular huts have been depicted Bharhut showing multi –storey
altogether.52 prasada the open pavilions ©
Archaeological Survey of India
Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy,
New Delhi

51
Jauhari, Manorama. (1969).South India and its Architecture. Varanasi: Bhartiya Vidya Prakashn. p.37.
52
Tadgell, Christopher, op. cit., p. 76.
Development of Rock-cut Architecture 35
On the frame of bowed bamboo conical roof takes shape in centre as pot-shaped
finial. Some of them are gable ended apsidal and semi-cylindrical. In Vedic
literature the most commonly used material was wattle and daub. The reliefs
also depicts the work in brick and tile. Buddhism, however, frequently used the
sacred enclosure vedika (railing) as mentioned in Vedic literature53.

These sacred railings were used for the uninterrupted Vedic rituals which later
developed as protection palisade for the village. Actually, it symbolizes
traditional ritual of circumambulation which is still followed in case of Hindu
temples as pradakshina 54 (circumambulation) of sanctum. The evolution of
rock-cut architecture was based on the munificent grants by the kind as evident
in case of Lomas rishi and Sudma rishi caves along with caves at Nagarjuni
hills. On establishing chaityas and viharas Tadgell55 says, „Beyond the everyday
sustenance provided by laity, rich patrons endowed the Sangha with estates for
sanctuary during the rainy season.‟ A relieffrom Bharhut, the „Palace of the
Gods‟56, shows the vihara as a multi-storey prasada (palace) and the attached
shrine as a canopy like chhattri (umbrella), the three jewels of Buddhism viz., 1.
Buddha 2. Dharma and 3. Sangha. It was the need of the Buddhist sect to
distinguish lay followers and monks. To demarcate line, they developed
congregational halls inside and outside the viharas. The relief shown in the
picture show open pillared pavilions (mandapa) in adjacent to a chaitya.57

During the Satvahanas reign, the Sangha flourished with the support of traders.
The monasteries building and chaityas proliferated to a larger extent. Apart
from the stupa, monasteries are the most impressive remains in the living rock.
The Western Ghats became the centre of rock-cut activities due to the routes for

53
Kail, Owen C. op. cit. p.17.
54
Sairam, T. V., op. cit. p.57.
55
Tadgell, Christopher, op. cit., p.12
56
Ibid, p. 13
57
Beck, Elisabeth, op. cit., pp. 2-7.

36 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

the potential followers and patrons linked with Sopara and Arabian seaports. 58
As a result of this, more than a thousand excavations came into being. Among
these most famous are: Bhaja, Nasik, Junnar, Bedsa, Karle, Kanheri, Kondane,
Pitalkhora, Aurangabad, Ellora and Ajanta. Each of these site has at least one
chaitya-griha and several viharas. These are situated with each other in
consistency59. These caves represent the finest skill of the craftsmen chiseling
from top to bottom till finishing of each section before starting new60. The
multi-storey structures, railings, terraces, balconies, lattice windows etc. ones
which were predominantly produced in the timber work were literally translated
into the living rock.

Figure 11: Chaitya Hall at Bedsa

Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

The transition can be seen in case of chaitya hall at Kondane is somewhat like
Sudama Rishi in plan but its chaitya hall is domical and its hall is flat roofed.
Lomas Rishi and Sudama Rishi chaitya-griha have barrel vaulted halls.61

58
Ibid, 8
59
Shukla, D. N., op. cit., p. 486.
60
Dayalan, D. (1995). Monolithic Temples of Madhya Pradesh. Delhi: Bhartiya Kala Prakashan. pp. 96-97.
61
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 1-3.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 37

 Rock-cut counterparts of wooden circular shrines are also seen in the Tulaja
Lena group of Junnar and in a cave at Guntupalli62. The rock-cut chaitya at
Guntupalli has the small circular chamber which explains the kind of shelter
that was first erected over the stupa- the beginning of the chaitya hall.63

It is circular hut imitated in rock with a domed roof of thatch resting on

framework resembling an inverted wooden basket and a monolithic stupa in the
centre for worship.64 A passage for circumambulation and a porch in front of its
doorway have been carved nicely. Similar imitation of timber including the
torana (arch/gateway) above the lintel has been carved as a porch.65

The Tulaja Lena cave at Junnar is also an excavation after the model of a
circular chaitya. This mode of rock architecture shifted in the next century
mainly to the softer trap formations of the hills of western India. Between 200
BCE and 200 CE, a number of Buddhist excavations were made in this region66

Figure 12: Facade for Bhaja caves

Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

62
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., pp. 44-45.
63
Brown, Percy. (1956). Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods). Bombay: D.B Taraporewala Sons and
Company. Indian Architecture: Buddhist and Hindu Period, p. 36.
64
Srinivasan, K. R., op. cit., p. 24.
65
Ibid, 25
66
Chopra, P. N. (1976). India:Art and Architecture in Ancient and Medieval Period. Delhi: Mcmillan. pp. 7-8.

38 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

Rock-cut chaitya shrines of Western India may be divided into two groups
representing two phases of development, Hinyana and Mahayana Among these
two kinds of structure, the chaitya hall and the vihara that were copied in the
rock-cut manner, the more importance was given to the chaitya hall.67 There are
eight of these belonging to the Hinayana period as follows: Bhaja, Kondane,
Pitalkhora, Ajanta (no. 10), Bedsa, Ajanta (no. 9), Nasik and Karle, most
probably executed in the order named68. The two at Ajanta are part of that long
series of both Hinayana and Mahayana monasteries all on one site comprising
altogether as many as four chaitya halls and over twenty viharas.69

All these seems to be excavated just previous to the Christian era, the first four
in the second century BCE, and the remainder in the first century BCE. Two
chaitya halls from Junnar, one of which is small but complete while the other is
unfinished, may be added into this group. The chaitya hall at Kanheri executed
towards the middle of the second century CE on the island of Salsette adjacent
to Bombay seemingly marks the end of the Hinayana movement as far as its
rock-architecture is concerned70.

It may be noticed that chaitya hall of Bhaja represents the initial effort more
convincingly. The entrance has an open archway, bringing the entire interior of
the hall into view owing to the action of time and the climate. It seems that the
open spaces were filled in with a highly finished and appropriate wooden
construction, which completely screened the lower portion.71 It also affected to
a little extent the appearance of the upper parts of the facade. It is possible to
reconstruct the scheme of wooden frontage from the shape and position of the

67
Mahajan, Malti, op. cit., p. 48.
68
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 22-23.
69
Ibid, 24.
70
Ibid, p.115.
71
Brown, Percy, op. cit., p. 22.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 39

mortice72 holes. The two uprights fitting into each side of the rock-cut archway
the cross piece being a horizontal beam connecting them and holding them into
position. The lower half was filled in by a screen containing one central and two
side doorways, while above the cross-beam was projected a hanging balcony on
four pillars.73

The replication of woodwork was done profusely in the interior of the hall of
Bhaja. It is evident by the roof ribs as well as the finial of stupa its umbrella
being originally of wood. But even with these have an austere appearance,
although its proportions are good.74 As to the stupa this central feature in its
present condition is a plain conception in two simple parts consisting of a
cylindrical base supporting a tall domical body with a railing finial. It seems
that the stupa along with most of the parts of the hall were freely decorated with
paintings, plasters and wooden embellishments.75

Figure 13: Frontal view of Karle caves

Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi

72
A square hole made to receive a tenon and to form a joint.
73
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., pp. 72-74.
74
Brown, Percy, op. cit.
75
Percy Brown, op. cit., p. 21.

40 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

An identical design of a Buddhist shrine of two apartments is evident by a cave
at Kondane where the semi-circular chamber at the back has been carved out to
contain a votive chaitya76. The design of the circular sanctuary preceded by a
hall seems to be a transitional stage in the evolution of the chaitya shrine of
apsidal form. This is a noticeable bold move in driving apsidal halt axially into
the depth of the rock.77

In the case of the Pitalkhora, another advance in the development may be seen
in roof-ribs in the side-aisles. These are carved out of the rock, evidently a
further attempt to reduce the wooden attachment78.

Figure 14: Chaitya Hall at Junnar

Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

The next class of chaitya halls, judging mainly by the design and treatment of
the facade, Ajanta (no.9) and Pandulena at Nasik are the two principal

76
Dulari, Qureshi, op. cit., p.10.
77
Ibid, p. 11
78
Tadgell, Christopher, op. cit., p. 24.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 41

examples, as both have no wooden additions to their frontage, the whole having
been carved out of the rock79.

The Ajanta facade is a well- balanced design. It has a doorway in the centre and
a window on either side. These windows are carved above by an elegant cornice
thrown out on brackets like a shallow portico. Over this is the rood-loft80, a sill
or ledge used as minstrel gallery, and rising above the whole is the sun window
within a chaitya arch of graceful curves81.

On the flat surface around the

archway are carved as objects of
decoration several small lattice
windows, conventional renderings
of the projecting casements copied
so realistically from wooden
originals as seen on the previous
type at Bhaja and Kondane82.

As already mentioned the plan of

this hall is a rectangle and the
ceiling on the side aisles. The other
example of this class, the
Pandulena cave at Nasik can also
be added with the unfinished
Manmoda83chaitya hall at Junnar,
although both differ considerably in Figure 15: Ghatpallav pillars in Nasik caves
Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

79
Mahajan, Malti, op. cit., pp. 54-55.
80
A cross on a beam or screen at the entrance
81
Brown, Percy, op. cit., pp. 22-23.
82
Qureshi, Dulari, op. cit., pp.10-11.
83
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., pp. 102-03.

42 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

their details. In both instances a lunette carved with symbolic design, in the
Pandulena this is above the doorway, but in the Manmoda it fills the upper
space of the archway over the sun window. In both frontages the decoration, the
rock edifices at Pandulene, Nasik and the chaitya hall at Junnar have the
similarity of being carved out of the rock and they bear no portico or
vestibules.84

Figure 16: Wooden attachments depicted in stone at Kondane

Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

At Pandulene sculptures are in relief then in an arcade containing pilasters. The

caves at Nasik decorate the pillar to separate them from the conventional
impression of posts. They introduced in some of the rudimentary capital in the
form of a square abacus.85 In this phase the attention was paid to the base of the
pillars than to the capital, as it can be postulated by the evidence of pot shaped

84
Brown, Percy, op. cit. p. 23.
85
Ibid, p. 24.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 43

base. It is a replication of embedding a post in a pot to protect its lower part
from insects or the damp. The pillars of this chaitya hall are not rudimentary in
shape instead they are tall and slender covering diameter of one eighth of their
height.86

The next group, Bedsa and Karle, there are

two very good examples mentioned by
Percy Brown, 87 one of the very fine
examples of the maturity of the earlier
phase. The basic difference is in facade. In
both instances, the exterior takes the form
of a massive part carved out of the rock
face and serving as a kind of vestibule to
the arcaded screen in its rear. One of Bedsa,
that is probably the earlier one, is composed
of two columns between pilasters and it is Figure 17: A chaitya hall at
Karle, showing the wooden
guarded by the masses of rock left in the roof imprint and ghatpallava
motif courtesy Archaeological
rough on either side88. Survey of India
Courtesy: National Museum,
New Delhi

The design and execution of the pillars and pilasters of the portico make the
facade a remarkable structure. They act as supports to the main beam of the
roof. The peculiarity is that all in one solid piece as the entire frontage is carved
out of the natural rock. The monolithic pillar of Maurayan period transformed in
terms of their style. The earlier was plain but now in octagonal shape. The
identical features like vase-shaped base (ghatpallav) the symbols of Buddhism
denotes the architectural innovations and indigenous attribute89.

86
Ibid, p. 25
87
Brown, Percy, op. cit., pp. 21-24.
88
Ibid, 26
89
Sundaram, K., op. cit., p.44.
44 Development of Rock-cut Architecture
Though the hall is small in size, being 45.5 feet long and 21 feet wide but
having traces of painting on stupa and pillars. This work of craftsmanship in
rock is exceptionally vivid in terms of beams, binding joist and imitation of
wood work in stone. 90

In comparison to the
Buddhist rock-cut
temples the rock
shrines belonging to
Jainas are not on a
large scale 91 . A
group of caves in the
hills of the
Khandagiri and
Udayagiri in Puri
district of Odisa Figure 18: Ranigumpha Cave
Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts,
represent the earliest New Delhi

examples of the rock-cut building. These sandstone hills are situated on the
either side of a narrow gorge. According to the inscription in the cave known as
Ranigumpha on the Udayagiri hill is about 160 B.C92. The difference from the
Buddhist rock-cut dwellings can easily be noticed here. These cells are having
the varanda (courtyard) in front and does not have central hall with cells like
their Buddhist counterpart. It seems that these cells are excavated at convenient
spots at different heights and connected with the rock-cut staircases93. A few
sites like Badami, Aihole and Ellora may also be named.

90
Ibid, 45
91
Shukla, D. N., op. cit., p.485.
92
Mahajan, Malti, op. cit., pp. 101-02.
93
Brown, Percy, op. cit., p.29.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 45

 Figure 19: Elephanta Cave
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

The Gupta Vakataka rock-cut architecture

As we have already noticed, the oldest stone temples of India belong to a period
when Buddhism was at its zenith. The Hindu temple took a more durable shape
only at a later date with the re-emergence of the Hindu religion due to the rich
patronage of the Gupta dynasty. Construction pattern and technique of these
Hindu temples show a great deal of Buddhist influence. Buddhism was not,
however, free from the Hindu impact. At the same time or even earlier the
Hindu concepts had started making tremendous inroads into the Buddhism
which resulted in the emergence of a new Buddhist order, the Mahayana
Buddhism. The Buddhist structural influence is surprisingly more intense as one
could see it on the South Indian super-structure.

The difference from the Buddhist rock-cut dwellings can easily be noticed here.
These cells are having the varandah (courtyard) in front and does not have

46 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

central hall with cells like their Buddhist counterpart. Even the height and width
of these cells are not sufficient as the latter having in any example elsewhere. It
seems that these cells are excavated at convenient spots at different heights and
connected with the rock-cut staircases.

In the fifth century the art was augmented at the early Hindu temples of
Deogarh, Bhitargaon and those erected under Vakataka influences as
exemplified by sculptures preserved at Paun Ashram of Shri Vinoba Bhave near
Nagpur an at the Hindu rock excavations at Udayagiri94. Many of the caves at
Kanheri have elaborate reliefs. Caves 17 and 26 at Ajanta mark a definite shift
away from the art of painting in the direction of sculptural panels.

Gupta dynasty progressively marks the beginnings of the new phase of the rock-
cut architecture. It is most important to note here that the architecture of the
period represents the skill of the artisans in terms of composition of
architectural elements. Gupta temples between 4th to 6th centuries CE are
marvellous in the history of Indian architecture. The rock cut chambers at
Udayagiri seem to be the earliest rock-cut temples belonging to the Hindu
lineage. These may also be taken as an early example of initiation of rock cut
activities for a Hindu temple. The nine cells, though not completely carved out,
have been assigned to reign of King Chandragupta II (382-401 CE)95.

According to N. L. Mathur, “The Gupta age saw the revival of Brahmanism

which found full expression in the carving of Brahmanical divinities”96. Cave
groups of Bagh, Kolvi, Dhamner and Udayagiri need to be mentioned here in
the Central India. Though first three are of Buddhist group and fourth one is of
Hindu in nature. Cave temples at Udayagiri hills, one of which bears

94
Berkson, Carmel. (1983).Elephanta: The Cave of Shiva. Delhi: Oxford University. p. 5.
95
Mahajan, Malti, A Gate to Ancient Indian Architecture, pp. 80-82.
96
Mathur, N.L., Sculpture in India: its History & Art, pp. 20-21.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 47

inscriptions of 401 CE, has some sculptures representing the incarnation of
Vishnu as Varaha (boar) and also river goddesses, Ganga and Yamuna. The
massive rock-cut relief is simple and monumental thronged with gods, men and
celestial beings. It is one of the fine representations of the bhudevi uddhar
(rescuing the earth goddess) scene in which earth is rescued from the waters by
the Varaha God. This depiction of Boar God is an example of the mastery of
the artisan who not only personified him well but also the size and proportions
of the other characters are contrasted well to the deity. The earth goddess raised
from the depths of the primeval sea is depicted on the right side of the God. On
two sides are carved Ganga and Yamuna descending from the heaven and then
flowing in to the sea. The two rivers join together and enter the sea where they
are received by the God of sea personified as a male figure.

After the decline of Vakatakas and their allies the Guptas, the Deccan was
captured by early Kalchuris of Maharashtra and Early Chalukyas of Badami by
the middle of 6th century A.D97. They were responsible for the flowering of
Hindu architectural traditions beyond Gupta domain. The Pallavas of
Kanchipuram subdued Cholas by 4th Century CE, and later defeated the
Ikshavakus of Andhradesha.
Elephanta Caves

The other magnificent cave temple is Elephanta. For centuries. It had been a
commercial, military, and religious centre, and it still has traces of the early
Buddhist culture. With the resurgence of the Brahmanical religion the great
cave, dedicated solely to Shiva, came into existence. In this regard Walter Spink
has opined that this cave edifice was constructed by the Kalchuris in the mid
sixth century 98 . There is so much made of Kalachuri Kings particularly

97
Tadgell, Christopher, op. cit., pp. 74-77.
98
Berkson, Carmel, op. cit., p.5.

48 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

Sankaragana and Krishnaraja being devout worshippers of Maheshvara „from
the very birth‟ as seen in the inscriptions99.

The plan of cave is much similar like a Buddhist monastery with its cells for
living aligned along three walls of a square court. As the worship of the figure
of Buddha began to be encouraged with the development of Mahayana
Buddhism, a shrine was introduced to house this image, replacing cells at the
center of the back wall. All the later monasteries at Ajanata, Ellora and
Aurangabad are built in this way. These more elaborate monasteries lead us
directly toward Elephanta. The halls, columns, varying in number, are
positioned in a square which permits circumambulation between the columns
and the cell walls. It seems that same family of craftsmen and sculptors were
employed in the construction of Brahmanical and Buddhist shrines.100

At Jogeshwari near Bombay, the idea of square shrine is linked to an earlier

structure, the fifth century temple at Deogarh. This temple is a square structure
situated atop a square terrace. Three doors are provided for entrance. Even
today, within the chaturmukha (four-doored) shrine, the priest at Jogeshwari
still moves ritually from door to door chanting and ringing his bell. But the
walls at Jogeshwari are solid.101

It was the architect of Elephanta who first conceived the idea of opening the
temple to the outside on three sides. It permitted and encouraged subtle
transitions from light to dark and vice versa. Sunlight entering from so many
directions and changing from moment to moment and season to season defines
the nature of the experience here and later at Dumarlena at Ellora.102

99
Rajan, K. V. Soundara. (1980). Art of South India-Deccan. Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan. pp. 144.
100
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 281.
101
Ibid, p. 282
102
Burgess, James. (1972). Elura Cave Temples. Varanasi: Indological Books. p. 47-48.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 49

The profuse alterations in the shadings of light are more integrally involved
with the space and mass of the cave. Keeping the idea of the Buddha shrine in
the back wall and the original front veranda, the architect replaced the side cells
and walls of the monastery with verandas. No doubt, the cave was the creation
of an unknown genius, a master architect.103

He must have mastery over traditions of the carving of independent freestanding

sculpture and rock-cut architecture. The continuation from the past can be
traced in composition, iconography, puranic narratives, spatial arrangement,
style and use of mathematically precise measurements for figures and
architecture.104

The achievements of the Elephanta artists represent an abrupt departure from

the past. Its ultimate synthesis of infinitely diversified and mobile forms with
new modes of expressions and metaphysical conceptions of deity are a step
ahead from the previous architectural traditions.105
The Pallava and Chalukyas rock-cut Architecture

During the sixth century CE, the two Great empires- Chalukyas of Badami and
the Pallavas of Kanchi in Deccan and Southern India respectively had ushered
in an era of vigorous temple activities, reflecting in its mores the mingling of
forms and ideals.106

The dominant period of Pallava started with the reign of Mahendravarmana I

(580-630 CE). He was a Jaina, but his conversion to Shaivaism proved to be a
disaster for Jainism. He was the one who initiated the Hindu rock –cut tradition
in Southern peninsula. Mahendravarman lost Andhradesha after defeated by the

103
Ibid, 49
104
Shukla, D.N., op. cit., p. 242.
105
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 291-294.
106
Ibid, 295

50 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

great Chalukyan King Pulkesin II (610-642 CE). But later on, Narsimhavarman
I Mamalla (630-668 CE) regained some of their lost territories and occupied
Badami in 642 CE.107

Adam Hardy has conducted a deep study on Indian architecture which refers to
various architectural developments in the subcontinent. He has categorized the
architectural traditions broadly in the two great classical language of Indian
temple architecture, the northern Nagara and southern Dravida, draw on this
common legacy. They were formed and differentiated during the 6th and 7th
century CE Nagara and Dravida may be called as styles, but they cover vast
area and time spans.108

Two relatively example simple example can be used as an illustration at this

point. First, the Bhutanatha temple stands on a promontory built out into the
tank at Badami, the early Chalukya capital. It is a Dravida temple of modest
dimensions. The shrine itself has the Dravida pyramidal outline –here with three
talas (levels) and contains the dark, cubical sanctum to house the principle
image of the deity.109

The spires of the shore temples at Mahabalipuram (mid-seventh century)

actually form the precursor to the later versions of vimana. It seems to be
inspired from the Mahabodhi temple at Bodhgaya. The latter seems to be only
example survived in Gangetic plain dates back to the Mauryan regime. It was
built around vajrasana constituting of seven storeys which used to
accommodate monks and scholars. Its aesthetic sense was copied in regional
architecture by the Pallavas who ignored its utility. This shore temple depicts a
vimana which is having seven storeys not for utility but for beauty.110

107
Srinivasan, K. R., op. cit., pp. 26-28.
108
Hardy, Adam, op. cit., pp. 15-16
109
Ibid, 17
110
Tadgell, Christopher, op. cit., p. 20

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 51

In Dravidian shrine (vimana) the lower tiers support horizontal bands or
cloisters (haras) of pavilions based on timber prototypes. The pavilions at the
corners being square, domed ones (kutas), the central pavilions being
rectangular and barrel roofed (shalas). The crowning element is at the top in
isolation-would be described as large kuta. The pairing of pilasters under the
kutas and shalas are integral parts.111

Figure 20: A view of Shore Temple of Mahabalipuram

Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

The elements of the Chalukyan and other southern cave temples, primarily
depicting the sala, kuta and panjara, are again presented in the Brahmanical
caves around Bombay. These caves, however generally vary in Buddhist
examples at Ajanta and Ellora. The internal unity of mandapesvar, Elephanta,

111
Srinivasan, K. R., op. cit., pp. 76-77.

52 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

Jogesvari of Bombay, Ramesvara (Ellora) and Dhumarlena (Ellora) are well
known.112

They are totally different from the Buddhist groups which, however, have an
internal commonness among themselves. It shows the several stages of
development. It has to be inferred from this that pillar and layout details
changed quickly within even one decade, as is sometimes being proclaimed in
successive stages of Ajanta and Elephanta-Jogesvari.113

Moreover, it can be said that the same sculptors had actually been
commissioned. Although it could be true that craftsman for Vidarbaha may have
been involved at Kanheri, the same cannot be automatically predicated to the
Brahmanical monuments. It can be inferred that craftsmen were easily
switching over form Buddhist to Brahmanical carvings around Bombay.114 In
this case, Brahmanical cave-architecture is not a finite evolutionary stage in
temple arts but a prestigious departure from structural erections, for which the
environment around Bombay or around Ellora was into yet found conducive. It
was only given to the Rashtrakutas to visualize and concretize the temple
models such as Ellora monoliths even in the trap mass.115

The caves at Elephanta, Jogesvari and Ellora (early phase) were styled for
Brahmanical gods and on Brahamical temple models. It may be presumed that
prototypes were existing in brick or stone. The architecture of Elephanta shows
development, integration and elaboration over a fairly long and mutually related
period and cannot be the command of the single king. Nor is pasupatism the
overwhelming keynote of the cave temples under reference.116

112
Srinivasan, K. R., op. cit., pp. 69-71.
113
Ibid, p. 72
114
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, The art of South India, p. 139.
115
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p.
116
Rajan, K. V. Soundara. (1980). op. cit.,, pp. 139-40.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 53

They bring Shiva, Karttikeya, Ganesa, Lakshmi, Saraswati, Durga,
Kalyanasundara and Saptamatrikas in an integrated framework which was part
of a prevailing hieratic temple formula. They are the resonant, creative
articulations of kings who had a plan and a purpose to propagate Agamic
Brahmanical religious art at its best, of Vaishnava and Shaiva.117

The Chalukyas of Vatapi erected the multitudinous edifices and structural

excavations in that age and simultaneously Elephanta and Ellora cave can be
attributed. Jogesvari, on the other hand, implies a long period of excavations
and virtually should have got completed only by the time of the Chalukya-
Rashtrakuta transition.

The main cave at Dharasiva 118 particularly so clearly patterned after the
Mahayana shrine cave of Ajanta has its much later use for Jainism. From an art
historical point of view, Mandapeshwar, Elephanta and Jogesvari seem to be
from one cohesive group in that order. And it would be artificial and unsound to
isolate Elephanta without the study of Mandapeshvar or Jogeshvari. It would
also be difficult to sustain the assumption that Ajanta or Jogesvari layout has
something in common with both the religions concerned.119

Further, sculptural forms of Deccan were strongly influenced by the artistic

style of the Pallavas. It is characterised by tall and slender figures which could
be distinguished easily from their Orissan or Vindhayan counterparts. Female
forms are slim, with narrow waists and small shoulders. The breasts are well-
rounded but smaller.120

117
Ibid, p. 141.
118
Ibid, 142.
119
Srinivasan, K. R., op. cit., p. 65-70.
120
Ibid, p. 71

54 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

 Figure 21: Division of the facade of cave in double storey style
Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

They wear fewer ornaments and garments. The male figures are somewhat
heavier with broad shoulders, supported on elongated torso. Less attention is
paid to the expression of emotions through facial movements, pose and
gestures. These descriptions apply both to human and divine forms. In fact, this
trait has been carried over for several centuries down South as evident in the
various bronze figures of later dates.121

Development Dravidian monolithic temple

Temples built all over India may not be classified at some points of overlapping
of certain characteristics due to interaction of different cultures and
intermingling of artisans belonging to different regions. Places of worship
consecrated to various religions, their sects and sub-sects in different parts of

121
Srinivasan, K. R., op. cit., pp. 1-5.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 55

 the country exhibit a variety which is again a highly typical feature of this
land.122

Monolithic temples at Mahabalipuram

The same way the religious thoughts could evolve with permutations and
considerations of old concepts and the fresh ones. So was here a discernible line
of evolution in the temple structures, which, while adopting certain basic traits
also started incorporating several new feature. Fortunately, the possibility of
synthesis of cultural and regional diversities among the shifting populations
which alone could bring about an enlargement of scope for innovations, within
the bounds of traditions which are no doubt, powerful and greatly influential.

T. V. Sairam 123 has done a wonderful work on the literary tradition of

architecture he says “Manasara and the Kashyapa, the treatises on architecture,
profusely describe the construction principles and forms of Vimana. Manasara
recognizes vimanas up to twelve storeys, Kasyapa describe sixteen storeys to
the extent. A vimana may be round or contain four, six or eight sides. The form
of the edifice may be uniformly the same from the basement up to the spire.
There are three types distinguishable on the basis of the construction medium:124

1. Sudha-constituting of a single material

2. Mishra- consisting of two materials and

3. Sanchirana- of three or more material

There are again three sorts of vimana, distinguishable on the basis of the
dominance of height, breadth and sayana length. It can be seen that these shapes
are generally in accordance with posture of the idol installed in vimana.125

122
Ibid, p. 7
123
Sairam, T. V., op. cit., pp. 22-46.
124
Ibid, p. 48
125
Srinivasan, K. R., op. cit., pp. 74-79.

56 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

The archaeological evidences postulates that the Southern vimana development
must have originated from a more primitive kuta vimana (vimana with a
prominent spire carrying a single stupid or finial). Leading to sabha type
vimana (superstructure) having vault like or inverted bat-shaped spire carrying a
series of stupies (pinnacle).126

The simplest possible Dravidavimana127 (shrine) is a prototype of primitive hut

with just a base, a wall and a roof, even today, many village shrines are of this
type. In case of group of Rathas128, the only one known in monumentalized
form is Draupadi‟s ratha at Mahabalipuram. The basic class of Dravida temple
comprises of a sanctum crowned by a pavilion in one form or another of domed
kuta or barrel roofed known as shala. The lower tiers support horizontal bands
or cloisters (haras) of pavilions based on timber prototypes129. The pavilions at
the corners being square, domed ones (kutas), the central pavilions being
rectangular and barrel roofed (shalas). The crowning element is at the top in
isolation-would be described as large kuta. The pairing of pilasters under the
kutas and shalas are integral parts 130 . Such shrines, as mentioned earlier,
representation in stone of contemporary perishable material131. Probably the
earliest surviving full-size square alpa-vimana132 is a small, sandstone shrine in
front of the Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole (early 7th century)133. This tradition
later on developed into highly stylized edifices both structural and rock-cut.

126
Ibid, p. 80
127
Hardy, Adam op. cit., p.126.
128
Ibid, p. 127
129
Srinivasan, K. R., op. cit., p.77.
130
Hardy, Adam op. cit., p. 206-7.
131
Dayalan, D., op. cit., p. 96.
132
Hardy, Adam, op. cit. p.206-07
133
Srinivasan, K. R., op. cit., p. 76

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 57

Ratha Group of Temples

N. L. Mathur elaborates on the development “Gradually, in Tamil Nadu, by the

time of Pallavas, during 7th century CE, the layout of a temple had been settled.
This is known from the vast body of the literature known as Tevaram and
Nalayiradivya prabandham. These are basically outpouring of saints of
Shaivism and Vaishnavism, surcharged with spirituality who visited the various
shrines and sang about them. The references to the terms like mata, malikai,
kuta, kopuram in Tevaram portray the layout of the temples. Accordingly, mata
was the sanctum; malikai was the hall in front of the sanctum and kopuram, the
entrance structure. Matm meant a raised dwelling and hence matakkoyil was a
temple with high platform”.134

Narsimhavarman 1 (630-668 CE), known as Mahamalla of the Pallava dynasty

was a great patron of architecture and further in his lineage Narsimhavarman II
(680-720) who had a peaceful reign several temples were built during his time.
One of striking example is Kailashnath Temple at Mahabalipuram. In terms of
creating monumental wealth, Pallavas in Southern India created a landmark in
the history of architecture. It seems that the artistic style was inspired by the art
of Amravati135.

The accentuated tubular form of the limbs has given the impression on the
temple architecture of Pallava domain. Further Stella Kramrich 136 observes,
“Into their South Indian sculptures went something of floating impetuosity of
long limbed figures of Amravati”. The rock-cut cave temples at Mahabalipuram
are an expression of artistic genuine at creating monolithic temple from the
living rock. Due to style and experimentation of Dharamraja mandapa is
thought to be the earliest among the others. As given earlier example of

134
Mathur, N.L. (1972). Sculpture in India: its History & Art. New Delhi: Caxton Press. p. 31.
135
Ibid, p. 32
136
Kramrisch, Stella. (1954). The Art of India. London: Phaidon Press. p. 38.

58 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

Udayagiri caves, the Varah mandapa is an outstanding representation of
asymmetrical arrangement of carved figures where Vishnu is shown lifting the
earth from the cosmic ocean. In Mahisha mandapa, the fury and ferocity of the
Mahishsura is beautifully represented. Another impressive panel depicts Vishnu
as resting on Sheshanaga. Dr. N. L. Mathur137 observes “The tranquillity and
repose as shown in Vishnu‟s sleep is a marvel of plastic art”.

Figure 22: Ratha Temples of Mahabalipuram

Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

The panel of Krishna in Panch Pandva cave proportionally depicts the

Goverdhana lifted by Krishna. In another panel, the scene of milking cows in
Brindavana has been carved aesthetically. It may, however, be taken as
representation of the Hindu epics in living rocks. The structural edifices seem to
be inspired by the Buddhist example of the Jatakas representation variously
found at Ajanta and other cave temples in India.138

137
Mathur, N. L., op. cit., p. 31.
138
Ibid, p. 32

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 59

The craftsmen further took a step experimenting to create monolithic temples or
these may be treated as prototype of creating monolithic marvel at Ellora as an
antecedent. The eight rock-cut Rathas- Dharamraja, Arjuna, Bhima, Sahadeva,
Draupadi, Ganesha, Valiyan-Kuttai, Pidari, however, may not be created in
same order stands side by side.139

The Rathas are beautifully carved and the sculptures on them represent the
Hindu mythology. The reference may be given of carved images of bull, lion
and elephant, the vehicle of Shiva, Durga and Indra respectively. The influence
of Amravati art can easily be noticed here in terms of the movements and
expressiveness of poses and gestures. The tubular exaggeration of the thinness
of the arms and legs, heart shaped faces and high cheekbones represents a new
dimension in the plasticity of the art as a precursor of forthcoming
developments in monolithic architecture.140

Figure 23: Lion cave at Mahabalipuram

Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi

139
Tadgell, Christopher, op. cit., p. 74.
140
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 304-06

60 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

The Dharamrja Ratha is the tallest among all. On its base, there are four corner
blocks each with the two niches carved with the images of Harihara, Brahma
and Skanda. One niche portrays King Narsimhavarman with a conical crown.
The upper balcony of Ratha having a series of relief figures of Shiva. The
Ardhnarishwara image of the Rudra is very impressive.141

Draupadi Ratha seems to be more elegant in this group. The dwar-kanyakas

figures are lively depicted on the panels on each side of the doorjambs. The
open air carving in relief on the rock surface is like an artistic expression of a
canvas.

The decent of Ganges does not look like a work of novice, but a masterly realism.
The 90 x 23 feet granite boulder was chosen to mark the skill of the artisan. The
grandeur of the expression imbibed into the carving of relief is remarkably satisfies
the thirst of the lover of art. Bhagirath is depicted on his one leg for the descent of
the River Ganges. Here, Shiva is shown bestowing boon.142

Figure 24: Rock-cut panel bears the various narratives from Hindu Mythology
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

141
Ibid, p. 307
142
Huntington, Susan, L. op. cit., pp. 296-304.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 61

Thus, these representations of densely populated containing various life-size
figures are marked by natural expressions. The whole scene of overflowing
water genuinely transformed into the living scene of Himalyas. The depiction of
Naga couple cuddling in the middle of the stream is a natural representation. A
Brahman is shown going back to home with a pot of water on one of his
shoulders. A deer approaches the stream to appease its thirst. Above are two
swans‟ plunges into the water. Such a realistic picture of the nature imagined
and carved at this rock is an example of highly skilled artisans.143

One remarkable scene which attracts is performing the penance of numerous

ascetics around a small shrine of Vishnu. Similarly, on the other side of the
stream, a cat is depicted imitating the same postures of penance by lifting the
whole body in its hind legs and raising front paws above its head, and the
nearby, the mice of the forest, on seeing their enemy in such an ascetic posture,
run about fearlessly. One of them even seem daring enough to worship him as
their god.144

The open air panel of Arjuna‟s penance is an example of the skill of the Pallava
artists cutting stone directly. The representation of faunal world shows the
artists‟ consummate skill in depicting the habits and manners of animals very
realistically. The sculptures of animals reached its apex, the deer, the elephant,
the monkey, the bull and the cat at Mahabalipuram are skilfully chiselled out
and an example of outstanding mastery in monolithic rock.145

The concept of unity is obviously expressed in the relief sculptures of

Mahabalipuram in two ways. Firstly, the unconscious stone emerges as the
conscious form of animals, men and gods, who are engaged in various

143
Ibid, p. 305
144
Ibid, p. 308
145
Ibid, p. 310

62 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

 activities. Secondly, sculptures like the Gangavatrana of Mahabalipuram narrate
allegorically the unity of the three worlds146.

In this series, the Kailasanath temple at Kanchipuram was built by Rajasimha

shortly after the Shore temple in the 8th century CE, and compared to the latter,
is larger in dimensions and more majestic in appearance. The Kailashnath
temple is situated in a rectangular courtyard surrounded by a peristyle 147
composed of a continuous series of cells resembling rathas. But there the
Pallava style is further evolved and more elaborate. It consists of the sanctum
(garbha griha), a pillared hall (mandapa), the ambulatory, the vestibule in the
shape of a hall. The flat roofed pillared mandapa, which was a separate building
originally, was connected.148
Impact of religious domain

During the time of Ikshvakus in Andradesa, the Brahmanical faith was revived
and made a great impact on art as well. The worship of Kartikeya, Vishnu-
ashtabhujaswami and Shiva was prevalent during 3rd-4th century CE The growth
of Shaivite cult can be witnessed in the sculptural art during 6 th century CE in
the following iconic forms-Shiva as Lingdharin and Shiva as Ardhanarishvara
(androgyny), Nataraja and Uma-Maheshwara at Undavalli and Mogarajpuram
caves. The Kalchuris favoured the Lakulisha images during 6th century CE in
Western India and during the time of Renandu rulers in Andhradesa the
Lakulisha was so favoured that inscription were written with the invocatory
verses to Shiva –Lakulisha.149

146
Narzary, Janak Jhankar, “A Hindu view of Unity: its impact on the style of Hindu sculpture of Mahbalipuram,
Ellora and Elephanta” in the Ellora Caves: Sculpture and Architecture, Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannel and
Shivaji Panikkar (ed. all). New Delhi: Books & Books. p. 119-127.
147
A colonnade surrounding a building or enclosing a court.
148
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 313-17.
149
Prasad, B. Rajendra. (1983).Chalukyan Temples of Andhradesa. New Delhi: Abhinav Publication. pp. 7-8.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 63

 Andhradesa which came under the control of Chalukyas, witnessed the growth
of Alampur as a great art centre of seminal importance. Following the
innovative trends initiated at Alampur and perhaps under the guidance of the
Alampur guild temples were raised at Kuaveli, Mahanandi, Panyam Satyavolu
and Kadamarkalava 150 . The unique feature of the architectural form is its
kinship with Nagara temple form the temple of Dravidian style is exception.
This moment for the first time in the history of architecture created a landmark
and envisaged a new era.

Political Influence

The Chalukyas ruled the entire Deccan comprising Karnataka and Andhra from
sixth century to the middle of eighth century CE.151 Being a principal power in
Deccan its confrontations with the northern and southern powers created
extensive contacts with different cultural zones. And later it became a
supplement for evolution of a variety of architectural styles to Karnataka. At
Aihole, the Nagara style of temple appeared during the reign of Pulkesin II and
it was adopted subsequently. The Chalukyas were true patron of art and
architecture. The extension of their kingdom to Andhradesa made a great
cultural impact on the region and also on the western region. The comingling of
several religious embellishments resulted out in form of temples that Chalukyan
raised. They, as at Aihole, too favoured the latina152 temple form which was
fundamentally of Nagara style architecture.153

The Chalukya of Badami especially the king Pulkesin I (543 CE) was the real
founder of the dynasty. The hills at Badami were fortified during his time. His

150
Ibid, pp. 9-10.
151
Rajshekhara, S. (Early Chalukya Art at Aihole, pp. 7-8.
152
The term latina is from lata, meaning creeper and refers to the central spire of the tower (shikhar), so called because
of the plant like patterns of horseshoe arches (gavakshas) climbing up it.
153
Ibid

64 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

successor Kirtivrman I (566-598 CE) not only preserved the monarchy but also
led campaign against Kadamas, the Nalas, the region between Bellary and
Kurnool cave under the control of Chalukyas. During the reign of Manglesha
the uncle of the King Pulkesin II succeeded Kirtivarmana as latter as a minor.154

Pulkesin II became the monarch in 609-10 CE. His victorious campaign against
the Kadamba of Vanvasi, Alupas, the Western Gangas, the Mauryas of Konkan,
the Latas, the Malwas and the Gurjaras proved his intention of conquest of all
then region and expansion of his reign. The battle with Harsha demarcated his
empire as Narmada its frontier and the region between Narmada and Tapti came
under the Chalukyan control. Again, he led his army against Kalinga, Kosala
and Andhra which brought the whole region between the east and the west
coasts under Chalukyan control.155

Due to expansion of Chalukyan empire, a branch of came into existence in 624

CE, known as Chalukyas of Vengi. The command of this branch was in the
hands of Kubja Vishnuvardhana, the brother of Pulkesin II. The Chalukyas of
Vengi were a collateral line that had independently started ruling the Andhra
coast from the commencement of the seventh century under Kubja
Vishnuvardhana, the intrepid brother of Pulakesin II, and continued throughout
the period.156

The cave-temples are to be found at Badami, Aihole, Ellora, Bhokardan,

Elephanta, Jogeshvari, Poona, Arvelam (Goa), Mahur, Advi Somanpalli,
Vijayawada, Mogulrajapuram, Undavalli, Sitaramapuram, Penamaga and
Bhairavakonda are product of this branch.157

154
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 283.
155
Tadgell, Christopher, op. cit., pp. 76-79.
156
J. Ramanaiah, The Chalukya and the Kakatiya Temples, pp. 2-3.
157
Ibid, p. 4

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 65

Pulkesin II‟s copper plate grants found in the western Andhra, especially the
Tummayamuru 158 grant refer to Chalukya vishya and also to lord
Sangameshvara at the confluence of the rover Tungabhadra and Krishna. Hence,
the control of Andhra region had been effective since Pulkesin II‟s time. With
the conquest of Bana and Renandu Chola territories including the districts of
Anantapur, Cuddpah and Chittor. Pulkesin was victorious over the Pallava
Monarch Mahendravarmana I.159

In subsequent battle against Banas and Telugu Cholas, Pulkesin met the Pallava
Narshimavarman that resulted in the death of Pulkesin sometime in 642 CE
After the death of Pulkesin II the Chalukyan empire began to stumble. After
some time Vikrmaditya ascended the throne in 654AD.160

Aityavarmana, brother of Vikramaditya governed the principality of Chalukya

vishyas. The epigraphical records mention about their region over Alampur
region. The inscription that predate 670 CE and the Nausari plates postulate that
Vikramaditya was pre-occupied with the southern region of the kingdom. And
the invasions into the Pallava kingdom which began quite early seemingly
achieved complete success by about 671 CE, a fact recorded in Nausari
plates161.

Vikramaditya was succeeded by Vinayaditya in 681-696 CE He played a

pivotal role in administrator. He gave munificent gifts to the cause of religion
by royalty, particularly in the name of his queen, as mentioned in the inscription
of Alampur. It records that the Svarga-Brahma temple was built in honour of his
queen. 162 Vijayaditya, son and successor of Vinayadiya in 696 CE marked

158
Prasad, B. Rajendra, op. cit., pp. 6-7.
159
Ibid, p. 8
160
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p.
161
B. Rajendra Prasad, op. cit., pp. 6-7.
162
Ibid, p. 8

66 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

 another long reign and prosperity. This encouraged the activities of art.
Vijayaditya‟s inscriptional records testify his stay at Elapura (Ellora) in 706 CE,
Hatampura (Alampura) in 718 CE, Raktpura (Lakshmeswra) in 730 CE
Pattadkal became a centre of religious activities during his time. The temple
built by the king were Vijayesvara now known as Sangameshvara.163

After Vijayaditya, Vikramaditya ascended the throne in 733-34 CE and repelled

the Arab invasion on the northern frontiers. After him, Kritivarman led three
expedition subsequently against Pallava which all were won by him. 164 His
inscriptions in the Rajsimheswara temple at Kanchi and Pattadakal testify the
victory of Chalukyas over Pallava. The templenamely Lokeshvara and
Trailokeshvara at Pattadkal were built by queens Lokamahadevi and Trailokya
Mahadevi, have been identified as Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna respectively.165

Kirtivarman was last Chalukya ruler who ascended in 744-45. He ruled almost
for a decade and as defeated by the Rastrakuta King Dantidurga by 753 CE.

The Chalukyas were mostly of Hindu persuasion but they encouraged the Jain
creed. As such one could perceive a congruity of purpose, technique and the
raw material chosen to stabilise Hinduism and foster Jainism and perpetuate
their traditions at the cost of Buddhism which was having till then a greater hold
on the rich, lay, agricultural and mercantile sections of the people.166

The choice of all these dynasties was the local soft-stone formations, viz.
sandstone, as in Badami and Aihole and in most other places, lateritic, as at
Arvelam on the extreme west coast, schist as at Bhairavakonda, and trap on the
north-west Deccan and western India around Aurangabad, Poona and Bombay.

163
Deglurkar, G. B. (1974). Temple Architecture and Sculpture ofMaharashtra. Nagpur: Nagpur University. pp.35-
38.
164
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 285.
165
Ibid, p. 286
166
Deglurkar, G. B. op. cit., p. 54

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 67

The Western Gangas alone despite their Chalukyan affinities were votaries of
Jainism. They made a deviation in that they excavated into the hard local
granite as at Melkote (Mysore).167

As inscription proclaim Chalukyas as parambhagvata and ardent devotees of

Lord Vishnu, Kartikeya and smartkeyas and were tolerance to Shaivism and
Jainism. It was after the succession of Vikramaditya I to the throne, the
munificence of the royalty underwent towards a certain change, the Shiva
religious sect. Here need to mention of Amudalapadu epigraph recording
shaivcharyas.168

Another grant from Nausari dated 671 CE refers Vikramaditya as

Paramaheshvara and meditating at the feet of Sri Nagavardhana. This
influential evidence denotes the importance of Pashupati cult. The
predominance of Pashupti cult is also reflected in the iconography by placing
Lakulisha in the niche along with the temples of Shiva, Vishnu, Sakta,
Kaumara, Soma and Ganapati images.169

It seems that a matha (monastery) was established at Alampur with growth of

temples related to Shiva. A reference to matha of Alampur is recorded in CE
781. The cult of mother goddess was also prevalent in this area which also
successively evident at Ellora in various caves as Satamatrakas panels. Several
images of Lajjagauri (the nude headless goddess) emphasize the long tradition
of primitive cult. Later also emerged as Shaktipeetha during 10th Century CE.
K. V. Soundara Rajan has opined that “It is observable that the Chalukyan
structural style well preceded the Rashtrakuta monolithic enterprise at
Ellora”170.

167
Ibid, p. 55
168
Prasad, B. Rajendra, op. cit., pp. 6-7.
169
Ibid, p. 8
170
K. V. Soundara Rajan , The Ellora Monoliths, p. 15.

68 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

The early Chalukyan interaction with the caves of Badami and Aihole are
represented in four at Badami and five at Aihole respectively. Among them two
are Vaishnava, one Shaiva and one Jaina at cave at Badami. At Aihole, two are
Shaiva, one Jaina, one Budhhist and one Jaina. One cave (III) is dated at
Badami. It was excavated by Mangalesha in 578 A. D171.

The temples belongings to the Chalukyan style were either square or rectangular
from within. The important movements in the history of the Nagara temple
style, they represent the early group. As it is well known, the Chalukyan style is
the result of the blending of the elements and characteristics of the Nagara and
Dravida style. In its origin, thus it is hybrid, but later on constituted a well-
defined and separated style of decorative significance. The mandapas of those
temples are of cruciform plan as it is in the Kailash at Ellora172.

The Chalukyas of Badami from the middle of the sixth century CE

and the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta who supplanted them effectively in the
middle of the eighth century, together with the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi
have left a number of cave-temples in the region between the Tapti and the
north Pennar rivers, extending from coast to coast.173

The Chalukya-Rashtrakuta dominion of the area to the west resulted in the

upper Deccan affiliations becoming quite distinct from what obtained in the
lower Deccan, thus exhibiting two regional idioms. This was because the
northern zone lay nearer the sites of the earlier Buddhist cave art and rock
architecture. The skills and traditions that had prevailed for more than eight
centuries among the local guilds of craftsmen thus continued in the generations
that took up Hindu and Jain rock architecture and cave art.174

171
Bakshi, S. R., Architecture in Indian Subcontinent, p.68.
172
Deglurkar, G. B. op. cit., pp. 35-36.
173
Srinivasan, K.R., op. cit., pp. 45-50.
174
Deglurkar, G. B. op. cit. pp. 35-40.

Development of Rock-cut Architecture 69

Rock architecture was also sustained longer as mode in the northern zone. It
developed more vigorously particularly under the Rashtrakutas as could be seen
from their enormous output and such large scale compositions as the caves at
Elephanta, Dhumarlena and Jogeshvari, not to speak of the monolithic carvings
of the Kailash temple, and the Jain Chota Kailash and the Jain chaumukh in the
Indra Sabha complex. But rock architecture soon became a mere second to
structural stone constructions in the southern zone of the Chalukyas as would be
seen in the sequel.175

K. V. Soundra Rajan176 has a firm view that “it is of no small significance that
the Chalukyas should have chosen Elephanata and Ellora for their marathon
innings, largely because they were the political panorama of the erstwhile
Vakatakas and Kalachuris which latter unmistakably laid low politically,
culturally and logistically and did not stop this chase until Harshvardhana of
Kannauj also had been stemmed across the banks of Narmada to show how
authentically they were the lord of Dakshinapatha. The ring of the Mahakuta
pillar record and the Aihole prashasti (eulogy) of Pulkesin and the glow of the
resurgent art of the Chalukyas do not befit nor admit of a borrowed art legacy
for themselves after the fall of the Vakatakas, through the Kalachuris who
claimed Konkan by proxy and the area around Ajanta and Ellora by sheer
strategy”. 177

If we see from the architectural point of view, the cave art at Ellora has many
sidelights. Its ritual framework is reasonably elaborate and well sustains an
integrated god-consort pattern. It presents purely Shaiva contexts as well as
mixed Shaiva and Vaishnava nexus, often predicated in context to a basic Shiva
shrine. The one example prior to it is presented only at Badami, the parent zone,

175
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 335-346.
176
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit. p. 141.
177
Ibid, p. 142

70 Development of Rock-cut Architecture

a purely Vaishnava situation in cave no.3. Rashtrakutas also initially continued
the Shaiva-Vaishnav nexus in its creation at Ellora.

In monolithic stage, this becomes less and an exultant Shaiva domain is

revealed. But one element which spotlights the monolithic mode of the
Rashtrakutas is the provision not only for both extra-Vindhyan and south Indian
usages in layout, but also in a meticulous of a prakāra (surrounding wall) wall
for the temple complex. Thus it may be stated that the Rashtrakutas, in their
monoliths, desired to present the whole temple panorama and transplanted the
scene available at Pattadkal in Karnataka region.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 71

 Chapter-3

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a

Sacred Complex
Kailāsh Temple is a manifestation of mount Kailāsh in Himalyas as Ellora is a
tīrthā1 in Maharashtra. The ancient name of Ellora was Elapura as mentioned in
the Chalukyan and Raştrakuta copper plate inscriptions.2 The Kailāsh temple
cave no. 16 is referred to as Manakeshwar lene in the Jnāneshwari, a thirteenth
century Marathi commentary on the Bhagvadgita.3 Formally recognized as a
tīrthā- a centre of worship and ritual, the site attracted support and activity of
key political and religious leaders. As a tīrthā it was the appropriate place to
locate extraordinary monuments, like the Śaiva Kailāsh temple. It was
unprecedented and unrivaled in architecture but also attracted patrons and
worshipers of other faiths such as- Buddhist and Jain who responded in similar
way to the growing power of the religious complex.4 The sacred complex of
Ellora preserves a record of these movements as teachers, worshipers, rulers,
and artists converged and collaborated in a burst of creativity that accelerated in
the late seventh century and peaked in the second half of the eighth century5.

The holy scriptures of ancient India contain exhaustive list of 'Tīrthās' which
can be equated with sacred complexes in philosophical sense. The literal
meaning of the word tīrthā is a place of pilgrimage or a religious centre famous
for auspicious performances6. The classical Sanskrit writing expounds the
significance of pilgrimage and its merits. Places of pilgrimage are also called

1
Dhavalikar, M. K. (2003). Monumental Legacy: Ellora. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 7.
2
Ibid, p. 8
3
Ibid, p. 9
4
Hardy, Adam. (2007). Temple Architecture of India. Chichseter: John Wiley. p. 10.
5
Huntington, Susan L. (1985). The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain. New York and Tokyo:
Weather Hill. p. 341.
6
Kramrisch, Stella, (1976). The Hindu Temple. Delhi Delhi, Varanasi, Patna: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 3.
72 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex
 kshetra. According to the perception of the religious thinkers of ancient India
pilgrimage brings joy and salvation. The various names given to tīrthās and
temples give explicit explanation of the idea. In Brahmpurāna7 the Brahmins
are addressed that devotee shall worship any linga he sees in the holy centre by
doing this he shall go to the world of Śiva. A sacred complex is generally
known as a source of active power and above all a place where moksha or final
release can be obtained. Religious importance of a sacred complex has got very
important place even in the early Vedic literature. Nadistuti8 of the Rīgveda
gives an account of the highly sanctified rivers.

“IMAM MEN GANGEY YAMUNE SARSWATI STUDRI STOMA SACHATA PRUSANYA ASIKNYA

MRUDVRIDHE VITASTAYASJIRKIE RIPUHA SUSHOMYA”

(Rg. 10.75)

The Smriti9 literature is full of the religious importance of auspicious perennial

streams which were subjects of veneration for the people. The Manusmriti10 is
well known for an exhaustive list of tīrthās. In this text tīrthāyatra has been
equated with aswameghyajana11. The earliest and the most famous Smriti
written by Manu also contain comprehensive details about the kshetra and their
auspiciousness. The Garudapurana12 enumerates many sacred cities as:
Ayodhaya, Mathura, Maya, Kasi, Kanchi, Kedara and Pushkar as givers of
moksha.

The sacred geography of India recognizes the whole country rather an

auspicious land the best for meditation, spiritual realization and emancipation
than human activities. The Brahmpurāna13 has also given a very interesting

7
Shastri, J. L., (2004). Ancient Indian Tradition & Mythology, vol. 33. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass. p. 236.
8
Muller, F. Max. (1965). Hymns of the Rigveda in the Samhita and Pada Texts. Varanasi: The Chowkhamba
Sanskrit Series Office. p. 331.
9
Das, Bhagwan. (1993). Manu‟s Code of Life. New Delhi: Radha Publications. pp. 411-12.
10
Ibid, p. 413
11
Ibid, p. 414
12
Shastri, J. L., op. cit., pp. 247-49.
13
Bhatt, G. P. (2004). Ancient Indian Tradition & Mythology vol. 36. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas. pp. 759-60.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 73

 classification of tīrthās. It has mentioned that in this world four types of tīrthās
(sacred complexes) are manifested. These are related to Gods (Daiva tīrthās),
demons (asuras), sages or monks (rishi) and places sanctified by common men
(manav)14.

 Daiva Tīrthās: The best among the four categories are the places which are
related to revelation of power of the God -Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh.
Places like 'Mount Kailāsh ' and 'Kāsi' come under this category.15

 Asur Tīrthās: These are the venerated places where demons were defeated or
trampled by the Gods or Goddesses. Gaya, where Gayasura, a demon was
trampled by lord Vishnu is the most appropriate example.16

 Rishi Tīrthās: These associated with the names of great seers. These are holy
places where people of saintly attributes stayed or meditated for a long time or
where they established their hermitages. Vyasgupha, Yajanvalkyakup,
Anavashram, Rudraprayag, Kapileshwarsthan etc are some of the well-known
examples of this category of tīrthās.17

 Manav tīrthās: These tīrthās renders to an auspicious place established by

common people. Mahabalipuram and Kailāsh temple Ellora are of the famous
tīrthās which can be termed as Manavtīrthā. Nathdwāra, a very famous sacred
complex, also falls under the purview of this category.18

Apart from all these four categories of tīrthās, ancient literature enumerates the
name of another tīrthā which is related with the psychological state of devotion
called manas- tīrthā or a tīrthā of mind19. This again denotes the spiritual aim

14
Ibid, p. 761
15
Ibid, p. 762
16
Ibid, p. 763
17
Ibid, p. 764
18
Ibid, p. 766
19
Kramrisch, Stella, op. cit., p. 10.

74 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex

 and benefit of a tīrthā which is nothing else but complete emancipation from
mundane anxieties. Where to establish a tīrthā might have been an important
subject of Indian scriptures related to the installation of sacred structures.
Significant aspect of this vital subject is that ancient propagators of religion
have given great emphasis on sacred geography.

The physiographic structures, topographical conditions, natural vegetation

availability of perennial stream and components of balanced ecology have been
described as integral ingredients of a sacred geography where only, a sacred
complex can be developed as mentioned in following verse:

“VANOPANAT NADI SAIL NIRJHAROPANT BHUMISHV I

RAMATE DEVATA NITYAM PURESHU DYANVATSU CHA II”20

This means: “The gods always play where groves are near rivers, mountains and
springs, and in towns with pleasure gardens.”21

The Vishnūdharmōttarapurana22 an early compendium speaks of the

installation of consecrated image 'ārcha'23 at a place where denizens of heaven
are present24. A very comprehensive account of sacred performances is also
available in ancient Indian scriptures. There are special chapters on
'Pratimalakshna'25.

20
Srinivasan, P. R. (1982). The Indian Temple Art Architecture. Mysore: Prasarange University of Mysore. p. 2.
21
Ibid, p. 4
22
Gupta, Kusum Kumri. (1994). A Socio-Religious Study of Vishnudharmottara Purana. New Delhi: Harman
Publishing House. p. 105.
23
Shah, Priyabala. (1990). Vishnudharmottara Purana (A text on Ancient Indian Arts). Ahmedabad: The New
Order Book Company. p. 3.
24
Kramrisch, Stella, op. cit., p.5
25
Gupta, Kusum Kumari, op. cit., 105.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 75

 Figure 25: Ghrishnewar Temple at Ellora
Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

Interestingly the sacred specialists have also got significant place in sacred
literature. Especially craftsmen involved in architectural and artistic works got
great literary appreciation for their highly strenuous as well as artistic work. The
architect called 'sthapati'26, was the foremost among the craftsmen of whom
there were four classes 'sthapati' (designing architect), Sutrugrahin27 (surveyor),
Takshaka28 (sculptor) and 'Vardhkin29 (builder plasterer-painter). All the junior
craftsmen working in assistance to them were supposed to follow the
instructions given by him. Sthapati was considered as a great Acharya (teacher)
and he was a scholar of Vāstu-Vīdya (architecture).30 He had also knowledge of
Vedas and Agamas. He was also supposed to be a practitioner having work

26
Shukla, D. N. (1998). Vastu Śāstra, vol.1, Hindu Science of Architecture, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 47-49.
27
Ibid, pp. 48-49.
28
Srinivasan, P. R., op. cit., p. 2.
29
Shukla, D. N., op. cit., p. 48.
30
Ibid, p. 50

76 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex

 experience and a believer in the existence of God.31 He himself was not allowed
to disobey the classical injunctions of architecture iconography, iconology and
iconometry.

Kailāsh temple is Śaivite shrine and in this tradition potency of certain places in
India resulting from the fall of the dismembered body of the dead 'Sati' (spouse
of Lord Śiva) to earth has been glorified32. Symbolically, the fallen part of the
body, the energy of Sati was added to the earth. Later on all places related to
this mythological fall of Sati‟s charred body rose into prominence as scared
centers for pilgrimage.33 Fifty-one places of this kind are scattered all over
India. Apart from Śaktipithas, Siddhapithas or places where saints got
enlightenment also strengthened the socio-cultural unity of India.

Thus, it may be surmised that theological and mythological ideas of pilgrimage

have played a great role in distribution and spread of sacred complexes in
different parts of India and eliminate all the geographical, linguistic and
ecological obstacles.

The Genesis and Growth Factors

The genesis and growth factors responsible for the growth of sacred complexes
can be traced in prehistoric cultures of the country. The rock paintings in the
caves and caverns of the mesolithic period depict narrow and wide signs, and
their graphic representations hold a thematic and symbolic form to express their
religious thoughts. The Raisen34 caves are famous for their rock art, which are
full of ritualistic depictions. Various festive and ceremonial performances,
which can be described as the central theme of these paintings, are very
interesting because it throw light on the religious thinking and practices of pre-
31
Ibid, p. 52
32
Siddhantastree, Rabindra Kumar. (1975). Śaivism through the Ages. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal
Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 110-12.
33
Ibid, p. 113
34
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 3-5.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 77

 historic man. The conceptual and inception of the sanctum sanctorum of the
temple has been related to these dark-dolmens of the caves, by eminent art
historian Dr. Krishandeva.35

In giving description about the genesis

of sacred complexes in India, scholars
have pointed out the cult of the dead as
an encouraging factor. The worship of
stupa and monastical institutions
developed near these types of holy
mounds justify this view36.

Another tradition, which played

important role in the emergence of
religious edifices, can be related to the
cult of fire. The Vedic religion is
basically a creed of sacrificial rituals and
sacraments in which cult of Agni
Figure 26: Stupa at Karle
occupies prominent place37. Agni was Courtesy: American Institute of
the most prominent among all the Indian Studies, Gurgaon

terrestrial deities and was also an intermediary God and who was invoked to
carry the ritualistic offerings and oblations to the celestial deities38. After Indra
the highest number of hymns in Rīgveda is dedicated to Agni-„Agneya idam na
mama”39. In Hinduism fire occupies important place and it was a subject of
great veneration. The holy tradition of fire worship is associated with the system

35
Deva, Krishna. (1995). Temples of North India vol.1. New Delhi: Aryan Book International. p.2.
36
Jauhari, Manorama. (1969). South India and Its Architecture. Varanasi: Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan. p. 9.
37
Vatsyayan, Kapila. (1982). “The Indian Arts: Their Ideational Background and Principles of Form” in Rupa
Pratirupa, ed. by Bettina Baumer. New Delhi: Biblia Impex Private, Ltd. p. 18.
38
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 28.
39
Staal, Frits. (1982). The Science of Ritual, Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. p. 5.

78 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex

of idol worship40. Apart from tribal mystic rites and practices, the cult of Agni
also contributed to the growth of sacred complexes. The theistic as well as
polytheistic nature of Indian religion also gave utmost impetus to the
development of sacred shrines. Folk traditions, idolatry, and development of
various heterodox sects like Jainism and Buddhism also played great role in the
establishment of shrines, holy steads, monasteries and temples41.

Before going in to detail about the genesis and growth of sacred complexes a
very brief description of the development of polytheistic concept and cultic
devotion is required. Because the structural creation of the sacred complexes
received ideological support from the religio-philosophical thoughts of
polytheistic Hinduism. Vedic religion is primarily a polytheistic creed in which
natural powers has been anthropomorphized. It is also highly ritualistic and
offerings and oblations have great in various types of its rites and practices 42.
Hindu religion received inspiration from Vedic cult that is why multiplicity of
Gods and Goddesses and worship of natural powers have become important
features of it43. Transmigration of soul, metempsychosis and rebirth theories has
been very frequently mentioned in Upanishadic44 texts. Speculative and esoteric
thinking about the atman and the parmātman gave birth to the ideas of
meditation, concentration and emancipation45. Vedic religion didn't have
elements of idol worship, but idea of making sacrificial altars is explicable in
this context because later on it comprised important place in Hindu sacred
complexes46. According to Dr. Krishandeva47 the socle (Adhisthāna of the
Hindu temple) symbolizes Vedic altar.

40
Kramrisch, Stella, op. cit., pp. 68-74.
41
Srinivasan, P. R., op., cit. pp.11-13.
42
Vatsyayan, Kapila, op. cit., p. 18.
43
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p.28.
44
Vatsyayan, Kapila, op. cit., p. 19.
45
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 29.
46
Ibid, pp.28-29.
47
Deva, Krishna, op. cit., pp. 1-2.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 79

 Figure 27: Wooden Prototypes for Rock Cut Architecture
Courtesy: Brown, Percy. (1971), Indian Architecture: Buddhist and Hindu Period, Bombay

80 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex

 After 6th century A.D. onward
theistic movement became a part of
orthodox philosophical and literary
works, which had first appeared in
the Gītā. The Gītā is a compendium
work on Upanishadic philosophy
and it has given equal importance to
all the ways of salvation.48 The
theistic devotion is the most
significant thinking of Gītā which
influenced the entire arena of Indian
society and religion.49

Bhaktī or devotion is defined as

disinterested service to God.50
Basically, the ideal of the Gītā is not Figure 28: Vihnu Image at Grishneswar
Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi
negativism, asceticism or escapism.
It is not negation of action, but performance of action with a detached spirit.51
The object of devotion is the God, the Absolute power Lord Krishna says in
Bhagvada Gītā, "Abandon all Dharmas come into me alone for shelter; sorrow
not; I will liberate you from all sins".52

48
Sharma, Krishna. (1987). Bhakti and the Bhakti Movement A New Perspective. New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 110.
49
Ibid, p. 111.
50
Ibid, p. 113.
51
Ibid, pp. 113-115.
52
Amarnathananda, Swami. (1998). Sreemadbhagwad Geeta: The divine song of the Lord, London: Samlall
Dwarka. p. 350

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 81

 Historical analysis of the origin and development of theistic cult makes it clear
that after 6th Cent. B.C Bhaktism had become prevalent in India. Pānini53 has
mentioned a sect of Śaivism called Śaiva Bhāgvata. Basically, Bhāgavata is a
word, which stands for devotional approach to religion. Pillar of Heliodorus54
found at Besnagar in Madhya Pradesh is another epigraphical evidence in which
the growing importance of Bhakti is explicit. The Vaiśnav Bhakti, literally
called Bhagvatism was a syncretic religion in which the Narayan cult and
religious ideology of Vaishnavism were amalgamated with the creed of
Krishna.55

Though Hīnyana Buddhism was a heterodox school of thought and it didn't

believed in anthropomorphic worship of Buddha.56 But later on in the socio-
cultural atmosphere of theism this antagonistic and heterodox religion did not
remain relevant. Hinyana, the orthodox school had started worshipping various
signs and symbols signifying the important event related with of Buddha's life.
Hinyanists gave great respect to stupa worship, which was, basically related
with the cult of the dead.57 It is said that after the death of Buddha the skeleton
remains and ashes were divided and distributed among eight contemporary
rulers.58 Later on Ashoka, the greatest patron of Buddhist social ideology
erected 84000 stupas comprising Budha's relics59.

After the downfall of the Mauryans, during Sātvahanas art became a pan -
Indian movement and various massive structures were made in different part of
the country. The remarkable, aspect is that art of this period did not only

53
Siddhantashastree, Rabindra Kumar, op. cit., p. 91.
54
D. Dayalan. (1995). Monolithic Temples of Madhya Pradesh. Delhi: Bhartiya Kala Prakashan. p. 9.
55
Sharma, Krishna, op. cit., p. 12.
56
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 70.
57
Kail, Owen C. (1975). Budddhist cave Temples of India, Bombay: D. B. Taraporevala & Sons & Co. Private
Ltd. p. 16.
58
Ibid, p. 17
59
Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta. (1988). Age of Nandas and Mauryas. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 241.

82 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex

develop because of royal patronage, but because of the donation and charities
given by merchants.60 This epigraphical record clarifies the growing importance
of stone as a medium of artistic works because of its durability and also due to
the great spurt in artistic activities for massive structures related to sacred
complexes.61 Another noticeable fact is that all the great rock- cut architectures
are situated on the trade routes leading to western coast called Dakshinapath.62
Sānchi a monastical set up embellished with huge and gigantic stupas was also
situated on the trade route leading to western coast. Bhaja, Kondane,
Pittalkhora, Karle and even the magnificent Ajanta was also situated on the
Dakshinapath63. Eight-hundred out of 1200 great rock-cut caves are situated in
western India which was the hinterland of the west coast also substantiates the
idea that spurt in economic activities and international trade played significant
role in the growth of sacred centers64.

Mathura, a great art school of ancient period occupies special significance in

this context. Situated on northern trade route. Mathura was also a great
commercial center and was very famous for its own distinguished cotton
products. The art of Mathura is urban in nature and it depicts the artist‟s love
and appreciation for urban life and culture that we find vibrantly expressed in
seductive poses of the Yakshinies. It seems that it was inspired by the
tremendous commercial advancement of that age. Buddhists, Jainas, followers
of Brahmanism and other religions visited this city and the movement of the
tourists and traders gave great fillip to artistic activities at this place.65 All the
'great sacred complexes like Karle, Bhaja, Ajanta, Pittalkhora, etc. have large
monastically setups which were asylum on the traders moving to the western

60
Hardy, Adam, op. cit., pp. 28-29.
61
Beck, Elisabeth, op. cit., p.7.
62
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 57.
63
Mahajan, Malti. (2004). A gate to Ancient Indian Architecture. Delhi: Sharada Publishing House. pp. 6-10.
64
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 6-7.
65
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 167-75.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 83

coast.66 Ajanta one of the greatest sacred complexes situated on the bank of
river Baghora had a cistern, cozy and convenient accommodations for monks
and visitors.

The sacred complexes developed their own economic activities and became
very rich because of the land grants and revenue assignments given to them by
the monarchs. Sātvāhan as gave land grants to the monasteries of Nasik and also
to Brahmanas67. It is a thing of great interest that apart from ritualistic
performances, economic activities had great importance in ancient Indian sacred
complexes.

Thus, we see that theistic ideas were greatly responsible for spurt in artistic
activities and were inspirational in installation of lofty temples. The art schools
of Mathura, Gandhara, Amaravati, and Nagarjuniknda etc. reached to their apex
because of devotion of the devotees and resulted into the basic credential of art
as well.68

In this regard it is also important to understand the philosophic view point of

pantheism preached by Shankaracharya.69 Sankaracharya, an ascetic from
Kerala expounded Non-dualistic Vedantism based on Gita and Bhagvat purana,
and Bhakti Sutras of Narada and Shandilya.70 The essence of Sankaradvaita is
that God is infinite and formless. This vedāntic perception creates a great query
why to give a form to the formless and why to make a sacred complex for that
power which in infinite.

Apart from North India, South India also became hub of architectural activities
after 6th century A.D. It was primarily due to political consolidation and

66
Srinivasan, P. R., op. cit., p.84.
67
Beck, Elisabeth, op. cit., p. 16.
68
Mahajan, Malti, op. cit., pp. 108-09.
69
Sharma, Krishna, op. cit., p. 4.
70
Ibid, p. 5

84 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex

 economic development of the region. During the Gupta period, North India
experienced the development of Nagar style of temples having a sanctum and
pavilion with the curvilinear spire71. The Gupta Emperors also patronized
artistic architectural works in stone. Apart from Deogarh temple of Nagara
style, the rock cut caves of Udaigiri having depiction of Varaha incarnation of
Vishnu is an excellent example of sacred architecture hewn out in solid rock.72

The Vishnudharmottarapuran73 a classical text on art belonging to post-Gupta

period provide details on the largest number of temples in comparison to the
other texts. After Gupta rulers, North India was divided into various feudal
principalities and they were scrambling for power.74 In contrary to it peninsular
India was politically consolidated by the four dynasties known as Chalukya,
Rastrakuta, Pallavas and Cholas. Chalukyas were comparatively close to North
India; this proved significant in proliferation of the idea of architecture in
Deccan region. But a new genus and genre of architecture developed under
Pallavas require special reference because it has a distinct style and it developed
under the influence of a new religious fervour of Bhaktism propagated and
popularized by the Alvār and the Naynār75 saints. The Alvār and Naynār
movements in South India had a great impact on the development of
architecture as sacred complexes such as Kanchi.76 It is also significant aspect
of South Indian Bhakti movement that pioneers of this movement were
generally low caste people. They preached Bhakti as the most adequate way of
liberation. The ideology of Bhakti favoured idol worship and making of temples
as the best way to get benediction of the almighty god. Mention can be made of

71
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 206-07.
72
Dayalan, D., op. cit., pp. 6-10.
73
Gupta, Kusum Kumari, op. cit., p. 104.
74
Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad & Sinha, Shanti Swaroop. (2011). Jaina Art and Aesthetics. New Delhi:
Aryan Books International. p. 12.
75
Srinivasan, K. R. (2008). Temples of South India, New Delhi: National Book Trust India. p. 33.
76
Beck, Elisabeth. (2006). Pallava Rock Architecture and Sculpture. Pondicherry: Sri Aurbindo Society. p. 87.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 85

Ramanujacharya who highly emphasized the need to understand the
significance of Bhakti.77 It is said Ramanujacharya's philosophy of 'Qualified
non-dualism' was developed in response to the Non-dualistic monism of
Sankaracharya78.

These bhakti saints composed devotional anthologies, translated great epics in

the regional languages revitalized ancient centres of religious fame and
established new sacred complexes. Various folk dance and drama traditions and
cultural celebrations also received great impetus from bhakti movement.

Especially, South Indian temples actuated great spurt in economic activities and
this also strengthened their own development.79 South Indian temples comprised
munificent land grants, collected revenue, domesticated animals, provided
justice, allowed weavers in their premises to work, made hostels and provided
various types of help to common man during natural calamities.80 Due to such
economic activities temple became a moulding factor in social integration and
fraternization. It also inspired people to move towards temple premises to get
employment and good earning81. Sacred complexes, as academic centres
attracted learned Brahmans.82 These sacred complexes were greatly benefited by
charities.83 Many of the temples had their own granaries and because of their
social accountability they worked for agricultural development and irrigational
facilities in rural areas. Thus temple economy having a very vibrant character
encouraged the process of urbanization, which ultimately caused
multidimensional development of the sacred complex itself.

77
Sharma, Krishna, op. cit., p. 6.
78
Ibid, p. 7.
79
Ramaniah, J. (1989). Temples of South India, New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. pp. 228-29.
80
Ibid, 230
81
Hardy, Adam, op. cit., p. 13.
82
Ibid, p. 14
83
Ibid, p. 15

86 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex

 Genesis and Growth of Ellora as a sacred complex: A Historical Analysis

The first urban civilization of the world known as Harappan civilization, which
flourished in Indian sub-continent, is well-known for its highly systematic town
planning, drainage system and massive brick structures. The architecture of
Harappan civilization is aesthetically less impressive but it is famous for its
utilitarian nature. But speculation about religious structures of the Harappan
period is difficult, as the Harappan script still remains un-deciphered.
Prevalence of mother goddess cult, belief in fertility cult, tree worship, zoolatry,
phallus worship and ritualistic performances seem to be some of the important
features of the Harappan religion84. Archaeological studies on the basis of
remains of Harapan art brings to light that citadel area of Mohenjo-Daro was
probably a sacred structure. The Great-bath, as historians have called it is the
most prominent and the most impressive structure of that city. The pool
surrounded by a paved courtyard, is 12 metres long (north to south), 7 metres
wide, and 2.5 metre deep.85 Its purpose can only be guessed. It seems that it was
associated with bathing ritual.86 Thus this structure strongly recalls later Hindu
practices and concept of ablution. As per later Hindu tradition such ponds were
used for purification bath. Apart from the sacred pond, some fire alters have
also been found at Banavali,87 Kalibangan,88 Lothal89 and Rakhigarhi90 which
can be mentioned as sacred structures. After the decline of Indus valley
civilization Indian village settlements remained in chalcolithic phase in which
primitive fertility cult maintained its own privilege and prevalence.91

84
Agrawala, P. K., (1984). Goddess in Ancient India. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. pp. 23-26.
85
Bongard-Levin, G. M. (1985). Ancient Indian Civilization. New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann Publishers. pp. 32-
33.
86
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 11.
87
Gupta, S. P. (1996). The Indus-Saraswati Civilization: Origins, Problems and Issues. Delhi: Pratibha
Prakashan. pp. 151-154.
88
Ibid, 155
89
Ibid, 156
90
Ibid, 157
91
Agrawal, P. K., op. cit., p.16.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 87

The religion of Vedic Aryans was highly ritualistic and sacramental. The
polytheistic religion of the early Aryans later on became highly esoteric and
philosophical and in later-Vedic period speculations related to ātman and
parmātman became the subjects of religious discourses.92 This period did not
achieve significant material advancements. No any structure except some Vedic
alters found at Atranjikhera and Ahichhatra can be mentioned in this context.
But interestingly Vedic literature, especially literature related to later Vedic
period provides some important information regarding wooden structures. Vedic
Sulva Sutra is the earliest literary source on architecture. The main subject of
Sulva Sutra is the making of the Vedic altars.93 It is full of information
regarding geometrical and concentric designs associated with the construction
of Vedic altars.94 The Sathpatha Brahmana contains information related to a
very special kind of architecture made for ceremonial purposes.

The archaeological evidences of the early historical period are not in plenty to
support the literary facts. Mauryan period which witnessed the growth of
Magadha dynasty transformed the wood cut architectural tradition into the lithic
works of exquisite beauty95. Mauryan columns culminated of an ancient pre
Buddhist- religious tradition in India of the cult of the cosmic pillar or world
axis which were erected at sacred places.96 This tradition remain in vogue even
during the period the Mauryas.97 The only significant difference was that due to
royal patronage and the enthusiasm of the craftsmen caves in this period were
excavated. Lomas Rishi and Sudama Rishi caves hewn out in Barabar hill,
situated in Gaya district are remarkable in context to the growth of rock cut

92
Sharma, Krishna, op. cit., p. 47.
93
Stall, Frits, op. cit., p. 56.
94
Gupta, S. P., op. cit., p. 151.
95
Mahajan, Malti, op. cit., p. 45.
96
Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta, op. cit., p. 348.
97
Mahajan, Malti, op. cit., pp. 45-46.

88 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex

caves98. These caves have epigraphical records that enumerate these caves as
religious structures which were given in charity to the monks of Ajivika sect by
Ashoka99. The main gate of the Lomas Rishi cave shows antecedent impact of
the wood cut architecture. The interiors of all these caves situated in this hilly
range have lustrous Mauryan polish, which was a technical advancement, made
in that age.100 Maurya period has given great contribution in the development of
new sacred complexes related to the creed of Buddha101. During Maurya period
many stupas containing holy relics were raised by Ashoka to mark the sites
sacred to the imperial Buddhist faith.102

Buddha as a propagator of universal religion was himself credited of the genesis

of various sacred complexes. Sarnath, Kapilvastu, Rajgriha, Vaishali, Mathura,
Kausambi developed as sacred complexes during Buddha's own lifetime
because these places were venues of various religious conferences and socio-
sacred activities103. Ashoka himself patronized Buddhism and erected pillars and
stupas at highly sacred places associated with Buddha. Sarnath, Bodh Gaya,
Lumbani and Kushinagar the four great sacred complexes became very
popular.104 Kautilya, the learned diplomat and minister of Chandragupta has
also written about the holy steads and the shrines of that period.105

Mauryan art was people's art, which assimilated the rustic ideas, techniques and
patterns, and it is the reason that Śunga-Sātvāhana art exhibits certain folk-art

98
Ibid, p. 47
99
Smith, Vincent A. (1990). Asoka: The Buddhist Emperor of India. Delhi: Low Price Publications. p. 32.
100
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 48-50.
101
Deva, Krishna, op. cit., p. 6.
102
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 61.
103
Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta op. cit., pp. 301-03.
104
Ibid, p. 304.
105
Hardy, Adam, op. cit., p. 24.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 89

characteristics.106 The new patrons of art were traders and opulent businessmen.
Another significant aspect of sacred art of this period is conceptual uniformity
in theme and pattern which is present everywhere in India. Basically in this
period art became a pan-Indian movement. Tradition of idol making and carving
now became an essential and integral part of architecture and this made the
sacred structures of this period highly embellished. In this period mainly two
types of sacred structures were made. These were stupa and chaitya. Before
going in extensive detail a succinct description with these two types of
structures is required.

Beautiful rock-cut chaityas and stupas represent the masonic art of the period
which are evidences of that during Sātvāhana period there was great spurt in
artistic activities.107 Rock-cut shrines of Bhaja, Karle, Kondane, Pittalkhora,
Sittanvasal, Nasik, Bedasa were made in this period.108 This stupendous and
splendorous masonic work was sequel of great advancement gained in
international trade. Near the Śunga capital Vidisha the great stupa of Sānchi
called mahachaityagiri was erected and also new schools of art emerged at
Bharhut, Bodhgaya109 and Mathura.

Stupa: The literal meaning of this word is knot or tuft of hair on the upper part
of the head. In terms of architecture it is a hemispherical burial mound.110 The
chief purpose for which the Buddhists erected stupas was to serve as
monuments enclosing relics of the Buddha or Buddhist saints. Some of them
however contained no relics, but were merely commemorative of the important
events of Buddha's life.

106
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 56-59.
107
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 86-87.
108
Beck, Elisabeth, op. cit., p. 10.
109
Mahajan, Malti, op. cit., p. 78.
110
Ibid, p. 28.

90 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex

 Figure 29: Fronal View of cave at Bhaja
Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi

These aesthetically imbibing caves have numerous cells and rooms, which were made for the
sacred specialists. Like Ajanta there are eight hundred rock-cut caves in Western India,
which were monastical setups made for learning religion and also art. Many of these
monastical institutions received lavish donations from opulent traders.111

Jainism was another unorthodox religion and initially believed in atheistic realism but later
on it also conceived the idea of Bhakti.112. Like Hindu temples and Buddhist chaityas,
Jinaytan also occupy significant place in the history of sacred complexes of India.113

111
Bongard-Levin, G. M., op. cit., p. 179.
112
Ibid, pp. 180-81.
113
Sharma, Krishna, op. cit., p. 19.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 91

Apart from Buddhist sacred complexes, Jaina monastical settlements were also made. Hathi-
gumpha and Rani-gumpha caves of Orissa were carved out during the period of
Mahameghvahan Kharvela who was a great patron of Jaina religion.114 The Rānigumpha
cave also comprise various monastic cells made for Jaina monks who lived highly austerious
life.115

After the downfall fall of Śungas in North India Kushanas rulers extended their political
sway on the larger part of the Gangetic valley. Kushanas were great patrons of art.116 The
Gandhara art reached to its pinnacle because of their patronage.117 The Kushana rulers
developed Mathura, a complex comprising icons of Kushana rulers and also of various
deities.118 Advent of Kushanas in India not only brought a change in political set up of this
country. But it also influenced the society to a great extent by giving impetus to the growth
of art, culture and above all to the development of Mahayana cult, which accepted Buddha as
a divine one and started worshiping his idol.119 The enthusiastic support of the Kushanas and
spirit of Buddhist monks expanded the territorial horizon of Buddhism, which became very
popular in West-Asia, Central Asia and China.120 Kushan's cultural capital Mathura is
associated with Lord Krishna. It was a confluence of indigenous and alien cultural streams
which was responsible for the rise of this city as a great cultural centre where folk,
Brahmanical, Jaina and Buddhist art got opportunity for synchronization as well as
development.

Hindu deities became favourite of the artists during Kushan period is very clear from the
archaeological findings of Mathura which comprise figures of Vishnu,

114
Mahajan, Malti, op. cit., pp. 101-02.
115
Ibid, 103
116
Bongard-Levin, G. M., pp. 195-96.
117
Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad & Sinha, Shanti Swaroop, op. cit., p. 9.
118
Ibid, p.10.
119
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 122.
120
Bongard-Levin, G. M., op. cit., pp. 200-01.

92 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex

Balrama and other Hindu Gods and Goddesses.121 The genesis of the Hindu sacred
complexes can be related to the sacred figures found from Mathura which were kept in holy
steads made for them.

Although during the time of Guptas the activity in this regard was heightened in an attempt
to revive the glory of Brahmanism which had eclipsed for some centuries due to the political
tutelage given to Buddhism and Jainism122.

Since then, the followers of the orthodox Hinduism spared no efforts to make the best use of
the medium of temple for the promotion of Brahmanical faith. Their social values and had
not only succeeded in re-establishing their religion but also developed complexes
magnificent in beauty and grandeur123. The Gupta period marked the beginning of Indian
temple architecture in North India which was made in highly durable materials like brick and
stone124. The monuments of this period show, that it was a formative stage of
experimentation in materials as well as in forms and designs out of which two significant
temple styles developed in North and South India. The Gupta temples are simple and modest
structures, but there bearing upon latter developments is of great significance 125. Now free
from the limitations inherent in wood and bamboo constructions and in cave excavations,
Indian builders used stone as a medium efficiently to evoke the admiring observation of
people126. This also certifies that in Gupta period Brahmanical holy steads became very
popular among the devotees and these new sanctuaries became centers of various cultural
activities.

Each of them consists of a simple square sanctum cella with an open pillared porch in the
front. The sanctum of the temple designed like a cubical cella (garbha-griha) with a single
entrance and a porch (mandapa), appeared for the

121
Ibid, pp. 196-98.
122
Srinivasan, K. R., op. cit., p. 32.
123
Hardy, Adam, op. cit., p. 24.
124
Dayalan, D., op. cit., p. 10.
125
Ibid, 11
126
Hardy, Adam, op. cit. pp. 24-25.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 93

first time as an integrated composition in the early Gupta temple of Sānchi.127 The second
type of Gupta temple is represented by Parvati temple at Nachana Kuthara128 and the Siva
temple at Bhumara.129 Each temple consists of a flat- roofed square sanctum-cella added with
a bigger square hall. The bigger hall which provides a covered ambulatory (pradakshina)
around the inner sanctum is preceded by a slightly smaller rectangular porch of the open type
in front. Notable example of the third category of temples are seen in the Dasavatar 130 temple
at Deogarh Jhansi district. Temple consists of a square sanctum cella supported on a high
basement and covered by a squat sikhara. Though there is the same simplicity of design, as
in the first two groups, certain significant developments may be noticed. A high platform as
the base and a tower as the superstructure of the sanctum add much to the elevation of the
composition.131 The classical texts written on temple architecture define temple as a
consecrated place, which has an inherent divine character, owing to the structure as well as
the functions that occur in it.132

The temple is built according to the prescriptions laid down in the agamic literature.133 The
temple architecture is not entirely governed by functional needs although this is certainly a
consideration but it is essentially symbolic in nature. The Agamic texts ordain that the
devotee must look upon the temple as the physical body of the deity for whom the temple is
built.134

In the late fifth century CE., the idea of super structure had emerged which was to guide the
whole development of these super-structures for centuries to

127
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 199.
128
Tadgell, Christopher, op. cit., p. 46
129
Ibid, p. 49
130
Ibid, p. 47.
131
Srinivasan, P. R., op. cit., p. 105.
132
Ibid, pp. 8-9.
133
Srinivasan, P. R., op. cit., pp. 9-10.
134
Ibid, p. 11

94 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex

come.135 This could be broadly categorized into two types; shikhara and vimana.136 While
shikhara pattern was adopted in North India, vimana was prevalent in South India.

In any case, the temple is symbolic of the physical frame that the divine presence assumes
for the sake of devotees. The sanctum, where the icon is installed, is the most important part,
of the temple and the icon is the most significant deity in the sanctum. Tirumular was an
unequivocal champion of the temple cult. By advising people to follow right conduct he
encouraged them to build new temples for worship.137 The Śaiva Agamas also contributed to
the popularity of the temples. They usually contained a section called Kriyapad, dealing with
the construction of temples, installation of images and other related matter. . The popularity
of the temples owed much to the munificent patronage of the kings. Land grants and
fabulous wealth given to temples caused great spurt in economic activities in the areas where
sacred structures were made and these types of areas developed as popular urban centres.138
The popularity of the practice of temple-building owed much to the Jaina initiative in this
direction since the Jainas lived surrounded by the Śaivas who constructed numerous temples,
they also built, temples to compete with Śaivas.139

The numerical growth of the temples in Deccan under the patronage of Chalukyas coincided
with the development of the Bhakti cult which inspired the erection of temples on large
scale.140 The Chalukyan temples of Aihole had three important limbs-the spire, the hall of
reception, and the circumambulation

135
Hardy, Adam, op. cit., p. 206.
136
Ibid, p. 207
137
Sidhantashastree, Rabindra Kumar, op. cit., p. 97.
138
Hardy, Adam, op. cit., p. 13.
139
Ibid, p. 12.
140
Ramesh, K. V. (1984). Chalukyas of Vatapi. Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. p. 68.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 95

path.141 The spire (Sikhara) and its fluted finial (Amalaka sila) were meant to distinguish the
temple from secular buildings while the ambulatory (Pradakshina) was intended for ritual
circumambulation of the sanctum sanctorum. Most of the important religious complexes
belonging to Chalukya period are situated at Pattadkkal, Badami and Aihole. 142

After the replacement of the imperial Chalukyas, because of the patronage given by the new
rulers Pallavas and Rastrakutas temple-building in the region of Maharashtra received
tremendous impetus.143 Pallavas were great builders and their patronage to artists and
artisans resulted in growth stupendous masonic work in Tamil Nadu region.

Feudal conditions leading to decentralization of administrative and economic power helped

the spread of temples.144 Local leaders in provinces, districts, sub- divisions and villages vied
with one another in building temples, establishing cults and providing funds for their proper
maintenance.

The feudal lords with vast resources at their command gave every possible support to the
temples and the attached routine.145 In port towns and market towns of South India temples
received extensive support from the merchants. Organized in to guilds, they were better
equipped to support religious institutions.146

The Pallavas of the south were originally Buddhist but they have converted to Brahmanism
in about the fifth century A.D. From the first they seem to have been great traders and to
have loved the sea: coins of the Bactrians, Andhras and Romans have been found in the
sands of their chief sea port at Mamallapuram.

141
Srinivasan, P. R., op. cit., p. 105.
142
Hardy, Adam, op. cit., p. 213.
143
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 340.
144
Ramnaiah, J., op. cit. p. 228.
145
Ibid, 229
146
Ibid, p. 229.

96 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex

It was during the reign of the great Narsinghavarman that this sea side emporium began to as
a great artistic centre147. Mamallpuram has some beautiful cave temples, structural temples
and a gigantic open air reliefs. The open - relief of the sacred complex of Mahabalipuram
depicts 'Descent of the Ganges' scene148. Farther to the left, and in the faces of adjacent
boulders, are carved Mandapas, fronted by typical Pallava pillars partly composed of
squatting lions, and containing reliefs which illustrate Hindu mythology149. Among the
familiar subjects are Vishnu as Cosmic Boar, Varaha; Vishnu asleep on giant serpent,
dreaming the cosmic Night mare (Vishnu Anantsayin); and, perhaps the most beautiful of all,
Durga slaying the Buffalo Demon150.

At the southern edge of Mamallapuram is a group of free-standing temples. These five

temples are detailed replicas of ancient wooden structures151. They are called Rathas, which
means car or chariot, and indicates that they are vehicles of the gods. The smallest of them,
on the north, the Draupadi Rath, reproduces a square, planned, thatched wooden temple.
Arjuna Rath152 emulates a Vihara, Bhima the largest is remarkable for its oblong, barreled
chaitya cave - type roof and Dharamraja has got the storeys153. The fifth one called Sahdeva
Rath is abbreviated version of Bhima Rath154.

Shore temple, so called because it stands by the sea has two shrines, one of Śiva and another
of Vishnu Anantsayin155. The design of the Shore Temple is important because it is the
earliest known example of a stone-built temple in the South India. Another very important
sacred complex developed during this

147
Tadgell, Christopher, op. cit., p. 73
148
Beck, Elisabeth, op. cit., p. 163.
149
Ibid, p. 92.
150
Ibid, p. 94.
151
Srinivasan, K. R., op. cit., pp. 32-33.
152
Ibid, p. 34
153
Tadgell, Christopher, op. cit., p. 74.
154
Ibid, 75
155
Ibid, p.77.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 97

period was Kanchipuram where exists the well-known Vaikuntha- Perumal156 temple.
Kanchipuram was a great seat of Vedic learning and also a rich commercial centre.

The Guptas rulers inspired erection of magnificent temples and provided them with
munificent land grants. Sacred centres in Deccan like Pattadkkal, Badami and Aihole
developed under the patronage of Chalukyas. The famous Ellora, a sacred complex of
Buddhist, Jaina and Brahmanical faith received tutelege of the Rāştrakuta Krishna I and
other rulers of this dynasty. Krishna I was a great builder and has the credit of creating the
rock wonder of India, the Kailāsh temple.

Kailāsh is situated near Ghrisnivar jyotirlingh. Now a temple of nagar style made in late
Maratha phase157. According to legends the word Ghrisnesvara mean Śiva whose abode is in
a meticulously and magnificently carved out monolithic temples. Ellora in puranic literature
has been mentioned as Elapura, a tīrthā158. But probably rose into prominence after the
making cave no. 16, that is the Kailāsh temple, the logically Śiva's spiritual abode.

The Pallava rulers artistically developed sacred complexes like Mahabalipuram and
Kanchipuram. They embellished these sacred centres with bas-reliefs having depictions of
epic stories and with aesthetically imbedding temples.159

The Rāştrakutas were highly enthusiastic in spreading Maheshvara Śaivism as evident from
the figure of Mahāyogi Śiva on the Shukanasa of the Kailāsh temple.160 M. N. Deshpande
has enlightened on the monolithic temple of

156
Tadgell, Christopher, op. cit., p. 80
157
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p.7.
158
Ibid, p. 8
159
Tadgell, Christopher, op. cit., p. 77.
160
Dayalan, D., op. cit. p.28

98 Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex

Kailāsh at Ellora had the impact of Shankara‟s philosophy of advaita161 (monism). The first
glimpse of the association of the monolithic temple with the advaita philosophy has come
from a couplet by Saint Jnaneshvara of Maharashtra in his greatest philosophical work
Amritanubhava in Marathi.162 The couplet describes the nature of Advaita-bhakti as follows:

Deva deula parivaru kijekoruni dongaru

Taisa bhaktika vyavaharukana vhava II

-Amritanubhava (9.43)

Professor R. D. Ranade explains the above verse as: “In the supreme devotion,
therefore, the devotee has nothing but God even for his material or worship.
Here, it may be impossible, for he tells us that from the same rock are carved
the idol of God, the temple and God‟s attendants, which seem to be different,
and are yet one.”163

Temples are bound with the institution of kingship. A king was supposed to be a mediator
between the human and divine worlds. Royal temples were a medium of royal giving,
bringing prosperity to the community and religious merit to the giver. It may be surmised
from the depiction of Śaivite pantheon in Kailāsh temple complex that Raştrakuta dynasty
was devotee of Śiva when the temple was built.

It would be appropriate to say that Indian temple architecture is the expression of a spiritual
and religious culture and should be seen with a vast and profound understanding best in
solitude when the soul is at leisure and mind free from worldly affairs.

161
Deshpande, M. N. (1988). „Kailāśa: A Study in its Symbolism in the Light of Contemporary Philosophical
Concepts and Tradition‟ in Ellora Caves: Sculptures and Architecture, Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannel and
Shivaji Panikkar (ed. all). New Delhi: Books & Books. pp. 230-235.
162
Ibid, p. 236
163
Dayalan, D., op. cit., p.6.

Concept of Kailāsh Temple as a Sacred Complex 99

The Buddhist, Hindu and Jain establishments were the main centres to promote learning and
fine arts. The construction of divine edifices was considered as a meritorious act of the
highest rank. The motives underlying the construction and establishment of temples are
mainly religious. The religious motives proved as the biggest incentive for the art and
architecture to develop in varied forms in India.

100 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

Chapter-4

Development of Buddhist Cave

Architecture at Ellora
Ellora has most elaborately carved specimens of the Buddhist styles of cave
architecture. During the Gupta period, Mahayana Buddhism produced cave
excavations at a number of sites. These sites were located in the Western Ghat
Mountains of the Deccan. The initial reappearance of the cave viharas occurred
under the Vakatakas.1 The period between 580 and 600 A. D. is crucial to an
understanding that initiated the Ellora cycle. In terms of architecture and
iconography, the caves of Buddhist Ellora would seem to reveal a partial
2
migration from Ajanta to Ellora. The vihara caves at Ajanta (cave no. 6)
Badami (cave no.1) became more significant due to the significant development
in their architectural mode. It can be deduced that except for the iconic
representation on the stupa and the walls and the facade nothing further was left
to evolve a finite temple plan.3

Anecdotes of Buddhism

Gautama, the Buddha was the son of the king of Kapilavastu, a small state in
the north of Bihar. He at the age of twenty-nine left his palace, his wife, and
infant child, and became a mendicant in search of truth of life.4 After some six
years, while engaged in a long and strict fast under a pipal tree near Gaya. After
a hard penance, he attained enlightenment.5 He is also called Sakya Muni, the

1
Huntington, Susan L. (1985). The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain. New York and Tokyo:
Weather Hill. p. 239.
2
Spink, Walter. (1967). Ajanta to Ellora. Bombay: Marg Publications. p. 10.
3
Bakshi, S. R. (2008). Architecture in Indian Sub-Continent. Delhi: Vista International Publishing. pp. 68-69.
4
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 31-32.
5
Buddhist Shrines in India, (Delhi: The Publications Division, 1956), p. 6.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 101

Muni or ascetic of the Sakya race. Accompanied by his disciples he wandered
about from place to place, principally in Gangetic India. He survived on the
offerings placed in his alms-bowl and support given by his wealthier converts.
He pointed out paths that led to nirvana while teaching men the emptiness and
pride of all practical things. After forty-five years of attaining enlightenment,
Sakya Muni died in the north of Gorakhpur district.6 His disciples burnt his
body and collected his relics. These relics became objects of worship
afterwards. As Buddhism sprang from Brahmanism it might, however, be
regarded as a modification or one of its many sects or schools. Buddhism did
not at first different from Brahmanism so as to assume a position of hostility to
it or disparage its literature. It grew up slowly, and many of its most
distinguished converts were Brahmans. Under the great emperor Asoka, about
260 BCE, it received the royal favour and patronage which helped to spread
widely. The Buddhist traditions are full of the name of this king as the founder
of temples, viharas or monasteries, stupas and other edifices. His son Mahendra
and his daughter Sanghamitra became devotees, and missions were sent out to
all parts of India and other countries of Asia.7

The Buddhist religion flourished and spread for centuries. Many Chinese
travellers came to India to visit the sites associated with the Buddha, to learn its
8
laws, and carry away the books containing his teachings. In the seventh
century, it had begun to decline, in the eighth it was apparently rapidly
disappearing, and shortly after became almost extinct in India. Though it
remained in Benares, and perhaps in Bharoch, till the eleventh century.9 It has

6
Ibid, p. 7.
7
Beck, Elisabeth. (2006). Pallava Rock Architecture and Sculpture. Pondicherry: Sri Aurbindo Society. p. 4.
8
Ibid, p. 7.
9
Kail, Owen C. (1975). Budddhist cave Temples of India, Bombay: D. B. Taraporevala& Sons & Co. Private
Ltd. p. 118.

102 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

been thought that it was extinguished by Brahmanical oppression but the
evidence is not sufficient to establish this.

It were the Buddhists who first carved rock temples and monasteries. The earlier
ones were a plain square hall with cells at the back and sides for monks, and an
arched or flat-roofed cave, often with a circular apse at the back around a
dagoba for worship, were the usual forms. The dagoba is a low thick cylinder
supporting a hemi-spherical dome surmounted by a square capital, and was
meant to enshrine a relic of Buddha.10 Relics, however, were probably placed
upon the capital of the dagoba, which was almost always covered by a wooden
umbrella. Little sculpture was at first employed in any of these works. Buddha
did not preach idol- worship, but in course of time his own image came to be
worshipped. This practice further repeated in all parts of the caves, and still later
other beings were associated with him as objects of worship.11

Ellora as a Buddhist site

In general Buddhism has three major branches-Hinyana, Mahayana and

Vajrayana.12 All the Ajanta caves belong to Buddhist religion and much earlier
than caves at Ellora in the history of the Buddhist religion and architecture. 13
Ajanta’s Mahayana phase started probably after five of six centuries CE. The
earlier caves were 8, 9, 10, 12, 13. These belonged to Hinyana sect of
Buddhism. The caves of Mahayana period were excavated between 465 CE and
500 CE.14 They were excavated during the Vakataka King Harisena’s reign as
evident from the cave 17 inscription.15 The series at Ellora commenced nearly at
the time when the excavations at Ajanta ceased. The introduction of temples

10
Burgess, James. (1972). Elura Cave Temples. Varanasi: Indological Books. p. 4.
11
Beck, Elisabeth, op. cit., p. 5.
12
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 32.
13
Spink, Walter, op. cit., pp. 9-10.
14
Ibid, p. 7.
15
Ibid. p. 8.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 103

belonging to the Hindu and Jain religions added new dimensions at the site. 16 It
varied picture of the mythology of India during the period of its greatest vigour
manifested at Ellora is nowhere else to be found.

At Ajanta, the Hinyana Buddhists started excavating a group of monasteries and

17
temples towards the beginning of the Christian era. At Ellora, no earlier
excavations had been commenced like Ajanta. The excavation on the site was
commenced by the followers of the Mahayana.18 It finally developed under the
Hindus and into a comprehensive range of Indian rock-cut monuments. The
Mahayana movement at Ajanta and Ellora seemingly started about the same
time, whereas the group at Aurangabad seems to be of a slightly later date and
might be a branch from Ellora.19

According to Owen C. Kail,20“the Buddhist were the earliest of the three great
religious communities to occupy this site. These caves are in the southern end of
the scarp which is the most favourable position. Here, they practiced their
religion for nearly two centuries, from about 450 CE to 650 CE. Although
contemporary with Ajanta, there are architectural and sculptural differences at
Ellora which indicate that each monastic establishments followed its own
particular system. There is an unrestrained abundance of sculptured figures on
the walls, and the doors of the shrines are invariably flanked by towering
Bodhisattavas, often in the company of female deities, Śaktis and Tārās or
saviouresses. Bodhisattavas and their female counterparts not only appear
independently but the function of the compassionate Avalokitesvara, as the
Saviour of the Eight Great perils is given to Tara.”21 The new experimentation
let the image of the Buddha in the shrine seems dwarfed by the gigantic

16
Malandra,Geri H. (1993). Unfolding a Mandala: The Buddhist Cave Temples at Ellora. Albany: State
University of New York Press. p. XVII.
17
Buddhist Shrines in India, (Delhi: The Publications Division, 1956), pp. 71-72.
18
Brown, Percy. (1971). Indian Architecture: Buddhist and Hindu Period. Bombay: D. B. Taraporevala Sons
& Co. Pvt. Ltd. p. 57.
19
Kannal, Deepak H. (1996). Ellora an Enigma in sculptural Styles. New Delhi: Books & Books. p. 44.
20
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 118.
21
Ibid, p. 119

104 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

representations of Bodhisattavas and the familiar figures of the Mahayana
pantheon.

Figure 30: A gigantic Bodhisattavas guarding the door

Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

The ideas of magic and sexual mysticism began to enter into the religions in
Indiafrom about the fifth century CE.22 Consequently Mahayana Buddhism was
also affected by these developments. Although Vajrayana, the vehicle of the
thunderbolt, as it later came to be known became prominent and flourished in
Eastern India during eighth century. Meantime, its roots had already spread to
Andhra, the Deccan and to Gujarat.23 The followers of these doctrines reached
Aurangabad late in the sixth or at the beginning of seventh century. They
influenced the existing Mahayana communities in the locality. The elements of
Vajrayana are quite visible at Ellora. A congregation of divine Bodhisattavas

22
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 118-19.
23
Ibid, p. 120

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 105

with their Śaktis and Tārās and contended iconography in competition with
Brahmanical deities represent the Vajrayana characteristics.24

Most of the caves at Ellora were originally painted, traces of which are still
available. There is, however, no mural at Ellora which can compare with any at
Ajanta. With the exception of Ellora Chaitya and the caves numbered 11 and 12,
the monasteries are all single storied excavations, consisting of a verandah, a
large central hall and a shrine.25

The Ellora Buddhist caves are quite on large scale like Ajanta but differ in their
arrangement. Though the sculptures are abundant but vary in its subjects and
details as compare to Ajanta. The ornamentation is much less elaborate but
number of deities has been increased. Naga-hooded figures are often
represented in the sculptures and paintings at Ajanta, but at Ellora they are
missing.26 Buddha is represented at Ajanta without any supporters, or with only
two, whereas at Ellora he is most frequently attended by six, eight, or ten of the
Bodhisattvas.27

Śakti figures are likewise much more frequent on the walls of these caves, than
at Ajanta. The sculptures differ also when compared with the caves in other
parts of India. But the variations are probably due to difference of sects or
schools into which the Buddhists were very early divided. The excavations run
nearly north and south for about a mile and a quarter in the scarp of a large
plateau.28

The Buddhist group is located in the south the Jain group is in the north and the
Brahmanical group is between them. The oldest Buddhist caves are Nos. 1, 3,
and 7 and may date from 450 to 550 CE. Caves 2 and 5 were probably
contemporary with the Visvakarma, which with two or three other cares was

24
Ibid, p. 121
25
Brown, Percy, op. cit., 59-60.
26
Ibid, pp. 58-59.
27
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 118.
28
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 120

106 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

excavated during the seventh century CE. Nos. 8, 9 and 11 were perhaps even
later than this.29

The Buddhist dedication of Ajanta kept its architectural traits within one very
well defined type. But at Ellora one can notice a wider scope for the artist. It
was a place of pilgrimage for all three sects viz. Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina.30 As
per site the Buddhist group of monasteries and a Chaitya house. The Chaitya
house is known as Vishwakarmaka Jhopra.31 Here it is interesting with the
nomenclature given to this cave, by name it suggests its association with Hindu,
but actually a Buddhist shrine. It is located in the extreme south, which suggests
that it was the earliest among this group.

Ellora was not appropriated by any particular sect on contrary with Ajanta. The
Vishvakarma Chaitya house might have been a chapel for the artisans. This
suggests a local tradition maintained by the people for the cave.

The abundant of political support for Buddhism in the early sixth century
caused the Mahayana Buddhism became more prominent.32 Buddhist were the
first to seek out Ellora, due to its appropriate location on trade route. The
commercial peripheral location and political influences also supplanted the
Buddhist creed at Ellora. They also set out to rejuvenate the doctrine with
contacts seemingly established with Buddhist centres in south Bihar through
Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh.33 K.V. Soundra Rajan has proposed that due to the
manifestations of the contacts with north, the Ellora in South India became the

29
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit., p. 33.
30
Brown, Percy, op. cit., 58-59.
31
Havell, E. B. (2000). Encyclopaedia of Architecture in the Indian Subcontinent, Vol-1 Ancient and Early
Medieval. New Delhi, Aryan Books International. p. 189.
32
Rajan,K. V.Soundra. (1998). Rock-cut Temple Styles: Early Pandyan Art and the Ellora Shrines. Mumbai:
Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1998), p. 116.
33
Ibid, p. 116-17.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 107

 34
first site of the Vajrayana Buddhism. The site consequently resulted in
flourished Vajrayana Buddhist art in the late seventh and early eighth centuries
for the first time in Deccan.35 The Buddhist carvings at Ellora suggests that the
skill of artists were probably different to skill of artisans worked at Ajanta.36
Certainlty, it cannot be a vague idea; if comparison can be made between two
the difference would be easily noticeable. The carving and layout provides
ample examples. However, it is also true that the artisans were capable of
breaking new grounds either it is Buddhist or Brahmanical architecture by
37
carving heterogeneous subjects in art. The new combinations an
improvisations in the art of influenced the art of Ellora on stylistic grounds. 38

While discussing about the stupa, chaitya and viharas of Buddhist sect, it is
important to know the reason behind establishment of viharas. The reason goes
thus as, ‘the monks said to Buddha that during the four months of rainy season
they could not leave the place of temporary stay, they were expected to, and
cross the flooded rivers to reach the next village the next day. Buddha, it is said,
saw the point and allowed them to live at one place during this period. It was
called varsavasa. The vihara was thus meant to be only a temporary abode,
strictly for four months in a year belonging to the rainy season. 39 However, this
kind of vihara living became permanent on round the year basis with the
passage of time, particularly for old monks.

34
Ibid, p. 118
35
Ibid, p. 119
36
Brown, Percy op. cit., p. 58.
37
Kannal, Deepak H., op cit., p. 53.
38
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., p. 116.
39
Gupta, S. P. & Vijayakumar, S. (2010). Temples in India-Origin and Developmental Stages. New Delhi:
Centre for Research and Training in History, Archaeology and Paleo-Environment and D. K. Printworld (p)
Ltd. p. 31.

108 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

The Buddhist Caves at Ellora

At the site of Ellora, Buddhist were first to occupy that is why their monasteries
are located in the most favourable side of the scarp.40 Here an attempt has been
made to analyze architectural details of the Buddhist cave. The detailed plan of
the caves have been discussed in this chapter to know the innovations and
experiments occurred at different levels in Buddhist caves.

Cave No.1 Dhedwada

Figure 31: Inner Veranda of Cave - I Figure 32: Facade of Cave-I

Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies,
Gurgaon

The first few Buddhist caves are popularly known as the Dhedavada, or low
castes' quarter.41 This might have originated as a nickname given in sarcasm by
the Brahmans, and from the quarter of the Theros or Buddhist priests or
similarity of sound to Theravada. It is probably the oldest cave at Ellora, and
appears to have been attached to the next cave. As probably majority of caves
the Buddha converts were made from Dhedas and other partially aboriginal low-
caste tribes the name of Dheda.42 It is a vihara, 41 feet 6 inches by 42 feet, and
has eight cells, four in the back and four in the south side. The front has fallen,
and but one pillar remains. There is also another cell outside, in the south of the
verandah.43

40
Brown, Percy op. cit., p. 59.
41
Ibid, p. 59
42
Ibid, p. 59.
43
Ibid, p. 60

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 109

Cave No. 2

It is significantly different
from the other excavations.
It is a little different from
the usual cells leading out
from the hall. Two side
galleries have been added
which are screened by an Figure 33: Facade of Cave - 2 The door is flanked of Bodhisattavas

additional row of four Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

pillars. It was evidently a vihara and its front was divided into compartments.
The roof of the verandah was supported by four pillars with pilasters at the
ends. The front having fat dwarf figures in grotesque attitudes. The northern
side has a fat squatting figure with a high and elaborate head-dress, a jewelled
cord over the breast, and attended by a chauri-bearer.44

Probably a similar figure was on the south side, but only the female attendant is
left. A gandharva holding a garland over her head. Two tall dvārapalas, with
lofty head-dresses and aureoles, stand by the door. They have Gandharvas over
their shoulders. A female figure with a nimbus behind her head is shown
standing between the dvārapāla and the door.45 The front wall has a door and
two windows and the doorjambs are covered with sculptures of Buddha. The
cave measures 48 feet square, excluding the lateral galleries on each side. The
verandah is decorated with panels of seated Buddha and the entrance to the hall
46
is guarded by Avlokitesvara and Vajrapani. An aisle has been formed by
twelve massive pillars all-round the hall which is 14 meters square. The front

44
Dhavalikar, M. K. (2003). Monumental Legacy: Ellora. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 13.
45
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit, p. 34.
46
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 13.

110 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

wall of the hall is carved with images of the Buddha and with Tara with female
attendants, all standing on a lotus.47 The main pillars of the hall are highly
ornamental. The upper members resembling a succession of diminishing petals.
These are surmounted by an amalaka or melon-shaped capital, usually referred
to as a compressed cushion.48

On both side of the hall pillared vestibules or galleries leading to the subsidiary
shrines are located. The galleries contain life-size images of the Buddha with
Bodhisattavas as attendant. The entrance to the main shrine is flanked by
Avalokitesvara and Manjusri. On the rear wall a figure of the Buddha seated on
a lion throne with Padmapani (Avalokitesvara) and Manjusri depicted has been
depicted.49

Figure 34: Mahatama Buddha with Chauri-bearer

Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi

47
Brown, Percy, op. cit., pp. 59-60.
48
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 119.
49
Dhavlikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 12-13.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 111

The roof is supported by twelve massive columns arranged in a square. These
pillars have stylish cushion capitals and high square bases. The pillars stand on
a platform about 18 inches above the front of the side aisles. With the exception
of four pillars in the back row, the other columns have little dwarf figures on the
upper corners of the square portions of the shafts.50 The spaces between the
dwarf figures and a belt below them, are covered with rich and varied
arabesques.51 Each side gallery has four pillars of different designs. The front
portion is carved with florid work and contains figures of musicians. In each of
the five compartments at the back of the galleries. A figure of seated Buddha
like the colossal has been carved in the shrine. The figure is flanked by chauri-
bearers, the one on the right holding a lotus-bud.52

Figure 35: Seated Budha in the Shrine

Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

50
Burgess, James op. cit., pp. 14-17.
51
The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of surface decorations based on rhythmic linear
patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils or plain lines, often combined with other elements.
52
Ibid, p. 9.

112 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

Some of the figures in the side galleries are unfinished. The dvārapalas of the
shrine are 13 to 14 feet high. On the left side is Padmapani is holding a rosary in
the right hand and a lotus stalk in the left.53 His robe is fastened round the waist
by a string. His head-dress is depicted in the jata style of ascetics, ornamented
in front with a small image of Amitabha Buddha has been carved. The other
figure, perhaps Indra, has a very richly jewelled head-dress. A small dagobahas
been carved in the front of it. He is ornamented with bracelets, armlets, and a
thick jewelled Brahmanical cord, while a small bouquet of flowers is in his right
hand. They are attended by two pairs of Gandharvas above and midway up the
wall are other figures bearing garlands.54

A female worshipper with a flower in her right hand has been deoicted between
each dvārapāla. The shrine contains a colossal image of Buddha seated on a lion
throne in the teaching attitude. His feet are shown resting on a nearly circular
plinth. His head is surrounded with the nimbus and flanked by a gandharvaon
either side. The chauri-bearers are also depicted. On each sidewall there is a
colossal standing figure of Buddha. There are four worshipping figures in
position of one above another in the corners. 55

A double cell in line with the side aisles is located on each side of the shrine.
Over the front wall in the outer cell the figures of Buddha with attendants have
been carved. The largest figure is of a female, probably Pandara, the mother of
Padmapani or some other form of the Tārās. She is attended by two smaller
figures with lotus flowers, and has six vidyadharas over her head. In her right
hand, she probably held a rosary. The aureole is nicely carved behind her
head.56

53
Ibid, p. 9.
54
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit., p. 36.
55
Ibid, p. 37
56
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 13.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 113

On the front of the head-dress is
the dagoba, and large earrings of
different forms are in her ears.
There are two small dagobas in
relief over an image of Buddha, in
the cell on the south of the shrine.
A third dagoba is on the end of
57
the south gallery. The style of
the dagoba is plain, but the type is
not an early one. This suggests a
late date for the cave which has
not even the arched roof of the
chaitya. It may have been begun
in the 5th or 6th century CE, and
the carvings may have been
carried down to the 7th century
CE.58 Next to the cave is a deep
water cistern, now filled up with Figure 36: Plans of Caves 2 and 3
earth Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

Cave No. 3

The adjacent cave no. 3 is about the same size. It is an unfinished vihara,
probably a little older than Cave 2. There are twelve cells in the side walls
including the two on either side of the shrine. The litany of Avalokitesvara in
the verandah and the Bodhisattavas Padmapani and Vajrapani as dwarpalas
have been depicted.59

57
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 8.
58
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit., pp. 36-37.
59
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 9.

114 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

The verandah and the south half of the front wall are gone. The cave is 46 feet
square and the roof is supported by twelve columns. These pillars are decorated
with the vase foliage motif form an aisle around the hall.Three of the columns
on each side are only blocked out and have octagonal necks. There are four
mendicants in the corners of the shrine but the uppermost have no attendants as
in Cave 2.60

The shrine itself is smaller, although otherwise similar to the cave 2. On the
north wall are two small sculptures of Buddha flanked by chauri-bearers. A
window in the front wall north of the door has been divided by two colonnades.
It has been bordered outside by a beautiful florid pattern. In the north end of the
verandah, there is a chapel containing a Buddha, with his legs crossed in front.
His hands are moulded in the teaching attitude. He is seated on the lotus throne,
supported by small figures having snake-hoods over their heads.61

The male figures have been

decorated with three, five, or
seven hoods, and the females
with one or three. Buddha is
attended by two chauri-bearers,
with gandharvas above their
heads. The left chauri-bearer
has a jata of plaited hair, with
long locks hanging over the
front of his shoulders, and a
lotus in his left hand. On the
right of this apartment is a small Figure 37: Buddha with Chauri bearer
62
damaged pictorial litany. Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

60
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 119.
61
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 15.
62
Ibid, p. 16

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 115

Cave No. 4

Cave no. 4 was not completed

and is also much ruined. A door
in the right wall leads to a shrine.
The left wall which is designed
for cells has been left unfinished.
The inner hall is devoid of pillars
except for two pillars between
pilasters in front of the shrine.
The figures of Bodhisattavas as Figure 38: Facde of cave 4
dvarpalas or as attendants of the Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

Buddha have been depicted. The female Bodhisattavas are now shown
prominently.63Figure of Avalokitesvara has been depicted on the left wall of the
shrine. He is flanked by Tara and Bhrikuti. The former holding a lotus and the
latter a string of beads. This theme also appears in the subsidiary shrine in
front.64

Cave is 35 feet wide and 39 feet deep up to two pillars and pilasters. These have
capitals with drooping florid designs, and necks with thirty-two flutes with
square shafts. A cross aisle is behind the pillars and at the left end of it is
Lokeswara seated like Buddha.65

He is shown with high jata, a small Buddha as crest on its front, and locks
hanging down upon the shoulders. A lotus in the left thigh, a deer skin over the
left shoulder and a rosary in the right hand have been depicted. A female to the
right has a rosary and in the left has a flower bud. Over the first is a standing
Buddha, and above this is another Buddha. He is shown seated cross-legged on
a lotus, with the left hand down and the right hand raised.66

63
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 11.
64
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit., pp. 42-43.
65
James Burgess, op. cit., p. 11-12.
66
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 119.

116 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

There are doors to two cells and to the shrine. The dvārapālas have elaborate
head-dresses, and a dwarf stands between each dvārapāla and the door. The
shrine contains a seated Buddha in the teaching attitude. A nimbus at the back
of his head and the foliage of the sacred Bodhi tree rising from behind have
been depicted nicely. The chauri-bearers stand at the rear of the throne but one
of them is destroyed.67

Figure 39: Bhadrasana Buddha Standing with Tara

Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi

While the other on Buddha's left is richly dressed, and wears a jewelled cord
across his chest. A cell in the south has its western side broken away. It contains
figures of Buddha with attendants, and a female with rosary. To the west of the
door a figure of Padmapani has been carved. At the same side a sort of litany
which has two supplicants instead of four, with a smaller flying figure of
Padmapani before each group has been depicted.68

67
Brown, Percy, op. cit., p. 59.
68
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 12.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 117

Cave No. 5: Maharwada

Maharwada is an exceptionally
large monastery. The inner hall
is divided by twenty-four pillars
into nave, side, front and rear
aisles. The two parallel plinths
running the entire length of the
nave similar to those in cave no.
10 at Kanheri.69 The front aisle
has a ruined annexe which
consists of a small verandah, a
shrine with processional path
around it and cells in the sides of
the passage.

In the centre of the side walls are

two rectangular pillared Figure 40: Plan of the Maharwada

vestibules with attached cells. Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

The left wall has an additional

shrine preceded by a pillared antechamber. In the far end of the hall is the main
shrine containing a seated figure of the Buddha is located.70 He is attended by
Avalokitesvara with Tara and Bhrikuti on the one side and Maitreya with two
goddesses on the other. The pillars in the rear row are carved with decorative
medallions, while the others resemble those in cave no. 2.71

This large vihara measures 117 feet deep by 58 feet 6 inches wide, excluding of
two large side recesses. The roof is supported by twenty-four pillars with square

69
Brown, Percy, op. cit., p. 59.
70
Mahajan, Malti. (2004). A gate to Ancient Indian Architecture. Delhi: Sharada Publishing House. p. 70.
71
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit., p. 32.

118 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

shafts having thick compressed cushions. These are arranged in two rows from
front to back. The space between is divided into three passages by two stone
benches.72

The cave was probably a dharmasala and its date may be fixed about the 6th or
7th century CE. It has about twenty cells for monks. At the entrance of the left
aisle is a chapel which contained a figure of sitting Buddha. A large figure of
seated Buddha with attendants has been carved in the shrine at the back. The
shrine is guarded by separate attendants in arched recess on either side of the
door.73

Figure 41: Main Prayer Hall at Cave 5

Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

On the north side, Padmapani is shown flanked by two small female figures
with royal head-dresses. The other figure is ornate with more jewels and
similarly attended, while gandharvas on clouds with garlands.74

72
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 12.
73
Kail, Owen C., p. 119-20.
74
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 13.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 119

Cave No. 6

Cave no. 6 is a large excavation

consisting of two vestibules on either
side with cells in their side walls and an
astylar hall. At the far end is the
antechamber and shrine. Though
architecturally similar to the other
excavations, the walls of the
antechamber are richly decorated with
sculptures of the Vajrayana pantheon.75

On the left wall Tara with male and

female devotees has been depicted. On
the right wall Mahamayuri is shown
standing under well ornate canopy with Figure 42: Colossal Image of Buddha cave 6
Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies,
female attendants and dwarfs. She is Gurgaon

the tantric goddess of spells and the magic arts. On either side of the doors of
the sanctuary are Avlokitesvara and Vajrapani with male and female
attendants.76

The door posts of the sanctuary have been decorated with the river goddesses,
Ganga and Yamuna. An image of Buddha seated on a lion throne with
attendants has been carved in the shrine. The side walls are embellished with
rows of Buddha and images of male and female worshippers. Inside the shrine
there are two panels of seated Buddha and his consort.77

75
Burgess, Jas. (1883). Report on Ellora Cave Temples and Brahmanical and Jaina Caves in Western India.
London: Trubner & Co., Ludgate Hill. p. 6.
76
Brown, Percy, op. cit., p.59.
77
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 18.

120 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

 Figure 43: Pillars with square base with vase and foliage design
Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

On the south side of the cave, Buddha is shown with attendants. In addition, a
female figure with attendants is also there. A circumambulation is round the
cave and several cells are located on this passage and from the vestibule in
front. But the rock has fallen now. A hall to the north of this is 26 feet by 28
feet 9 inches, and has a stair from Cave 4. The staircase is located below the
hall.78

The hall is entirely located on the west and there are three cells on the east. It is
separated on the north from a still larger and lofty hall, by two pillars and
pilasters, of which one pillar and pilaster remain. The central hall is 26 feet 6
inches by 43 feet, excluding of the antechamber. It is located at the east end,
which is cut off by two pillars and their corresponding pilasters. Another hall to

78
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., pp. 119-20.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 121

the north is 27 feet by 29 feet. This one is similar to that on the south having
three cells in the back.79

The north end of the antechamber has a female figure dressed like Padmapani.
The south end contains a figure represents Saraswati with a peacock at her left
hand and a monk reading below. The dvārapālas, Padmapani and perhaps
80
Manjusri, are tall and carefully cut with foliage over their heads. Two
Gandharvas are located above, and a male and female attendant are beside
them. The door is simple but lofty and boldly cut. The shrine contains a large
seated Buddha with the usual
attendants. On the right side of the
shrine is a panel containing three
figures on lotus seats. All three have
aureoles behind their heads.81

A similar compartment is located on

the left side of the wall with male
and female figures. These figures are
attended by a dwarf, then a male
behind her on one knee. An
elephant's head and fore-foot, with a
small figure representing the driver
have been carved nearby. Three
Buddha figures have been carved on
wall above the panel in three rows.82 Figure 44: A colossal image of Bodhisattava
Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts,
New Delhi

79
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James. (1969). The Cave Temples of India. Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint
Corporation. p. 12.
80
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 7.
81
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit., pp. 39-40.
82
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 18.

122 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

 Figure 45: Depiction of Tara on the northern end
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

The north side has a passage divided from a balcony by two pillars. This
passage leads to cave 9, which has a sculptured façade. It’s architrave is divided
into compartments by divisions carved with arabesques. The compartments
alternately containing a sitting and a standing Buddha with attendants. 83Three
chaitya-windows have been carved above frieze. These windows are occupied
by a figure of Buddha with many smaller human figures between the projecting
members. Above at each corner, a Bodhisattva has been depicted with female
attendants.84

Caves No. 7

Caves 7 is below cave 6 and is a plain vihara. Its dimension is 51 feet 6 inches
by 43 feet 6 inches. The roof is supported by four square columns and the cave

83
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 13.
84
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 7.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 123

 85
has five cells at the back, and three on each side. The cave is in ruined
condition.

Cave No. 8

The shrine of cave no. 8 is projected into the hall. It has a procession path or
passage all round similar to some of the monasteries at Aurangabad. The
passage has three cells on the left and a pillared gallery at the back. The gallery
is partially finished. In front of the shrine is a smaller chamber with a pillared
chapel and a cell.86

Sculptural decoration in this cave is much the same as in the other viharas. The
Buddha is depicted in the midst of Maitreya, Vajrapani and Manjusri. Other
Bodhisattavas are shown as dvarpalas with female devotees.87

On the wall of the antechamber appears for the second time Mahamayuri with a
female chauri-bearerhas been depicted on her left. A monk has also been
depicted as reading a manuscript. Within the sanctuary a seated image of the
Buddha flanked Avlokitesvara accepting the homage of worshippers. Some of
them are with offerings of fruit and others with incense. Both Avlokitesvaras
are shown accepting the homage of worshippers.88 Both Avalokitesvara and
Maitreya on the other side are accompanied by their Śaktis. These Śaktis are
holding a string of beads and a lotus. On the left, outside this monastery, a panel
of Hariti and Panchika has been carved.89

The inner hall is 28 feet by 25 feet, and has three cells on the north side. Two
pillars and two pilasters screen are on the east from the shrine. The
circumambulatory passage and a similar screen cuts it off from an outer
apartment on the west. The front pair of pillars resemble those in cave 2.90

85
Burgess, James, p. 14.
86
Ibid, p. 15
87
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 19.
88
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 14.
89
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit., p. 46.
90
Ibid, p. 47

124 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

The bases of the other two pillars are high and square. The pillars have thirty-
two flutes. The capitals are square and carved with scroll-leaf pattern. The door
of the shrine has the usual dvārapalas and attendants. Padmapani however, has
four arms, and a deer skin over his shoulder. Figures of devotees at his feet are
small and behind them is a tall female with a flower in her left hand.91

A figure of Gandharva has been carved over her head. The other tall attendant
has a similar companion on his left. She is holding a lotus flower and rosary in
her hands.92 On the wall at the south entrance to the circumambulation a figure
of Saraswati has been carved. A cell has been carved on the opposite side and
two more in the passage. There is a long raised recess having two square pillars
in front can be located behind the shrine.93

The outer room is 28 feet by 17 feet, and has a slightly raised platform filling
the west end. The north side has a shrine on a raised floor with two slender
columns in front. It contains a seated Buddha on its back wall and attendants
dressed nearly alike with Brahmanical sect. The attendant on Buddha's left
holds a three-pronged object being the half of the Vajra or thunderbolt. On the
west wall is Padmapani, with the female figures. 94

Cave No. 9

The next excavation is an open terrace with a parapet in front and pillared
chapel at the back. The façade is divided into compartments containing a figure
of the Buddha with Bodhisattavas. There are five chaitya arches above the
facade which are decorated with images of the Buddha or of Avalokitesvara. An
interesting sculpture is depicted as Tara as a savior of ‘Eight Great Perils’. The
shrine contains an image of the Buddha with attendant Bodhisattvas, female
deities and devotees.95

The architectural plan of consists of a small outer balcony and an inner covered
portico 23 feet by 10 feet. This is separated by two pillars square below and
91
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 120.
92
Ibid, p. 120.
93
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 14.
94
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., 120.
95
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 20.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 125

octagonal above, and with drooping-eared capitals. Two deep pilasters in the
back wall with compressed cushion capitals. 96 It is divided into three
compartments, of which the centre one has a seated Buddha with four
gandharvas above. The compartment on the left has Padmapani, with two
female attendants and two gandharvas. On the right has Indra, Manjusri or
Vajrapani, with two females figures.97

Cave No. 10: Visvakarma Cave

The Ellora Chaitya, cave no. 10 is known as Visvakrma or the carpenters’ cave.
It is the most remarkable cave in the Buddhist group.98 The external appearance
is so altered that it is difficult to recongnise it in its original form. 99

It is also known as Sutar-ka-jhopra. It is frequented by carpenters who worship

the image of Buddha as Visvakarma, the patron of their craft. It has a large open
court in front, surrounded by a corridor.100

Figure 46: Facde of Cave 10

Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

96
Ibid, p. 20.
97
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 15.
98
Buddhist Shrines in India, (Delhi: The Publications Division, 1956), p. 80.
99
Ibid, p. 81
100
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 20.

126 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

The temple inside is 85 feet 10 inches by 43 feet, and is 34 feet high. The nave is
separated from the aisles by twenty-eight octagonal columns. These column are 14
feet high with plain bracket capitals. Two square pillars inside the entrance support
the gallery and cut off the front aisle. The dagoba almost fills the far end of the
nave, and is 15 feet 6 inches in diameter and about 27 feet high. A frontispiece
almost 17 feet in height is attached to it. A colossal seated Buddha 11 feet high,
with his feet down can be located on it.101 He has his usual attendants and on the
arch above his head is the Bodhi tree with Gandharvas on each side.

The body of the dagoba is carved round with alternate broad and narrow panels.
These panels are filled with figures of Buddha seated with his feet on the lotus.
The capital is cut up by numerous offsets like the shafts of some pillars. The
arched roof is carved in imitation of wooden ribs. Each rib has been carved
rising behind a little Naga bust alternately male and female and joins a ridge-
piece above. The arcade over the pillars is 4 feet deep and is divided into belts,
the lower of which is carved with fat little ganas in all attitudes.102

Figure 47: Chaitya Arch of Cave 10

Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

101
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 16.
102
Mahajan, Malti, op. cit., p. 71.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 127

The upper is much deeper and is divided over each pillar so as to form
compartments. In each compartment containing a seated Buddha with two
attendants and two standing Buddhas or Bodhisattvas. The inner side of the
gallery over the entrance is also divided into three compartments filled with
figures.103

The ends of the front corridor outside, contain two cells and two chapels with
the usual Buddhist figures. A staircase from the west end of the north corridor
leads to the gallery. It consists of an outer one over the corridor and an inner
gallery over the front aisle is separated by the two pillars.104

It divides the lower portion of the great window into three lights. The pillars of
the corridors have tall square bases changing into octagons, then into sixteen
and more sides, and then returning under the capital to the square by the vase
and falling leaf pattern.105

Four small chapels can be entered from the outer verandah. Each contains
sculptures of Buddhist mythology in which the females have very elaborate
headdresses. The chapel at the end of the verandah that passes the entrance has
Padmapani. He is flanked by a female to the right having four arms and
personifying the law.106

The figure on the other side is also a female with two arms. Over the chapel to
the right of the window is a group of fat little ganas. The projecting frieze that
crowns the facade is elaborately sculptured with pairs of figures in
compartments. On each side there are two small chapels. This has a long frieze
of a forest scene, above which is an arcading containing amorous couples and
scroll work. It composes the front or outer side of the parapet of the upper
corridor. 107

103
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 10.
104
Mahajan, Malti, op. cit., p. 71.
105
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., 121.
106
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 121.
107
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 10.

128 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

The central corridor below has an unfinished shrine on the left an elaborate
shrine dedicated to Avalokitesvara on the right. The latter consists of a pillared
antechamber carved with a seated figure of the Bodhisattava, with Tara and
other male and female deities. Images of Buddha with attendant Bodhisattavas
are placed above these sculptures. The walls have additional images of the same
Bodhisattava and of other Bodhsattvas and deities.108

Figure 48: Flying Gandharvas in Cave 10

Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

It may be noted that this cave is the last of its class and conspicuously all traces
of wooden forms are lost. The great horse-shoe windows of the earlier chaityas
are cut into three divisions with an attic window over the central opening. A
recess on the right side of the front window contains Avalokitesvara with two
female attendants and Gandharvas. A similar recess on the north side contains
Manjusri.109

108
Malandra, Geri H., p. 56.
109
Ibid, p. 57.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 129

In the north end of the balcony a female figure is holding a lotus in the centre.
Eight figures of Buddha in line are above. Six figures of Buddha having lotus
and seated with one foot down are on her left. While five are on her right. One
of these being a female with four arms. On the south side a recess contains
another statue of Avalokitesvara with female attendants. To the west of this was
a portico similar to that on the north side having two pillars in front.110

There are three cells in the back and one of them in the east end has several
seated and standing figures. One of the figure is four-armed. Next to this is a
figure of Buddha with Padmapani and Vajrapani as supporters. On the either
side of the door are elaborate panels, that on the right depicting Avalokitesvara
with Prajnaparmita.111

At the northern and southern ends of

this verandah there are two recesses
or alcoves, surmounted by a pyramid
of chaitya arches. The recess on the
left has a large image of Vajrapani
with Tara on either side. There is a
panel of maithuna couple above
recess. That on the right has
Avalokitesvara with Tara and
Bhrikuti on either side below a panel
of dwarfs above. The last vestige of
wooden forms is the roof of the
verandah which seems to rest on
rafters.112
Figure 49: Bodhisattava Padampani with female attendant
Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts,
New Delhi
110
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 16.
111
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 17
112
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 121.

130 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

The ends of two rafters are to be seen within the arch and the edge of a third
protrudes through the face of the arch.The arch is crowned by kirtimukha, below
which and on either side are flying vidhyadharas.113

This radical transformation of the famous chaitya arch is the final phase of its
development. It is the last of its series and of its class, as no further
development of the true lithic form of the chaitya arch exists anywhere in India.
The date of this cave can be surmised by architectural style and can be ascribed
to the first half of the 7th century.114

Interestingly, besides other features as mentioned above, the chaitya hall is

larger than the two Mahayana chaityas at Ajanta. It is a splendid effort. The hall
is separated into a front aisle located below the inner gallery above by two
central pillars and the side aisles are formed by 28 columns. The two central
pillars have tall square bases, octagonal shafts, vase and foliage members with
mouldings and foliated capitals.115

The remaining 28 pillars with bracket capitals are octagonal, except for a
narrow fluted necking, with unfinished medallions immediately below and
above. The seventh pillar on the right has an inscription. According to Kail its
paleography points to a date in the thirteenth century.116 But Dhavalikar has
view of having it much earlier of seventh century CE.117 This can be potulated
by the following inscription:

Ye dharma hetuprabhavahetum,
Tesamtathagatohyavadattesam cha
Yonirodhaevamvadivadimaha-sarmana.118

113
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 21.
114
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit., p. 25.
115
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 16.
116
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 121.
117
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 22.
118
Ibid, p. 23

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 131

Meaning: all things proceed from cause; this cause has been declared by
Tathagta (Buddha); all things will cease to exist; that is, that which is declared
by the great sramana (Buddha).119

In the far end of the shrine the dagoba can be located. It is nearly 4.9 meters in
diameter and 8.2 meters in in height. It has a larger size and remarkably similar
to those in Ajanta no. 19 and no. 26. A large seated Buddha attended by
Avlokitesvara and Prajnaparamita has been carved on it.120

The traditional rock-cut chaitya

has an apsidal hall which was
exclusively used for worship. Its
culmination can be seen in the
Ellora chaitya. The chaitya arch,
which was its most distinguishing
feature, changed but its outward
appearance was so altered that it
is difficult to recognize it in its
original form.121Not only that but
also the dagoba, reminiscent of
the dead master and so greatly
venerated in ancient times,
became a setting for the living
Buddha. Further, the images of
the Buddha appeared everywhere
and even dominated and
overshadowed the dagoba itself.
Mahayana eventually no longer
Figure 50: Chaitya Hall at Cave 10
considered it necessary to Showing wooden ribs in ceiling
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi
maintain separate prayer-halls.122

119
Ibid, p. 24
120
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit., pp. 56-58.
121
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 11.
122
Ibid, p. 12

132 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

Their viharas became self-contained and resplendent and were complete with
main and subsidiary shrines containing images of Buddha. These chaitya-
viharas served the dual purpose of being both places worship and halls of
residence. In fact, the viharas enshrined the chaitya to provide both the facilities.

The storied monasteries

Next in the sequence, both the three-storied monasteries at Ellora, no. 11 and 12
are remarkable for their originality and design. Though designed on a massive
scale, they still give the impression of simple three storied viharas.123

In these caves, each floor is having a pillared verandah in front. In contrast to

the simplicity of the facades, the inner halls of these storied sanctuaries have
considerable sculptured details. Each floor is different from the other caves. The
basic difference between these monasteries is that cave no. 11 does not have any
residential cells.124

Cave No. 11: Do Thal

Cave 11 or the Do Thal consists in reality of three storeys. It is called also as

125
don Taal, as one storey was hidden under an accumulation of earth. Its
description Do Tal has been retained to distinguish it from the other three
storied excavation which is called Teen Tal. It has a court in front 102 feet wide
by 45 feet deep. On the west it is 50 feet wide.126

The right side has a small rudely cut chamber with some others chambers. The
north-west corner of the court has a large irregular room, with a bench round the
inner walls. The ground floor has a broad pillared verandah with two cells. A

123
Kannal, Deepak H., op. cit., p. 75.
124
Brown, Percy, op. cit., pp. 59-60.
125
Kannal, Deepak H., op. cit., p. 76.
126
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 16-17.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 133

shrine is located in centre having a seated figure of the Buddha flanked by
Avalokitesvara and Vajrapani.127

Figure 51: Facade of Don Thal Cave

Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

On the left chamber from a flight of steps leads to the upper floor. There is a
recess or minor shrine dedicated to Avaokitesvara, who is flanked by Tara and
Bhrikuti. The adjacent walls are carved with figures of the Buddha above, and
Avalokitesvara, Vajrapani, Kunda and other deities below.128

The first floor is a row of five chambers to the rear of a pillared verandah. The
first cell is incomplete and the fifth is a plain cell with a rock-cut bench. The
three central cells are shrines extravagantly sculptured with figures of the
Buddha and almost every major and minor deity of the Vajrayana pantheon. At
the south end of the verandah is another small shrine with similar
embellishment.129

127
Ibid, p. 18
128
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 24.
129
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 16.

134 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

The upper level has in addition to the pillared verandah a second row of pillars
which screens the shrine at the rear. The shrine has a seated image of the
Buddha with Avalokitesvara on either side. Its walls are decorated with carvings
of the Buddha, of male and female Bodhisattavas, their attendants and other
deities.130

Close to it is a chapel containing on the right Avalokitesvara seated on a lion-

throne with a female figure seated cross-legged on each side of him. On the left
a female deity having four arms. Above on each side there are seated figures. To
the left is another four-armed female deity with a rosary and a flower. On the
right of the room is a headless Buddha two Bodhisattvas and two chauri-
bearers.131

There are other figures on the walls. The second storey of the cave consists only
of a verandah having eight massive square pillars in front. A small shrine is
located at one end and three larger shrines at the back. The central shrine has a
room in front with two square pillars. The other shrines contain colossal figures
of Buddha seated cross-legged and each side of the chamber is carved with
Bodhisattvas.132

The ground floor consists of a verandah 89 feet long, 6½ feet wide, and 8 feet 4
inches high with seven square pillars in front. The back wall has three shrines of
which only the central one is finished. It is decorated with a cross-legged
Buddha flanked by Padmapani and Vajrapani.133

The verandah at the first floor above is 102½ feet long, 9 feet wide, and 10 feet
3 inches high, with two cells and three shrines in the back. A fourth shrine at the
south end has an arched door, and contains a figure of Buddha seated cross-

130
Ibid, p. 17
131
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 122-23.
132
Ibid, 124
133
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., pp. 13-14.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 135

legged on a high square block. Above his shoulders there are two gandharvas,
while Padmapani and Vajrapani attend him as chauri-bearers.134

By the side of Vajrapani there stand three male figures. All three figures are
decorated with high head-dresses and aureoles. Opposite of them are three
females figures of which one bearing a flower stalk. In the back of the verandah
is a door leading into a cell with a low broad bench on the right side. Next to
this is a shrine in which Buddha is seated cross-legged on a throne. His right
hand is on his knee, his left on his lap, and four dwarfs are at the corners. A
small figure of a female in front of the throne to the right holds up a jar. On the
same wall are three other standing males the first with a flower the second with
a large round bud, and the third with a pennon.135

A tall female with a flower is on the return of the wall. The north side has also
three figures one of which holds a very long sword. While returning on the wall
there is a fat male adorned with garlands and necklaces. He is, probably,
holding a coconut in his right hand and a money bag in his left. 136 Above these
are seven Buddhas on either side. The foliage of the peculiar Bodhi tree of each
extends over the several heads like umbrellas. A little figure kneels in an arched
recess to the north of the door and a pair of gandharvas appear over each
shoulder of Buddha. The central door leads into a small hall 30 feet wide, 20
feet deep, and 8 feet 9 inches high. It is supported on two square pillars and
lighted by two small windows. Behind this is a shrine 13 feet wide, and 8 feet 9
inches high, with Buddha on a lion throne. His feet crossed and his right hand
hanging over his knee.137

Here, Vajrapani holds up the vajra in his right hand. The fourth door has a
carved architrave, and leads into a shrine containing Buddha and his attendants,
somewhat similar to a corresponding shrine on the other side of the central area.
134
Ibid, 15
135
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 16.
136
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 24
137
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 15.

136 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

Padmapani is bejewelled, and wears a thick cord or necklace. Vajrapani has
three tall figures on either side, one next to him is shown holding a flower bud
with a book on the top of it. There are seven squatting Buddhas above with the
foliage extending over their heads.138

The inside of the front wall on the north has a fat male with garlands and
necklaces. Probably he is holding a cocoanut in the right hand, while the left has
a purse from which coins are dropping out. On the south side stands a female
with a flower in her hand. On the verandah wall between this shrine and the
door of an unfinished cell, is a figure of Dharma with two other females. The
stair at the north end of the verandah ascends to the upper storey.139

It has a hall 101 feet long, 21 feet deep, and 9 feet 7 inches high. It is supported
by eight square pillars. The pillars of the verandah have very thin plain brackets
but they are decorated with little ornaments.140 At the south end of the verandah
is an empty cell. The inner wall was planned for three shrines as below. The
south one has not been started. The north shrine has a squatting Buddha with
attendants. The central shrine has a sitting Buddha with two attendants only.
The walls contain many small Buddhas and a figure of four armed Padmapani
along with females with lotus buds.141 The entire carving of cave 11 is crude
which suggests a period of political disturbance. Dulari Qureshi has cited R. S.
Gupte due to the disturbance when Chalukyan hegemony was being challenged
by the Rashtrakutas under the Dantidurga, the excavation of the cave was
disturbed.142

138
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 122.
139
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 17-18.
140
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., pp. 14-15.
141
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., pp. 122-23.
142
Qureshi, Dulari. (2010). Rock-cut Temples of Western India. Delhi: Bhartiya Kala Prakashan. p. 152.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 137

Cave 12: Tin Thal

Teen Thal is an even more remarkable excavation both for its architectural plan
and the abundance of sculpture at all levels.143 The long transition from symbols
of the Buddha to images of the Buddha. From these images to representations of
Bodhisattavas and their Śaktis reached its climax at Ellora. 144 The Buddha,
though not completely relegated to the back ground. He is here overshadowed
by host of divine Bodhisattavas and their female counterparts. Considerably
more importance is given to all other deities which Vajyayana had introduced
and had begun to worship.

A narrow doorway leads to large rectangular courtyard which is almost 34

meters broad and 12 meters deep. At the eastern of farther end of which is the
lower level of cave no. 12.145 The ground floor of the Teen Taal is shaped like
an inverted T. The antechamber and shrine being placed at the far end. There
are three cells in the left wall, four in the rear. However, two on either side but
not connected to the antechamber.146

Figure 52: Facde of cave 13

Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

143
Buddhist Shrines in India, (Delhi: The Publications Division, 1956), p. 82.
144
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 123.
145
Brown, Percy, op. cit., p. 59.
146
Burgess, Jas, p. 15.

138 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

The main hall has three rows of eight pillars. The antechamber has three rows
for two which create a corridor leading up to the entrance of the shrine is quite
visble.

On either side of the door of the shrine seated figures of Maitreya and Manjusri
have been carved. A large stature of the Buddha in the dhyani-mudra is carved
within the shrine. Buddha is surrounded by figures of Manjusri, Jnaketu, Tara,
Kunda and other deities.147

Large images of the Buddha with attendant Bodhisattvas occupy the side walls
of antechamber. The rear walls of the hall as well as the pilasters are carved
with images of Vajrapani, Vajrasattva, Padmapani, Kunda and Tara as well as
the Buddhist mandala. The mystic square composed of nine compartments
containing figures of Bodhisattvas, the Buddha and other deities.148

A flight of steps leads from the first cell on the right to the level above. The
walls of the staircase are covered with carvings of Avalokitesvara, Vajrapani,
Mandala, along with Tara, Kunda and Bhrikuti. The development of style can
be noticed as these deities have been now shown with halos. 149

The plan of this level is similar to that below the hall having three rows of eight
pillars with one row of four pillars in the antechamber. Most of the sculptures
are also on the walls towards the far end. Vajrasattva, the sixth Dhyani Buddha,
is depicted on a pilaster flanked by Padmapani and Vajrapani. There are panels
of the Buddha, Tara and a Bodhisattava in below portion.150

147
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 123.
148
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 16.
149
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 15.
150
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 123.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 139

 Figure 53: View of Teen Thal from inside
Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

The doors of the shrine have images of Padmapani and Vajrapani who are also
on either side of the seated image of the Buddha within. The inner walls of the
shrine are carved with images of Tara, Jambhala. Other female deities are
located below seven smaller figures of the Buddha.

The staircase leading to the upper level is on the northern or left side of the hall.
There are five rows of eight pillars in the main hall and two pillars between
pilasters which screen the antechamber. The first row divide the hall into four
cross aisles.151

At the ends of each aisle are identical seated images of the Buddha flanked by
Avalokitesvara and Vajrapani on either side under the Bodhi Tree. On the rear
wall of the main hall, on either side of the antechamber, the seven Manushi

151
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 16.

140 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

Buddhas and the seven Dhyani Buddhas have been carved. The sixth being
Vajrasattva and the seventh the Adi Buddha.152

Figure 54: Buddha with seven meditative Buddhas/ Dhyani Buddhas

Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi

On the side and rear walls of the antechamber a panel of twelve female deities is
located. It include the three Tārās, Kunda, Janguli, Mahamayuri, Bhrikuti,
153
Pandara, Vajradhatisvari and other. Above these goddesses are eighteen
images of the Buddha. The shrine has a large seated image of Buddha with
Avlokitesvara and Vajrapani on either side, and its walls are carved with images
of Bodhisattavs of whom Maitreya, Manjusri and Jnanaketu can be
154
recognized. Above these images, seven figures of the Buddha have been
depicted. On the walls opposite the Buddha statue, Tara and Jambhala have
been carved.155

152
Ibid, p. 17
153
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 27-31.
154
Ibid, p. 32
155
Ibid, p. 33

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 141

 Figure 55: Buddha flanked by Bodhisattava Padamapani and Vajrapani
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

On the right side of this latter is a stair leading up to the top of the front wall of
the court. The lower hall which is open in front is entered by a few steps from
the court, measures 116 feet by 42 feet, and is 11 feet high. 156 It has eight square
columns in front, with bases and plain brackets.157 The upper portion of the
central pair is covered with very pretty florid ornamentation. Behind these are
two more rows of eight pillars each, with pilasters along the back wall. In the
north end wall are three cells with a stone couch in each. In the north end are
two cells and an open apartment. In the back wall are also four cells two near
each end. 158

In the middle, a large antechamber to the shrine is located. It is 37 feet wide and
40 feet deep, with two square pillars in front. Four more pillars support the roof,
and have corresponding pilasters on each side wall. A cell is on each side
between the first and second pilasters. Between the two pilasters on the back

156
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 123.
157
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., pp. 15-16.
158
Ibid, p. 17

142 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

wall, to the left of the approach to the shrine, is a large compartment with nine
sculptured squares.159

In the centre is Buddha with chauri-bearers and to the right and left are
Padmapani and Vajrapani While above and below are six figures. The figure in
the middle of the upper row has a sword supported on a lotus flower. The
figures in the lower corners have a standard and a book similarly upheld. While
the middle one has a lotus bud. This sculpture is repeated in different parts of
the cave. A Buddha is shown seated cross-legged in the corresponding portion
on the outside. Avalokitesvara and Manjusri have been depicted as attendants. 160
The pilasters of the antechamber have been decorated with sculptures. In three
cases, Buddha occupies the upper part of the area with the usual Bodhisattva
and attendants.

Figure 56: Bodhisattava Padampani Seated with Female Goddesses

Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

159
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 17.
160
Burges, Jas, op. cit., p. 16.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 143

Tara with the lotus is on a pilaster below. On another is Buddha alone and on
another Buddha with attendants. On fourth one a female and on fifth Buddha
with a four-armed deity. The central recesses, right and left, contain Buddhas on
throne. The left attendants having different flowers in each case. On either side
of the shrine door is a fat seated guardian with flower-stalks. The one on the
south side has also a book laid over a bud. On the wall of the small lobby from
which the stair ascends, the sculpture of nine panels is recurring.161 Above it,
there is also a Buddha between two chauri-bearers. One with a flower and the
other with a bud covered by a book. His right is a female holding a flower-stalk
and to the left a four-armed deity.162

The stair has a room at the first landing, 23 feet by 15 feet, with two pillars in
front looking into the court. The back wall contains the figure of Buddha on a
high lion-throne. Buddha is shown with gandharvas above and with two
Bodhisattva chauri-bearers. To the right and left are the nine panels again
repeated. Over that to the right are three arched compartments containing
figures of four-armed goddesses.163

The second having a lotus-bud and attendants, and the third a bottle and conch
shell. On the east wall, a four-armed female figure holds a lotus and has a dish
with fruit or food in one of her left hands. Then follow- Buddha, attendants and
again Buddha with attendants. On the west wall is Padmapani seated between a
male and a female, most probably Tara. Outside this compartment to the left are
two females in the attitude of supplication. Above of them is a Bodhisattva with
a flower-stalk.164

The stair continues up to a small room at the south end of the verandah of the
second storey. The verandah is 116 feet long by 11 feet wide and 12 feet 2
inches high, with eight square pillars in front and with a small room at each

161
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., 122-23.
162
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 25-27.
163
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 15.
164
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 17-18.

144 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

end.165 From each of these a smaller apartment is located. At the end has a stone
bench, and the other an image of Buddha seated in the teaching attitude with
chauri-bearers. The wall opposite the foot of the stair contains Padmapani and
two female figures. Above of them are a dagoba, a Buddha, and a male and
female each with a flower-stalk.166

The hall is entered by side doors at

the ends of the verandah, and
through a vestibule 36 feet wide by
18 feet deep, with two square pillars
in front and back. Two cells are
carved in each of the two large
blocks of rock that are left. The hall
is 118 feet from north to south, 34
feet deep, and 11 feet 5 inches high.
It is divided into three aisles by rows
of eight square pillars.167 Figure 57: Plan of second floor
Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

In each end of the hall are four cells

and in the back wall are five more. The antechamber to the shrine is 36 feet
wide and has two pillars in front. In the north end of the vestibule of the hall, is
a large Avalokitesvara seated between two females. On the pilaster to the left
are a squatting Buddha. Two males and four females with different flowers also
have been depicted. On that to the right are a dagoba and flower, a squatting
Buddha below, and a female figure with a flower branch still lower.168

165
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 382.
166
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 15.
167
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., 382-84.
168
Ibid, 385

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 145

 Figure 58: Plan of third floor
Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

The plain shrine door has two large Padmapani and Vajrapani guardians. The
shrine is 22 feet wide, 19 feet deep, and 13 feet 8 inches high. It contains an
enormous Buddha seated cross-legged, with the left hand in the lap, and the
right lying over the knee. In front of the low lotus throne is a female holding up
a jar. A prostrated human figure is another figure to the left.169 Against each side
wall stand five tall Bodhisattvas. On the right are-1) Avalokitesvara as chauri-
bearer; 2) a figure with a bud in his right hand; 3) another with a sword; 4)
another with hand raised; and 5) one with a lotus flower.170

169
Ibid, p. 382-383.
170
Ibid, p. 384

146 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

On the front wall a female holding a flower-stalk squats on a high seat. On the
left side are-1) Vajrapani; 2) a figure with an opening flower, and holding some
small object in his right hand; 3) another with a full-blown flower and a small
object; 4) another with a flag and small object; and 5) one with only a bud in the
right hand.171

On the front wall is a stout male figure, with a round object in the right and a
curling object in the left hand. On shelves above are seven Buddhas on each
side, seated cross-legged. The jamb of a window that lights the stair ascending
to the upper storey has a small figure on horseback with two attendants. Above
of this a female with a flower has been carved.172 The upper floor of this cave
measures 115 feet in length by 64 feet deep and 12 feet 2½ inches high, the roof
being supported by forty square pillars in five rows. At the back it has an open
antechamber 37½ feet wide and 16¼ feet deep, with front divided by two
pillars. Five recesses in the south, and four in the north end wall, contain nine
colossal images of Buddhas with their attendants.173

Figure 59: Buddha seated in preching attitude

Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi

171
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 18-20.
172
Ibid, p. 21
173
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., pp. 16-17.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 147

Along the back wall of the hall are fourteen large cross-legged figures of
Buddhas. Seven on the north side have the hands in the lap, aureoles behind the
heads. Trees have been shown rising from the rear with foliage carefully varied
in each case. They probably represent the seven last Buddhas-1) Vipasyi; 2)
Sikhi; 3) Visvabhu; 4) Krakuchhanda; 5) Kanakamuni; 6) Kasyapa; 7) Sakya
Simha.174 Corresponding to these figures on the southern portion of the wall
there are other seven very similar figures. All are shown with hands in the
teaching attitude. These may be the seven divine Buddhas. On each end wall of
the antechamber leading to the shrine are three female figures. The inner one on
each side with four arms, and holding a rosary and a crooked rod. These female
deities are seated on open lotus thrones, and have high crowns and aureoles.175
The left hand holds the stalk of a lotus, the right holds another stalk on the knee.
All have bracelets formed of many rings, and necklaces. Three other figures on
each side of the shrine door cover the back wall. Each has her left foot under
her, and the right down upon a lotus flower. The thrones are supported by
Nagas. Above these are four Buddhas on the back wall on either side of the
door, and five on each end wall.176

The shrine door is plain with bold mouldings. The guardians have very high
caps, and stand with their arms crossed. By the door jambs, there are small
couchant lions. The shrine is 21 feet wide, 24 feet deep, and 14 feet 4 inches
high. The large Buddha is 11 feet high and is seated cross-legged, with the left
hand in the lap and the right over the knee, pointing to the ground. Round the
image is a dark circumambulation. On the floor against the front of the throne
are two females.177

174
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 383-84.
175
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., pp. 122-123.
176
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James. p. 383.
177
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 22.

148 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

 Figure 60: Four Bodhisattavs holding different attributes
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

The sides of the shrine contain five tall standing Bodhisattvas against each wall.
On the left side are-1) Padmapani with a chamara; 2) a figure with a flower bud;
3) another with a long sword in the left hand, and a bud or small fly-flap in the
right; 4) a figure with a pear-shaped object, and a small chauri; and 5) one with
an object in the loft, and a bud or small fly-flap in the right hand.178

On the upper part of the right wall are five Buddhas in the attitude of
meditation. Below on the left, and next to the great image, is Vajrapani acting as
chamara-bearer. To his left are four smaller figures, each holding some symbol.
One carries a book, the third and fifth hold buds in the left hand, and something
like fruit in the right. The fourth has a small standard.179

All stand on lotus flowers, and have very rich head-dresses. The front wall has a
seated male with an object resembling a bag on his left knee, and something like
178
Ibid, p. 23
179
Kail, Owen C., op. cit., p. 122-23.

Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora 149

money in his right hand.180 A water-jar with flowers growing out of it has been
carved below him. On the other side of the door is a squatting female holding a
bud. On the walls above are Buddhas seated cross-legged. Each side-wall
carrying five images of Buddhas. There are two images of Buddha on the front
wall. In the north side of the court is a small cave containing a water cistern
with two pillars on the eastern face.181

This is the last of the Ellora Buddhist caves, and exhibits the early Mahayana
mythology in a more developed state than any other cave in India. It is probably
not earlier than seventh century CE.182

Each Buddhist cave of Ellora has been brought onto the anvil of dispute time.
The final phase of development of Buddhist caves in western India is well
represented at Ellora. Although the specific patronage of the Buddhist caves is
not known. But it is assumed by the scholars that these caves were excavated
during the seventh century. Architecturally, a number of Buddhist caves at
Ellora seem to recapitulate some of the basic iconography and style found at
other sites, but other suggest innovative and advanced Buddhist thinking. Susan
L. Huntington has pointed out that ‘with cave no. 12 Buddhist artistic activity in
the western Deccan came to a virtual halt’.183 The developments over the period
of about two hundred and fifty years from the Vakataka resurgence to the
creation of cave 12 at Ellora were rapid and dramatic.184

In the shrine area alone, the format changed from a simple image in the centre
of a shrine, to one where the central image was moved to the rear wall of the
cell. More figures of Buddha were carved into the shrine. Further, the shrine had
a circumambulatory pathway than a secondary shrine was added to it. The

180
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 384.
181
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 22.
182
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 31.
183
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 274.
184
Malandra, Geri H., op. cit., pp. 5-6.

150 Development of Buddhist Cave Architecture at Ellora

experimentation was not stopped at this, the artisans further carved a series of caves
to enshrine bodhisattavas.185

The experimentations in style of the carvings and adding pantheon into one shrine
postulate that the site itself served a base for innovative ideas. The Buddhist
tradition did not end here in Deccan. But the shift in political power and continuous
struggle of political supremacy of staunchly Hindu followers like Rastrakutas left a
long impact on the patronage of religious edifices. The tradition of Buddhist rock-
cut monuments provided a platform for Hindu temple activities at Ellora with
regional affiliation of architectural pattern and zeal of paramountacy in rock-cut
trends.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 151

185
Ibid, p. 7

Chapter-5

Development of Brahmanical Cave

Architecture at Ellora
There are seventeen Brahmanical caves located between the Buddhist and Jain
groups. These caves are magnificent example of decoration in comparison to its
predecessors. This chapter analyse the architectural details of sixteen caves. The
cave no. 16, Kailash Temple would be discussed in the next chapter.

Situated in the middle of the complex are the Hindu caves that constitute the
largest group at Ellora. M. K. Dhavlikar1 has proposed that the work first began
on cave no. 28, 27 and 19. It can be deduced from the modest style execution.
The most impressive representation of early Hindu group of caves are Dumar
Lena (cave 29) and cave 21.2 Contemporaneously, work was also going on at
cave 20 and 26 and a little at cave 17, 19 and 28. These excavations were
3
followed by cave 14 and 15. Here, at Ellora, the earlier examples of
Brahmanical caves seem to be copied to a certain extent from Buddhist
edifices.4 The Brahmanical sect seems following the Buddhist architecture as it
can be noticed in arrangements of the Buddhist caves. But they gradually
deviated from their prototypes by substituting sculpture for cells. They
completely liberated themselves from the influence of Buddhist cave
5
architecture till Kailash temple cave no. 16. The Brahmanical rock-cut
activities culminates in cave 16 (Kailash Temple) which is the greatest
achievement of the Indian genius. The earlier examples seem to be following the

1
Dhavalikar, M. K. (2003). Monumental Legacy: Ellora. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 33.
2
Ibid, p. 34.
3
Ibid, p. 35.

152 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

4
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James. (1969). The Cave Temples of India. Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint
Corporation. p. 399.
5
Qureshi, Dulari. (2010). Rock-cut Temples of Western India. Delhi: Bhartiya Kala Prakashan. p. 153.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 153

notion of the latest caves at Ajanta and Aurangabad. In their plans and in the
style of their architectural details these caves resemble with the caves at Ajanta
and Aurangabad. The style of execution with their predecessors suggest that
6
they may probably belong to the second half of the 7th century. Their
chronological succession appears to be nearly in the order in which they are
locally situated from the Buddhist group.
Although the caves at Ellora do not possess that unity and completeness like
Ajanta yet their variety, and the exceptional magnificence of some of them,
renders them more interesting. But it must be noticed that they are in
consequence far more difficult to understand. On the basis of stylistic
examination Asok K. Bhattacharyya7 has given a time bracket from 650 CE to
1000 CE for the development of Brahmanical caves.
Cave 13
Cave 13 seems to be the first Brahmanical excavation. It is located on the north
of Buddhist cave Teen Thal. It consists of a large room which is comparatively
plain.8 The front of which has been destroyed due to weathering of the rock.

Figure 61: Facade of cave 13

Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

6
Brown, Percy. (1971). Indian Architecture: Buddhist and Hindu Period. Bombay: D. B. Taraporevala Sons &
Co. Pvt. Ltd. p. 71.
7
Bhattacharyya, Asok. (1988). ‘Ellora Sculpture: A Stylistic Examination’ in Ellora Caves: Sculpture and
Architecture, RatanParimoo, Deepak Kannal, Shivaji Pannikar, et. al, New Delhi: Books & Books. p. 271.
8
Qureshi, Dulari, op. cit., p. 153.

154 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

James Burgess has proposed it to be a rest house for the visitors. 9Dulari Qureshi
has also supported the view stating it as a resting place and also for keeping
tools.10

Cave 14

Ravana-ka-khai.

Cave no. 14 is locally known as Ravan- kakhai. It

has four pillars in front and twelve inside, the
open hall, which is 54 feet by 55 feet 6 inches to
the front of the shrine.11 A wide pradakshina runs
round the shrine, giving a total depth of 85 feet to
the excavation. The pillars have high square bases
and drooping-eared florid capitals, with circular
necks of varied patterns.12 The style of decoration
is similar to that found at Aurangabad, and in the
latest caves at Ajanta, belonging to the middle of Figure 62: Floora Plan of Cvae 14
Courtesy: American Institute of Indian
the 7th century.13 The pilasters are carved from Studies, Gurgaon

the floor to the brackets, and resemble the pilasters that were developed in the
Brahmanical caves at the commencement of the following century. All the
compartments of the wall between the pilasters are filled with carving. 14The
sculptures of the cave are partly Saiva and partly Vaishnava.15

The south wall has the following Shaiva sculpture:

9
Burgess, James. (1972). Elura Cave Temples. Varanasi: Indological Books. p. 23.
10
Qureshi, Dulari, op. cit., p. 153.
11
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 433.
12
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 23.
13
Qureshi, Dulari, op. cit., p. 153.
14
Brown, Percy, op. cit., p. 72.
15
Ibid p. 73.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 155

1) Mahishasuri killing the buffalo-demon.16

2) Siva and Parvati have been depicted on a raised platform playing

at chausar. Ganapati and another attendant are shown waiting behind Siva
with two females and a male behind Parvati and Nandi. There are thirteen
rollicking ganas have been depicted below the panel.17

3) Siva dancing the tandava over the destruction of the world, three figures
with drums are to his right. Bhringi the skeleton attendant of Siva is located
behind. Parvati with two ganas one of them with a cat's face has been
depicted on his left.18 Above that panel Brahma and Vishnu on the left and
Indra on an elephant have been depicted. Agni on a ram and two other
figures are on the right have been carved nicely.

4) Ravana, the demon king of Lanka, have been depicted under Kailasa, the
heaven of Siva. He is trying to carry the mount Kailasha. Shiva and Parvati
with attendants and two guardians stand at the sides have been depicted. 19
While four ganas are shown mocking Ravana. Parvati is shown worried at
the place shaking clings to Siva. Shiva has been depicted tramplingRavana
under the hill with his foot.20

5) Bhairava the destructive form of Sivahave been depicted on one foot

trampling a large fat dwarf. Another dwarf has been shown at his side, and
Ganapati behind him. He has been depicted holding up elephant hide with
two hands in which he wraps himself. With another two hands he holds a
spear with which he has pierced Ratnasura. With a fifth hand he is shown

16
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 34.
17
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 23.
18
Ibid, p. 24.
19
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 434.
20
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 34

156 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

 holding a long sword and the sixth has a bowl to receive the blood of his
victim.21

The pradakshina on this side has three skeletons. The first skeleton is of Kaal.
He has been depicted four-armed with a scorpion on his chest.The second is of
Kali, the female personification of death and a third is a kneeling skeleton. The
next panel is of Ganapati who has been depicted eating his favourite laddu.22
Beyond him, there are the seven divine mothers equipped four-armed, and each
with a child and a cognizance on the base below.

These are, probably-

1) Chamunda with the owl;
2) Indrani with the elephant;
3) Varahi with the boar;
4) Lakshmi with Garuda;
5) Kaumari with the peacock;
6) Maheswari with the bull; and
Figure 63: Saptamatrikas in Pradakshina
23
7) Brahmi with the hansa or goose. Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

The walls of the cave are fully decorated with sculptures it gives a sense of
sculptural gallery. Following panels have been depicted on the north wall: 24

1) The first panel is of Bhavani or Durga in a four-armed sculpture.

A trisula in her upper right hand has been depicted. Her foot has been
resting on a tiger.25

21
Ibid, p. 35.
22
Qureshi, Dulari, op. cit., p. 153-54.
23
Dhavalikar, M.K., op. cit., p. 33.
24
Ibid, pp. 33-34.
25
Ibid, p. 35.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 157

2) In the next panel, sculpture of Lakshmi has been carved over a mass of
lotuses. In this panel four-armed Naga-canopied figures are holding up
water jars. Depiction of a tortoise is among has been added into as a
creature of water. A figure of attendant on the right of Lakshmi is holding a
conch, while elephants bathe Lakshmi with water from jars.26

3) The third panel has been decorated

with the sculpture of Varaha, the
boar-incarnation of Vishnu. His
foot resting of on Sesha, the great
serpent. He is holding up the earth
goddess, which he rescued from
destruction. A figure of snake- Figure 64: Pillar with vase and foliage design

demon is shown between his feet. Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the
Arts, New Delhi
The Varah figure has been flanked
by Naga hooded figures on either side.27

4) Next panel depicts Vishnu with four-arms sitting between two female
deities, probably Lakshmi and Bhudevi. Behind them four attendants
with chamaras have been depicted. Garuda is below, with several males
and females, some of them playing on musical instruments.28

5) The fifth panel enshrines Vishnu and Lakshmi both sitting on the same
couch under an ornamental arch. The presence of attendants can be noticed
behind them. There are seven dwarfs figures seated below the couch.
Among them four dwarfs are carrying musical instruments.29 The front of

26
Qureshi, Dulari, op. cit., p. 153-54.
27
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 434.
28
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 34.
29
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 25.

158 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

 the shrine has been decorated with two tall male dvarapalas. A number of
female figures, attendant dwarfs, fat gandharvas with curly wigs and
garlands have also been added to the front of the shrine. Presence of an
altar inside against the back wall along with a broken image of Bhavani
postulates that temple was dedicated to Bhavani. Four holes in the floor of
the hall the presence of firepits signifies ritual activities.30
Cave 15

Dasavatara

Das Avatara means ten incarnations of Vishnu. The cave plan resemble to the
Buddhist caves 11 and 12. Significantly both of these caves have two storeys. A
very substantial ascent by means of steps up the rock has been provided from
the pathway from the Buddhist caves and Ravana-ka Khai.31

Mandapa in Das Avatara Cave

The main attraction of this cave is the Nritya-mandir in the centre of the
courtyard and exactly opposite the main cave. Its entrance is facing the latter.
The court is hewn out of the solid rock, leaving a curtain wall across the front. A
sacrificial hallis excavated on a raised platform in the middle with a number of
small shrines, and a cistern in the surrounding rocky wall.32

The mandapa is 31 feet wide, 26 feet deep, and 10½ feet high, the roof being
supported by four square pillars with plain square brackets and moulded bases.
It has a porch in front of a perforated window on the west side, supported by two
pillars. Over this wall, a Sanskrit inscription in the Brahmi script of the eighth
century has been engraved. The maximum part of inscription has damaged due
30
Ibid, p. 26.
31
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 36.
32
Qureshi, Dulari, op. cit., p. 153.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 159

to weathering. It provides genealogy of the Rashtrakuta dynasty which ruled
over the Dakhan from about A.D. 600 to the end of the 10th century.33

Figure 65: Plan and elevation of mandapa in front of Dasavatara Cave (XV).
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

The inscription is in fourteen lines written in Devanagari characters. On the

basis of stylization of alphabet, it can be ascribed to the first half of the eighth
century. With due efforts of Pandit Bhagvanlal Indraji who could make a
transcript of all the letters, inscription gives two earlier kings of the great
Rastrakuta dynasty than those given in the copperplates, viz. Dantivarma and
Indraraja.34 It then gives the dynasty, and mentions Maharaja Sarva, perhaps the
brother or first minister of the king. The last two verses describe him as coming

33
Dhavalikar, M. K. op. cit., p. 36.
34
Burgess, Jas. (1883). Report on Ellora Cave Temples and Brahmanical and Jaina Caves in Western India.
London: Trubner& Co., Ludgate Hill. p. 25.

160 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

with an army and staying at this temple. Another king Gurjara raja is also
mentioned in the inscription. On the basis of the inscription it can be surmised
that Dantidurga must have ruled about A.D. 725-755.35

It is probable that the visit to Elura mentioned in this inscription, was connected
with the dedication of Dasavatara. The names mentioned in the inscription are:36
1) Dantivarma I (Cir A.D. 600-630);
2) Indraraja I son of Dantivarma (630-650);
3) Govindaraja I son of Indraraja (650-675);
4) Karkaraja I (or Karka 675-700) son of Govindraja;
5) Indraraja II son of Karka I (700-730);
6) Dantidurga Khadgavaloka (or Dantivarma II.) son of Indraraja, who
overcame Vallabha or the western Chalukya king Kirttivama II.37

The reference from inscription may prove that the cave was finished when
Dantidurga visited Elura in the middle of the 8th century. However, it may not
38
be denied that he constructed it. The inscription is an unfinished one. In
another inscription, Krishna-raja, the uncle and successor of Dantidurga, is said
to have established himself at the hill or hill fort of Elapura. It was the place
where a splendid temple of Swayambhu Siva.39

The north and south sides of the mandapa have also perforated windows and in
the back is a round hole, probably a firepit. The door has a plain architrave, and
very small pairs of gods and animals in miniature temples are on the lintel.40

35
Ibid, p. 26.
36
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 25.
37
Ibid, p. 27.
38
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 36-37.
39
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 26.
40
Ibid, p. 27.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 161

 Figure 66: Mandapa in front of cave 15
Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

On each jamb is a female, with a small umbrella over the head-dress, and a
chauri-bearer on each side. The corner pilasters contain pairs of amorous couple.
The outer walls are embellished with sculptural carving. Along the edges, the
flat-roof outside has been decorated with lions at the cornershaving fat human
figures in between.41

On the north end are one male and three female figures on the four pilasters;
females are in the larger intervening panels. The north side has a torana over a
window while the corresponding one on the south side is empty. On the corner
pilasters on the west are females with hair done up.42

41
Qureshi, Dulari, op. cit., p. 157.
42
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 26.

162 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

Two of the smaller panels are empty and males fill two larger and two smaller
ones. In a small room on the left of the entrance to the court, Brahma and
Vishnu with a female goddess occupy the left wall, and Ganapati the right.
Inside is a shrine containing a round salunkha or altar and a linga, and behind it
on the wall is a rude Trimurti.43

On the two sides of the entrance door, two dwarapalas have been carved. The
one on the left is Yamuna and on the right is Ganga on a crocodile. The hall is
square and its roof is supported by four square pillars. There are no sculptures
inside the hall. There are three windows on the three wall. The walls of hall on
the outside contain many beautiful female sculptures.44

Outside, on the end of the balcony, a four-armed Rudra in a state of fearful

mood has been depicted. Only the front pillars have been carved. The rest inside
the cave are plain square shafts. It is interesting to be noticed here that the upper
part of the pillars are carved in Buddhistic style, but the sculptures on the lower
parts of the capital seem more Brahmanical.45

The cave is in two storeys. The lower storey is a few feet above the level of the
court. It is supported by fourteen plain square pillars. It measures 95 feet in
length, and has two cells in the back wall near each end. The stair ascends at the
northern extremity of the front aisle.46

The first landing is lighted by a window which reveals eleven compartments,

each 2 feet high. These compartments have been embellished with bas-reliefs of
the following deities:47

43
Ibid, p. 27.
44
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 435.
45
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 23.
46
Ibid, p. 24.
47
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 435-36.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 163

1) Ganpati;

2) Parvati;

3) Surya with a lotus in each hand and two attendants;

4) Siva and Parvati;

5) Mahishasurmardini- the head of the buffalo struck off, and the Asura coming
out of the neck;

6) Ardhanariswar- the androgynous form of Siva, four-armed, with trisula;

7) Bhavani-four-armed, on her tiger, with trisula and damru

8) Ganapati;

9) Uma with water-pot and rosary like an ascetic between two fires, with Brahma
and others;

10) Ardhanariswar and

11) Kali, four-armed, with sword, trident, bowl, and a piece of flesh at which a
dog snatches.

The front aisle of the upper storey can be approached by the stairway. The hall
is 95 feet by 109 feet including the vestibule to the shrine. It has been supported
by forty-two square columns, besides two in front of the Vestibule.48 The pillars
in front are richly carved with floral decoration. New motifs such as dwarfs,
snakes, have been introduced.49

Another innovation of design such as-deep recesses are filled with large
sculptures in almost entire relief between the pilasters in each side wall.50Such
kind of innovative designs were used to fill the gap between the pilasters. This

48
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 38.
49
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James,, op. cit., pp. 439-40.
50
Ibid p. 441.

164 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

style of execution, however, provided the space to the artisans to demonstrate
ornamented technical skill.

The heterogeneity of the bhaktism is well represented here. The sculptures on

one side are mostly Vaishnava and on the other are Shaiva. Each end of the
balcony front a gigantic Saivadvarapala has been embellished.51

Among Shaiva sculptures, Bhairava is a gigantic figure lounging forward. He is

adorned with a necklace of skulls hanging below his loins. He has been depicted
holding up his elephant hide and a cobra is knotted round him. His large teeth
are seen in his open mouth. Another very dramatic addition is of a struggling
victim has been stabbed by his trisula in a pitiful condition. Another victim is
held by the heels in one of his left hands. He raises the damru in joy, as he
catches the blood with which to quench his thirst.52

Figure 67: Shiva as Bhairava

Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

51
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 27.
52
Ibid, p. 28.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 165

Image 1 Shiva as Bhairava panel

Kali has been depicted in is in a skeletal figure and in a forbidding mood. Her
mouth is huge. With sunken eyeballs and shaggy hair makes her skeleton length
stretched below. She is holding vampire behind her head. She is holding a
curved knife in her right hand, and reaches out the other with a bowl, as if eager
to share in the blood of the victim.53

In the 2nd chapel Siva has been depicted performing the tandava. In the 3rd,
there is an altar probably for Bhavani. In the 4 th, Siva and Parvati have been
depicted playing the game of chausara accompanied by Nandi and the
rollicking gana below.

In the 5th panel, the most interesting scene of marriage of Shiva and Parvati is
shown in which the bride is to the left of the bridegroom. Brahma with triple
face has been depicted squatting below to perform the priestly functions of
marriage. The gods riding on various animals witnessing the scene have been
depicted above.54In the 6th chapel depiction of Ravana and Kailasa has become
significantly dramatic.55

The back wall is embellished with the narrative of Markandeya. Shiva has been
depicted springing out of the linga to protect his worshipper Markandeya, whom
Yama has noosed. Next panel is of Shiva and Parvati. Shiva has been depicted
holding a lock of his hair in one hand and a rosary in the other. Nandi is shown
on the right side.56

53
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James,, op. cit., p. 436.
54
Ibid, p. 437.
55
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 39.
56
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 437.

166 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

Details of the antechamber

The capital of pillars in front of the antechamber have been carved with a pair of
figures and foliage. A huge Ganapati figures has been carved to the left of the
antechamber. The figures of lions on the floor of antechamber at the back
corners have been nicely carved.57

On the wall to left of shrine door a figure of Parvati with a rosary can be located.
She has been shown seated on a padmasana with musicians on each side of her.
The dvarapalas of the shrine are four-armed, and hold a snake, a club, and
the vajra. The altar inside the sanctuary is broken. To the right of the shrine
door is Gaja Lakshmi with four elephants pouring water over her. She has a
lotus and fruit in her hands, and two four-armed male attendants are offering jars
of water and hold the sankha, chakra and lotus in their hands.58

In the south end of the vestibule depicts Vishnu with his lotus and trisula. A
large bird is at his right hand, and a dwarf stands at his left. The south side of the
back wall comprise of the following panels:

1) The first panel depicts the Lingodbhavamurti Shiva. Shiva has been depicted
inside a lingam with flames issuing from the sides.The story goes that once
Vishnu and Brahma were arguing how one of them was greater than the
other.59 Vishnu incarnated as Varaha below on the right. He has been shown
digging down to see if he can discover the base of the great linga. After
struggling having failed to do so, worships it. Brahma has been depicted on
the other side ascending as a worshipper.60

57
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 28.
58
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 40.
59
Ibid, p. 41.
60
Ibid, p. 42.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 167

2) In the second panel, Shiva has been depicted as Tripurari. This form was
assumed to kill the demon Tripurasura. He is riding a chariot with shield,
sword and bow. Brahma is shown driving the chariot while holding the four
Vedas.61

The south wall (right side) towards the front represent panel of Vaishnava theme
allocating five of the ten incarnations of Vishnu. The following depictions can
be notice with the narratives:62

1) In the first panel, Vishnu has been depictedas Krishna with his left foot on a
dwarf. He is holding up the hill of Govardhan to protect the flocks of Vraj,
from the torrent of rain that Indra sent down.63

2) In the second panel, Vishnu as Narayana resting on Sesha. Depiction of the

great serpent with a human head and five hoods has become singnificant here.
On contrary, Brahma sits on a lotus which springs out of Vishnu's navel.
Goddess Lakshmi is shown rubbing her lord's feet. Seven other figures are
represented below.64

3) Next panel comprises of Vishnu riding on Garuda. Garud is shown in

anthropomorphic form.65

4) A salunkha or altar protected by a high screen in front or an unfinished

attempt of carving a lingam.66

5) Varaha holding Prithvi on his hand, with three Nagas below.67

61
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 28.
62
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 41.
63
Ibid, p. 43.
64
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 28.
65
Dhavalikar, James, op. cit., p. 41.
66
Ibid, p. 42.

168 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

6) Sixth panel depicts narratives of the Vamana avatara, the dwarf incarnation of
Vishnu. In this narrative he deceives king Bali, from whom he obtained a
promise that he should have all that he could cover in three strides. Then at the
third stride thrusts Bali down into Patala. Garuda has been depicted behind
binding a prisoner.68

7) Seventh panel depicts Narasimha, the man lion incarnation of Vishnu. He is

holding a battle axe (parsu) and a conch. He is wrestling with his enemy,
Hrinyakashipu who is armed with sword and shield, but has only two arms,
and has no chance against his eight-armed opponent.69

Figure 68: Narsimha Killing Hrinyaksipu

Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

67
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 28.
68
Dhavalikar, M. K.,op. cit., p. 41.
69
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 28.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 169

On the basis of style and execution and cave no. 15 becomes a dynamic
representation of Indian art. The high stylization of sculpture and movement of
body are very well depicted. A cinematic succession of multiple views can be
observed after viewing the different panels. The intention of the artists seems to
make narrative submissive to concept. On body movement and depiction of panel
Carmel Berkson has said ‘a combinative interrelation of fluidity and denseness,
loose and compact volume, ascension and weight of mass, merges opposites.’70

Cave 17

Chota Dumar Lena

Cave 17 is locally known as Chota

Dumar Lena though there is no similarity
between this cave and Dumar Lena cave.
It is a Shaiva temple. It has three rows of
columns from side to side and each row
contains four pillars. The back and front
aisles are 64 feet long. The total depth is
76 feet but the front of the shrine it is 37
71
feet. The cave had a porch on two
massive square pillars. It has been raised

by seven or eight steps above the level of Figure 69: Floor Plan cave 17

the court. A low covered corridor Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts,
New Delhi
surrounded the court on three sides and a

70
Berkson, Carmel. (1988). ‘Daśāvtāra Cave: Its Importance in the History of the World Art’ in Ellora Caves:
Sculpture and Architecture, RatanParimoo, Deepak Kannal, Shivaji Pannikar, et. al, New: Books & Books. p.
211.
71
Ibid, p. 40.

170 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

small door is in front.72 A sculptured compartment is located above the door. Each
end of the façade is well decorated. On the southern side of the door Brahma has
been depicted with two female attendants and two gandharvas floating on clouds.
On the northern side,a male deity, most probably Vishnu four-armed has been
depicted with female attendants. There is a hole in the lower portion of it which
opens into the veranda of the next cave.73

The pillars of the front in extreme

side are plain and square ones with
bracket capitals. The two inner
pillars have deep brackets on two
sides. These brackets have been
carved with female figures and
dwarf attendants. Interestingly, the
middle pillars in the next row have Figure 70: Broken square pattern pillars in Cave 17
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi
cushion capitals with female
figures. These figures have been carved as struts on their inner side. Though, fat
dwarfs have been carved upon the corners of the high square bases yet the
brackets above are unfinished.74 The outer pillars in this and the next row are in
section "broken squares"75 pattern.

The middle pillars in the next row have the base of the "broken square" pattern,
with female figures carved on the principal faces. It carries male figures on the
corner face of the pillars. Further, it has been decorated with a Dravidian

72
Ibid, p. 41.
73
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., 441.
74
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 40.
75
The pattern is so called due carving on main face of the pillar.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 171

moulding over it along with a belt with a floral ornament in the centre and two
dwarfs at each corner. A sixteen-sided shaft and then the struts with female
figures and attendants on three sides have made these pillars a marvellous
example of carving skill.76 The shrine door is boldly moulded in the Dravidian
style. Each dvarapala has two hands have been depicted holding flowers. They
arefurther attended by a dwarf and gandharvas.77

Inside the shrine, there is large square salunkha (altar) and linga.
The pradakshina is entered by a door on each side of the shrine. The inside
walls are decorated with sculptures.78

On the south end of the front aisle sculpture of Mahishasuri has been decorated.
A four-armed Ganapati on the north end has been very well decorated. The rock
on the left side of the court, at the end of the facade, has a figure of Buddha with
three faces. Inside the shrine, there is large square salunkha (altar) and linga.79

Cave 18

The court of cave 18 is of irregular shape.It contains a shallow trough in the

middle. The cave is slightly raised above the level of the court. It has four
unfinished pillars in front with a deep recess inside at each end. The hall is 67
feet long by 22½ feet deep. It has a slightly raised platform inside. 80 The portico
contains a chandrasila (semi-circular slab) at its base.81

76
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 442.
77
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 37.
78
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 40.
79
Ibid, p. 40.
80
Ibid, p. 41.
81
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 72.

172 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

 Figure 71: Entrance of cave 18 Figure 72: Shivalingam inside cave 18
Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi Courtesy: American Institute of Indian
Studies, Gurgaon

The vestibule of the shrine is located on the back of the hall. It is 30 feet long
and 10 feet 6 inches wide. It has two square pillars in front and corresponding
pilasters are decorated with low bases of two members. It is interesting to note
that portions of the walls and pillars contain fragments of plaster consisting of
mud with vegetable fibres in it. The shrine contains a Shiva lingam.82 A few
letters of a painted inscription in Devanagari is on one of the pillars. The shrine
contains a round structural altar and a linga.83

Cave 19

The roof Cave 19 has partly

destroyed, and the front pillars are
gone. It is not impressive like other
Brahmanical excavations at the site.
The entrance for some distance
inside is not as wide as it is in the
middle. In the middle, four pillars
have been carved on each side Figure 73: Inside view from cave 19
Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

82
Ibid, p. 73.
83
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 38.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 173

screen off recesses. In line with the fourth pillar, are four more in front of the
84
shrine, which contains a broken salunkha and linga. The pillars are rude
attempts of the style with cushion-shaped capitals. The hall inside is 43 feet
wide by 32 feet deep. The cave consists a squarish shrine and it is surrounded by
85
a pradakshina (circumambulation). Close to the next is another unfinished
cave, all in ruins.
Cave 20 (A)

Cave 20 (A) comprises a very spacious interior hall of plain character with
transverse corridor. In front the corridor has access into the inner hall from a
central opening. This openings at the side ends has two side cells in the front
corridor of similar character provided with similar openings on each side. 86 This
corridor has a mukhamandapa borne by a series of four free-standing pillars and
two pilaster of plain character, though sometimes tending to be rolled and
having the upper part schematically rendered into a narrow octagonal shaft and a
ghatapallava incompletely designed.87

Beyond this mukhamandapa, an open free side court has two side cells one on
each side of indeterminate character and purpose. The one to the north is,
however, fairly well finished and on the wall space looking west adjoining this
cell is the figure what would appear to be Matanga (one of the Yakshas of
Mahavira). His mount the elephant is apparently carved in front in a bad shape.

84
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 41.
85
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 72.
86
Rajan, K. V. Soundara. (1981). Cave Temple of the Deccan. New Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India. pp.
84-85.
87
Ibid, p. 86.

174 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

The pot belly of the figure further supports this. The cell may be a later addition
when the Jaina group at the site was being excavated.88

Cave 20 (B)

This cave is adjacent to Ramesvara cave 21. It is relatively on higher platform.

The style of execution postulates that it was excavated at a relatively a later
period. Certain features can be noticed such as projecting front mukhamandapa
like porch is an innovative process. The upper part of the projecting has been
damaged. The plinth part of projecting with moulding and pilasters in the
corners with a lateral space leading a flight of steps can be noticed. It might
have been leaded towards the mahamandapa in the upper part.89

The cave has a linga shrine with a wide passage round it. It has a hall 37 feet
wide by 30 feet deep. A block can be located in the middle of the hall which is
hewn into a shrine and of 20 feet by 16 feet. Originally it had in front two pillars
and pilasters with cushion-shaped capitals.90

A figure of Ganapati is outside the

facade on the north, and another of
Mahishasuri is on the south.91

The figure of Durga is in standing

posture. She is probably shown
riding lion. On her right side she is
holding a trident and a sword in the Figure 74: Frontal Porch of the Cave
two extant hands. On the other side, Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts,
New Delhi
88
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 72.
89
Rajan, K. V. Soundra, op. cit., p. 85.
90
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 42.
91
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 73.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 175

her left hands are damaged very badly. The figure of Durga has been decorated
with an elliptical nimbus on her back. There is a figure of gana below. The
space near gana indicates that there were two gana attendants above. But now
only one can be seen hovering in the air with mala in the hands.92
Image 2 Pillars in the front of the cave
The Nandi pedestal is rectangular unlike elliptical pedestals of a separate Nandi
in slightly later examples and this additionally goes to show Chalukyan
occupation.93 The projecting entrance porch with lateral projection into the cave
has its panels provided with figure sculpture, probably of Ganesha, Kubera etc.
It can be approached by flight of steps. The design of balustrade has been
decorated with designs of elephant head and trunk. The most remarkable
innovation in the design is such that the artisans has created four legs actually on
either side of its exterior 94

In each side of the shrine is a large cell with two square pillars having octagonal
necks in front. The door of shrine is carved round with the "creeper and roll"
pattern. The entrance has been flanked by a tall dvarapala on either side along
with a female figure.95

Cave 21

Ramesvara

Cave 21 is known as Ramesvara. It is a lofty Shaiva temple behind a fine large

platform. The Nandi has been carved in the court on a high pedestal. On this
pedestal bas-reliefs of goddesses and attendants on the sides have been

92
Rajan, K. V. Soundra, op. cit., p. 88.
93
Ibid, p. 89.
94
Ibid, p. 90.
95
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 42.

176 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

decorated. A sculpture of Ganapati on the north side has been carved in a chapel
with two pillars in front.96

These pillars have a close resemblance with Elephanta pillars. It is a noteworthy

feature that at Elephanta the pillars have been decorated with brackets while at
Ellora they have a deep square abacus. The abacus has been carved on the front
and sides with figures. Between pillars and pilaster a gigantic female figure has
been depicted standing on a makara. This female figure is attended by
dwarfs, chauri-bearer, and gandharvas.97 A similar female figure can be noticed
Entrance of the Cave on a tortoise on the south side. As per iconographical details,
these figures represent the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna. Dhavalikar has
assigned these figures in the middle of sixth century based on the Gupta-Vakataka
tradition.98

Figure 75: Pillar decorated with a screen on the base and human figure on upper side
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

96
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 73.
97
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 42.
98
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 73.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 177

The design of executing monolithic edifices here becomes noteworthy. The
front pillars are connected by a screen for half their height. A string course of
animals, mainly elephants has been decorated above. The face of the rail is
divided into narrow panels by broad vertical bands of intricate design.Each
panel contains a standing male and female figures. Over the railing runs a series
of festoons.99

The pillars are square from the base and then have an octagonal member. These
are further decorated with dwarfs on the corners just above the screen, then
shafts become circular with flowered members and flutes. The capitals have
been decorated with drooping ears and a square abacus design.100

Over the abacus, long brackets are carved in front with the figures human and
animals. To make the pillars more projecting, struts have also been added to
denote a structural member of edifice. These struts are decorated with female
figures and attendant dwarfs standing under foliage. Carving of horned monsters
on top of the brackets significantly gives a dramatic look to the pillars.101

A frieze with sunk panels containing dwarf figures has been carved over a plain
architrave. It has been divided by compartments carved in arabesque designs.
The hall of the shrine is 69 feet by 25 feet by 15½ feet. It has a shrine at each
end cut off by two pillars with cushion capitals. These chapels are surrounded
by sculpture.102

99
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 439-40
100
Ibid, p. 441.
101
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 42.
102
Ibid p. 43.

178 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

On the right end of hall, a large group of Saptamatrik as covers the three inner
sides of the shrine. Ganapati has been depicted at the beginning in the panel.
The following sculptures have been carved in order from right to left:103
1) Chamunda,
2) Indrani,
3) Varahi,
4) Lakskmi,
5) Kaumari,
6) Mahesevri, and
7) Brahmi.

All the divinities have a child with them except Brahmi. Conspicuously, Shiva
has been depicted at the end with his vehicle Nandi below. On the left side wall
Shiva has been depicted engaged in the cosmic dance tandava.104

Figure 76: Shiva dancing Tandava

Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

103
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 39.
104
Ibid, p. 40.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 179

On the other end of the wall representation of Kali and Kala have become
significant. Remarkably, Kali on the south has a tall four armed ghastly skeleton
with a broad short pointed knife. Another skeleton has been shown clasping its
leg and looks up to Kali just behind.105 This second skeleton has been shown
wearing a snake round her neck and grabs the first skeleton by the hair. Kali is
holding a dissevered head in her left hand. Another skeleton is holding a snake
round its neck and grins over her head. A figure with a sword stands in front of
Kaal, while a gandharva is depicted above with an offering.106

Figure 77: Skeletal depiction of Kali

Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

The back wall is decorated with figures of Ganesha, Saptamatrikas and a

musician. A beautiful sculpture of Shiva has been depicted in dancing pose.
Such a magnificent view has been created when we see that gods are shown
appearing in the clouds over Shiva’s sculpture. These gods are depicted very
well riding on the peacock, elephant, ox and garuda. This magnificent view

105
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 43.
106
Ibid, p. 44.

180 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

comprises Parvati with attendants and four musicians and Bhringi’s dance
behind Siva's leg.107

In the north shrine, agigantic four-armed standing figure has been depicted on
the left end. The figure is holdinga chick in one left hand and a large bird in the
other. The figure has been flanked by attendants with ram's heads are right and
left. Next panel on the back wall, Brahma has been depicted sitting on a chair
with an attendant behind him. He is shown addressing a squatting figure with a
female to the rear. 108

The third panels witnesses the cosmic event, the marriage of Siva. Soundra
Rajan has associated the scene of Shiva’s marriage with Kalidas’s
Kumarsamhava.109 In this panel, figure of Brahma can be located on the extreme
left with a fire before him. A bearded man, most probably Himavana, sits on the
other side. There are two male figures, one of them carrying a box. Parvati has
been depicted with a female behind her and a male is holding a round jar.110 Siva
is shown holding the hand of Parvati. A tiny figure of Ganesa has been carved in
front. The artisan has very nicely created the scene of Shiva’s wedding by
carving a dwarf with four other attendants. Among this group one of them is
holding a shankha, probably Vishnu as identified by Dhavalikar.111
Consequently, next panel comprises the story of Parvati’s penance. Parvati, the
daughter of Himalaya, undertakes a penance in order to gain the love of Siva.
She appears as an ascetic among four fires. The artisan has created scene of
mountains by carving several rocks behind her. She is holding a rosary in one
hand like a tapasvini. She is accompanied by her maids. Among them, onehas
been depicted kneeling at her right and another with a box on her left.112

107
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., pp. 39-40.
108
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 75.
109
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., p. 82.
110
Ibid, p. 83.
111
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 76.
112
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit. p. 82.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 181

Mahayogi Shiva is shown approaching her with a water vessel. The forest scene
comprises of lotuses behind and fruits over him has been very well depicted. In this
scene Shiva is shown entangled in the mouth of crocodile himself. Although, Shiva
was relieved by the Brhamachari but the coming of Parvati to rescue Shiva has
become a praiseworthy depiction of Shivaleela.113 A tall female figure has been
depicted behind Shiva. She is, perhaps, addressing Kamadeva who has shown
coming out of a makara's mouth, according to James Burgess.114 But Dhavalikar
has the opinion that the figure coming out from the mouth of crocodile is Shiva
himself who is rescued by Parvati. A most remarkable row of ganas is on the base
of this tableau.115 Whatever it may be the case but it can be well surmised the
scenes from the Hindu mythology have been in a cinematic style.
The very next panel, comprises of Mahishasurmardini on the east end of the
chamber. She is shown slaying the Mahisasura. She has been depicted four-
armed figure. She is holding a club in front, a sword in the hand behind.
Gandharvas have been depicted in upper part of the panel.116

Figure 78: Mahisasurmardini killing Mahisasura

Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

113
Ibid, p. 83.
114
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 43.
115
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 76.
116
Ibid, p. 77.

182 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

The either side of the way towards the shrine has been carved with a large
sculpture. The north side of the panel contains narrative of Ravanashaking
Kailash. Ravana has been depicted having five heads under Kailasha.
Conspicuously, one of his heads looks like of an animal (probably boar). On
Kailasha, Shiva and Parvati have been shown seated with their attendants.117

The south side of the hall represents a sublime experience of creativity and
carving ingenious. It represents Siva and Parvati playing. The Shaiva gana
Bhringi can be seen in middle of panel. He is exclusively watching the game of
dice while resting his chin and hand on his knee.118

Figure 79: Shiva Playing Chausar with Parvati

Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi

117
Ibid, p. 77.
118
Ibid. p.77.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 183

The royal depiction of Parvati has become a significant scene in the panel. She
has been attended by females like a queen. Among them, one is plaiting her hair.
One of her attendants is moving holding a fan in her hand. The upward
movement of the fan denotes its movement. The attitude of Parvati is shown
little irritated, may due to plaiting of hair or due to Shiva’s cheating in the game.
Nandi and other ganas have been depicted below.119

The antechamber is decorated with pilaster on either side. These pilasters are
decorated with female chauri-bearers along with dwarf attendants. The deep
square abacus has been carved on the compressed cushion capitals of these two
120
columns. The elaborate carved door of the shrine show an extended
similarityin style to the doors in caves 1 and 4 at Ajanta. 121 The similarity in
design points towards their same period of origin. The doorway is flanked by a
gigantic dvarapala on each side. Interestingly, these dvarpalas are attended by
wigged dwarf attendants.122 One of the dvarpalas has a high cap with the prongs
of the trisula projecting from the top of it. He is having a broad dagger, a sword,
and a cobra round his loins. The shrine has a wide and lofty circumambulation
pathway (pradakshin).It contains a square salunkha (altar) with a linga in it.123

Cave 22
Nilakantha
Cave 22 is locally known as Nilakantha, one of the names of Shiva. Nilakantha
literally means ‘blue throated’. There is a round salunkha (altar) with a highly
polished lingam, in the shrine. The lingam has bluish streaks, that is why the
cave is called "Nilakantha".124

119
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 44.
120
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 76.
121
Ibid, p. 77.
122
Ibid, p. 77.
123
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 44.
124
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 79.

184 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

It has a court measuring 42X42 feet square,
within which an ascent of three steps leads
to a sloping platform. It contains a
Nandimandapa having four-doors. A shrine
can be located on the south side of the
court. It contains Bhringi or Kala with two
arms and outspread hair, Ganapati and the Figure 80: Saptamatrikas panel
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India,
saptamatrikas. All the matris as well as New Delhi

Shiva have four arms each. The last, Brahmiis holding a vessel and a figure of
Shiva.125 The cave can be approached by thirteen steps. The doorway is flanked
by a dvarapala at each end. It is 70 feet by 40 feet. The dimension includes the
end chapels and the vestibule to the shrine. It contains four pillars in front and
126
two on each of the three other sides of the hall. These pillars have been
decorated with square plain shafts with bases and bracket capitals. Both the
endshave a shrine with an altar. The walls of the vestibule comprises of Ganesa,
three devis,-(one on a crocodile, probably Ganga), and a four-armed Vishnu or
perhaps Kartikeya.127

Cave 23 and 24

Cave 23 and 24 are rather close to the last excavations. They are probably of
later date than larger cave temples. The ground plan of the caves shows that
these contain six altars and one of the caves, 23 contains trimurti on the back
wall.128

125
Ibid, p. 80.
126
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James,, op. cit. p. 443.
127
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 44.
128
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 40.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 185

 Figure 81: Sculpture of Nandi inside Nandimandapa
Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

Cave 23

Cave 23 is an excavation of lower size. It consist of a partly double verandah

(courtyard).The courtyard is embellished with five doors entering into small
cells. One of the cell, as mentioned earlier, contains a round salunkha and
lingam along with aTrimurti on the back wall.129
Cave 24

Teli-Ka-gana

Cave 24 is locally known as ‘Teli-ka-gana,’ or the ‘Oilman's Mill’. It comprises

of five cells. The cells contain some small sculptures, among which is an injured
figure of a river goddess.130 A little to the north is the beginning of another
cave.131

129
Ibid, p. 41.
130
Ibid, p. 72.
131
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 45.

186 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

Cave 25

Kumbharvada

Cave 25 is known as Kumbharvada (potter’s quarter) and Suresvara. The local

name given to the cave also suggest that it was used by the Kumhar community.
The name of Suresvara is given due to the image of Surya on the ceiling of the
antechamber.132

The frontal porch is supported by six columns and pilasters which have fallen
now. It has a hall with recess of 90 foot by 27 feet, by 13 feet 10 inches high. An
image has been placed on a pedestal at the north end.The south end has a recess
with a 15 feet shrine behind it containing an oblong altar. Afat male with a bag
in his hand has been shown seated on a rich cartin front of this recess.133

Figure 82: Frontal porch of the cave supported by six pillars

Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

132
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 79.
133
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 80.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 187

The back portion of the hall contains four free-standing and two attached square
pillars with moulded bases. Behind these pillars, a smaller measuring 57 feet by
23 feet can be located. It has two pillars at both the ends and two at the back.
The two attached pillars divide it from the vestibule of the shrine which is 30
feet by 9 feet.134

The pillars are decorated with brackets. A male and a female flying figurehave
been carved on the front of each bracket. The vestibule part of this shrine
provide an exemplary skill of the artisans. The ceiling has been carved with a
figure of Surya in his chariot drawn by seven steeds. The depiction of a female
at each side shooting with a bow has become magnum opus.135

The shrine is 15 feet square and contains an oblong altar. The shrine door has a
Dravidian moulding on the frieze, and tall dvarapalas with very bushy locks and
long swords are by the jambs standing on lotuses.136

Cave 26

Janawasa

Cave 26 is locally known as Janawasa. The Marathi meaning of Janawasa is a

house given to a bridegroom’s party for stay at the time of marriage.137 It has
four pillars and two pilasters in front, with two pillars and pilasters at the back,
all with cushion-shaped capitals. According to Fergusson, the columns of this
temple are quite of the Elephanta’s pattern.138

134
Ibid, p. 81.
135
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 444.
136
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 40.
137
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 79-80.
138
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 444.

188 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

 Figure 83: Shrine door flanked by gigantic dvarpalas
Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

The hallis 74 feet wide X 25 feet deep, and 16 feet 6 inches high. Each end of
the hall has a shrine raised 3 or 4 feet above the floor. This shrine has two
square pillars and pilasters in front. A larger room of 40 feet square with two
square pillars and pilasters in front can be located on the back. The total length
including these shrines is 112 feet. The circumambulatory is 67 feet wide on the
back.139

A female chauri-bearer can be located in front of each pilaster of the vestibule.

She is decorated with carefully crimped hair and a dwarf attendant by her side.
The shrine door is flanked by two large dvarapalas, and one of them is shown
holding a flower. Along with these attendants, there also some stout figures have
been depicted. Among these figures an attendant has been decorated with a very
high cap terminating in a spear-point. A skull has been depicted on the right side
this figure. The shrine of this end is 16 feet square from inside. It contains a

139
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 46.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 189

large salunkha (altar) and lingam. The circumambulatory (pradakshina) of this
shrine is 9½ feet wide.140

Cave 27
Milkmaid's Cave
Cave 27 is locally known as the milkmaid's cave. It has courtyardwhich is 69
feet long by 8 feet 4 inches wide. Originally, it had six pillars but now one
octagonal pillar with bracket capital and a fragment of another are left. The back
wall has three doors and two windows. It is decorated with following
sculptures:141
1) Lakshmi with two male attendants;
2) Vishnu, four-armed, with club,
chakra and rosary;
3) Siva with cobra and trident;
4) Brahma, three-faced, with staff,
water-pot, and rosary; and Figure 84: Sculpture of Brahma, Vishnu
and Mahesha
5) Mahishasurmardini with the buffalo. Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the
Arts, New Delhi
In the north end of the shrine sculpture of
Varaha with Prithvi is located. The south end is adorned with the sculpture of
Narayana on Sesha. The hall is 53 feet X 22 feet and 11 feet 8½ inches high. 142
It comprises of three cells which are rudely excavated in the walls. The vestibule
to the shrine is 23 feet X 10 feet. It has a raised floor and adorned with two short
pillars in front. The door of the shrine has been flanked by Vaishnava
dvarapalas in the recesses. Inside the shrine, there is an oblong altar at the back
of the shrine.143

140
Ibid. p. 45.
141
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 445.
142
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 46.
143
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 46.

190 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

Cave 28

Cave 28 is located on the edge of a ravine where a waterfall formed by the

stream flows from the hill. The cave consists of the remains of a couple of cells.
It has remains of a vestibule and a shrine with dvarapalas at each side of the
door. The shrine door has Vdhyadharas hovering above. Inside of the shrine is
the base of a square altar. In western corner of the hall has an eight-
armed Durga with attendants which seems to be later addition.144

Figure 85: Entrance of the Shrine

Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

There are several other small caves and in the shrine. First of these is a Trimurti
of Siva. Shiva has been depicted as creator, preserver, and destroyer of the
world. It can be said a fine specimen of a class of sculpture very common during
that period. There are several larger cells further north direction. 145 These can be
approached by a considerable group of small shrines. Among these shrines,
some of them have small open courts entered by a door with a Dravidian
pediment over it. Others cells have Trimurtis on the back walls of the shrines.

144
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 80.
145
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 46-47.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 191

These cells also have round salunkhas (altar) for the lingams. It is interesting to
note here that the ceilings of two cells among them have traces of painting.146

Cave 29

Sita's Chavadi or Dumar Lena

Cave 29 is locally known as Sita's Chavadi. It is also called Dumar Lena. This cave
can be compared with main cave at Elephanta or Garapuri. It bears a striking
resemblance but it is larger and in some respects a more refined version. It can be
said that it isthe finest cave of its class. The other two at Elephanta and at
Jogeswari show a deterioration in architectural style and a divergence from
Buddhist style of representation in sculpture. It seems to a great step towards the
spreading transformation over the forms of two greatreligious faiths of its time.147

The hall including the shrine is 148 feet wide X 149 feet deep, and 17 feet 8 inches
high. The excavated area from the entrance court extends more than 200 feet in a
direct line north and south.148

The sculpture of two large lions have depicted on both sides of the steps leading to
the hall from three sides. These lions have been depicted with small elephants
under their paws. Nandi has been depicted in a large circle in front of the west
entrance.149

The architectural plan of the hall is in the form of a cross. The roof of the hall has
been supported by twenty-six colossal pillars. The three sides of the front aislehave
been decorated with large sculptures on each end.150

146
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 446
147
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 276-79.
148
Ibid, p. 280.
149
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 47.
150
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 80.

192 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

The southern end of the west aisle is adorned with Ravana shaking Kailasa panel.
Ravana has been depicted under Kailasha try to move it with his eight hands. The
left side of the opposite wall has been carved with the sculpture of Andhakasura-
vadha-murti Shiva. Shiva has been depicted eight armed with a stretched elephant
hide over his head. He is holding a sword a bowl and a snake. His sword is shown
stabbed in the demon’s body. Parvati has been depicted to the left of Shiva.151

Figure 86: Ravana Shaking Kailash

Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

The northern side of aisle is adorned with Bhairava and two figures of victims. The
verandahin the southern side has a large pit when come down. The west end of the
hall contains Siva and Parvati playing chausar. Vishnu and Brahma have been

151
Ibid, p. 81.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 193

depicted to the right and left respectively. Nandi and frolicking ganas have been
depicted below. 152

In the eastern end, the marriage scene Shiva and Parvati has been depicted. The
gods and goddesses are shown above. Left side has Vishnu mounted on Garuda,
Yama on a buffalo, Vayu or Soma on a stage, Agni on a goat, and perhaps Varuna.
While on the right side has Indra or Airavati, and Nirriti on amakara. The entire
panel is somewhat similar to that in the preceding caves only differentiating by its
colossal size.153 Image 3 Marriage of Shiva and Parvati

Figure 87: Scene of Shiva's marriage with Parvati

Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

There is a gigantic figure of a Devi outside the pilaster to the south. She is adorned
with round head-dress peaked in front. There are four sages above and three
152
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 47.
153
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., 81.

194 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

females below. Quite interestingly, may be a goose or some other bird is shown
pulling mantle of Devi.154

A staircase to the south descends to the stream below. The north veranda
comprises the panel of Shiva as Mahayogi. He is shown seated on a lotus, with his
club in his left hand, the stalk of the lotus upheld by Naga-hooded figures. He is
worshipped by two female figures from behind. Jas Burgess has pointed it as an
evident copy from the Buddhist sculptures.155

On the opposite side, Shiva is shown with heavy legs dancing the tandava. Parvati
is seated at his left, and Nandi and musicians are on his right.156 The eastern wall
outside the pilaster is decorated with a tall river goddess. It can be identified as
Yamuna standing on a tortoise. She is flanked by a single female attendant
and gandharvas.157

On the north side of the cave a small courtyard is located. The east side of the
courtyard has a low cave with a large oblong block of stone inside. The square
shrine is located in the back wing. It contains a lingam in it. It has four doors
guarded by a pair of gigantic dvarapalas. These dvarpalas are holding a flower in
the right hand and accompanied by a female attendant each. Each female attendant
is also holding a flower. The difference can be noticed in their head-dresses. In the
southern side of this square cell a circumambulatory has been provided. 158

154
Ibid, p. 82.
155
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 41
156
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 83.
157
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 48.
158
Ibid, pp.48-49

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 195

 Figure 88: Shrine door is flanked by the gigantic dvarapala
Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

s by the Jains, who excavated there a remarkable series of caves to be described

hereafter. But between these two, at an intermediate age, the Brahmans excavated
17 caves.159

These cavesrival the Buddhist caves in magnificence and definitely exceeds in

richness of decoration.It is evident from the carvings that in earlier caves, the
Brahmans followed to a certain extent the arrangements of Buddhists caves. Later
on, they gradually emancipated themselves from the Buddhist influence till the
series culminated in the Kailash. It is not only the largest and most magnificent
rock-cut temple but the one in which the craftsmen completely liberated
themselves from the influence of Buddhist cave architecture.160

159
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 431.
160
Ibid, p. 432.

196 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

Strategically, the Brahmanical caves begin to the south Kailash at a distance of
about 40 yards north of the Tin Thal, cave 12. As mentioned earlier, the first one is
a large perfectly plain room. The front has been destroyed by the decay of the rock
and the floor is deep in earth. It might probably have been a dharmashala or rest-
house for visitors. Near to this, the cave known as Ravan-ka-Khai is located. Next
to it, a little higher up in the rock, the Dasavatara cave has been carved.161

In the northern side of Kailash, a deep ravine is located. Beyond the ravine, there
are five small caves are located. Then the following caves are located:
Rameshwara, Nilakantha, a small cave, Teli-ka-Gana, Kumbarwara, Janawasa, and
162
the Milkmaid's cave. The Milkmaid’s cave has been excavated near a high
waterfall. At the north side of the waterfall, the magnificent temple known as Sita-
ki-Nhani or Dumerlena has been excavated. It is the most northerly of the
Brahmanical series.163

The age of these caves can be ascertained within a small time period from the style
of their architecture. However, it has also become difficult to associate these caves
to a particular ruler due to lack of inscriptions. But on the basis of architectural
style, these caves can be placed subsequently to the caves at Badami around 579
CE and before to the Kailash temple.164 These can be said at least the extreme
limits within which the age of the group of caves is comprised. It is highly
probable that the earliest of them overlap the Buddhist series to the extent which
that would imply.

It may be noted that both in the plans and in the style of their architectural details,
these caves resemble the last caves at Ajanta and Aurangabad. It is highly probable

161
Dhvalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 33.
162
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., p. 41.
163
Qureshi, Dulari, op. cit., pp. 152-53.
164
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 431.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 197

that they belong generally to the second half of the seventh century rather than the
first.165

The carving of the Brahmanical caves seems to be started with those situated
nearest to the Buddhist group, and ending with the Dumer Lena, the most northern.
Dumer Lena can be assumed to be the last excavated, anterior to the Kailash,
which probably however, was not completed before the end of the seventh
century.166

After analysing the Buddhist and Brahmanical caves, it can be deduced that
Buddhist gave emphasis on beauty whereas Brahmanism caves emphasized on
vigour. It may be noted that the affiliations between Ellora Buddhist and
Brahmanical works extended for a long time until the latter had not decided to
move further.167

The Brahmanical caves and the architectural details that have been described in
this chapter, can be said the copies of Buddhist viharas in some manner. But the
cells for monks are absentand also the character of the sculptures has also been
changed to suit the Brahmanical pantheon.168It can be noticed that in the Sita's
Chavadi and later caves, the Brahmanism was gradually departing from their
Buddhist originals. It landed on the verge of creating its own style. This innovation
resulted into a revolution where Brahmanism abandoned the cave and decided to
excavate rock-cut temples.169

On the basis of evolution in architectural styles, the Brahmanical cave temples can
be divided into eight varieties in ground plan. The ground plans of caves 21, 26,
165
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., p. 132.
166
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 431.
167
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 276-80.
168
Havell, E. B. (2000). Encyclopaedia of Architecture in the Indian Subcontinent, Vol-1 Ancient and Early
Medieval. New Delhi: Aryan Books International. p. 90.
169
Rajan, K. V. Soundra, op. cit., p. 135.

198 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

20b, 17, 14, 27, 19, 16 and 15 (Dasavatara) can well portray these evolutionary
stages. Particularly, the Dasavatara cave forms a transition between the pre-
Rashtrakuta and the Rashtrakuta series.

As per the style of execution, it can be surmised that when the Buddhist caves
began from the south end of the hill, no work on Brahmanical caves was started.
The prevailing condition allowed the Buddhist activities to spread into the other
part of the hill towards the north. It is quite visible in two caves, namely caves 20a
and 27. These two caves have different ground plans. Cave 20a has an astylar
mandapa and cave 27 has a Latin cross plan with a nirandharagarbhgriha. This
style of execution was prominent in Buddhist cave. This Latin cross type has also
been adopted in 20b and 21.

On the basis of the Brahmanical caves, it can be said that the caves at Ellora
originally begun for Buddhism and eventually completed for the Brahmanical
faith. The transition of Buddhists caves into the Brahmanical caves can be noticed
in the ground plan of early Brahmanical caves.170

The other types comprise of mandapa and sandhara shrine. It is without an

entrance veranda in cave 14. It contains a full axial strike of the inner temple with
peripheral open projections and sandhara garbhgriha, as in Dumarlena (cave 29).
The triratha layout (cave 19) and pancharatha layout (cave 27) anticipating the
advent of large pillared halls with nandimandapa which came into begin from
Rashtrakutas times. Many of the pre-Rashtrakutas examples do not have an
ardhamandapa or antarala as in the case of caves 26, 17 and 14, while an antarala
is clearly seen in others caves 21, 20b, 27, 16 and 15. The former group has its
prototypes in the rekha- affiliated category which would have had a sukanasa,

170
Spink, Walter. (1967). Ajanta to Ellora. Bombay: Marg Publications. p. 10.

Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora 199

while the latter group might have developed from the vimana or phamsana
category would have had a regular antarala or ardhamandapa. Thus we find that
in the evolution of the cave temple plan, the early phase of the Brahmanical group
was not only of changing format but also affiliated to the rekha type. Some in the
group also display the sandhara feature, while others are of the nirandhara
category. The two streams of temple forms thus coalesced: the rekha and the
vimana or the indigenous Deccaniphamsana types. This indicates that patronage
itself flowed from two source regions, besides a region which had and
skilfullyutilized both rekha and vimana types, together with indigenous
phamsanasandhara and nirandhara temple forms.171

Direct transfer of new elements like the octagonal pillars on the façade of cave 27
show that migrating Buddhist craftsmen mingles with guilds of another school,
evolving mixed forms in subsequent phases. But the wtwisted cord and beaded
ornament pattern running diagonally across the shaft of the pillar, so characteristic
of Ajanta’s Mahayana caves, does not appear at Ellora thereby indicating that the
level of workmanship and intensity had somewhat declined by the time the
migrating craftsmen of Buddhist.172

Ajanta had begun their new shrines as well. This decline underscores the
chronological gap between the cessation of major activities at Ajanta and
commencement of activity at Ellora. The one major activities at Ajanta
commencement of activity at Ellora.173

The one major point of continuity between the two places was the ghata-
pallavapillar type and the use of the capital block on the top, a central and upper

171
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., p. 136.
172
Spink, Walter, op. cit., pp. 10-15.
173
Ibid, p. 16.

200 Development of Brahmanical Cave Architecture at Ellora

Indian pillar form, as distinguished from the southern use of corbels on pillar tops.
Both styles were used at Elephanta.174

Ajanta shows predominating, except in late viharas of the Mahayana phase, the
capital block and where corbels are used, they are of the coiled type of the lower
DeccaniChalukyan genre. Corbels are widely seen in many pre-Rashtrakutas
caves, for instance, caves 26, 28, 29, 14.175

Hence, these features make it clear that there was, firstly, a time-lag between
Ajanta’s end and Ellora’s beginning. Secondly typical Ajantan usagesare
continued and mingled with typical southern forms, especially in thenon-Buddhist
and Brahmanical caves.

174
Berkson, Carmel, op. cit., p. 24-28.
175
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit. 134-188.

200 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

Chapter-6

Kailash Temple: Culmination of

Monolithic Architecture at Ellora
Cave 16 is well known as the Kailash or Rang Mahal. It is a great monolithic
temple. The final type of Brahmanical rock-cut architecture consists of one
example only, the Kailash (Siva's Paradise) at Ellora. It stands a class apart by
itself. Instead of the underground halls like caves, it is isolated from the
surrounding rock and carved both on the outside and inside. The architectural
design suggests that its creators threw aside all previous conventions. They
boldly undertook the task to reproduce a structural temple on a very large scale
and in full detail of the period in the living rock. Percy Brown has said "the
Indian artist had an extraordinarily developed plastic sense. No other people
has ever dreamed of sculpting such great temples out of the solid rock as it was.
Indeed, Indian architecture proceeds, not as ours, according to the principles of
construction; it is rather conceived as an object cut out of solid material as any
ivory figure might be.”1

Kailasha is indeed a memorable experience one would never forget. The

scholars in the 80's and 90's have broken new grounds in the study of Kailasha.
One of the new ground way to examine Kailasha as a pilgrimage centre,
although earlier it has appeared in the Puranic list that includes the site as one of
the Jyotirlingas or as a place where shradha would be performed and later in a
tantric text that Kailasha is named as one of the fifty Sakti Pithas.2

1
Brown, Percy. (1956). Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods). Bombay: D.B Taraporewala Sons
and Company.
2
Bhatt, G. P. (2004). Ancient Indian Tradition & Mythology vol. 36. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas, pp. 759-60.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 201

 Figure 89: View of Kailash Temple from North East
Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi

South Elevation of Kailash Temple (After Burgess)

202 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

Historical Development

In the historical references, the control of Deccan was taken by the Raśtrakutas
from the early Western Chalukyas around 750 CE. In this way they began a
supremacy that was lasted around 973 CE.3 Though the political might of this
family has been widely acknowledged, little is known about the artistic
developments that took place during the period of their supremacy. The major
site related with these rulers is Ellora. Several cave excavations were carried out
at Ellora under the aegis of Raśtrakutas.

Its boldness suggest centuries of traditions in which carving techniques and an

understanding of the rock medium were developed. It enabled craftsmen to push
the architectural type to its limits.4It can be said that the Kailaśa temple is more
than simply a building. It is a huge complex with all the architectural members
of contemporary free standing southern type temple.

It is difficult to say how long it took to create the main temple and its
surroundings elements or the precise sequence of the excavations. Most scholars
today feel that the major portion of the monument, including the central temple
and Nandi shrine as well as the gateway belong to the reign of the Rastrakuta
king Krishna I, who ruled from around 757 to 773 AD. 5 However, it may be
possible that the temple was planned and begun under his predecessor,
Dantidurga. It is evident from the cave prior to the Kailaśa temple cave no. 15
which bears an inscription of the earlier king reigned from 735 to 757 CE. 6
These two cave temples are very similar in terms of stylization.

3
Huntington, Susan L. (1985). The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain. p. 341.
4
Ibid, p. 342.
5
Dayalan, D., op. cit., p. 3.
6
Ibid, p. 4.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 203

There is some conceptual relation between Kailaśa temple and the Virupaksha
temple at Pattadakal and Kailaśanath temple of Kanchipuram.7 But here
Soundrarajan8 has opined that „Undeniably, all the three are of the same
genre—the southern architectural style – but perhaps the resemblance almost
ends here. The integrally constructed seven subsidiary shrines of identical
shape built in the thickness of the wall around the central shrine of Kailaśanath
each not only showing identical god-head within, namely, the Somasakanda
panel, but also having only a restricted eastward or westward orientation and
not at all having any front vestibule beyond it transept passage as emerges
from the cella, is so completely and drastically different from the phraseology
implicit in the Virupaksha and the one manifest in the Kailaśaa.’

From an analytical point of view it may be surmised that monolithic Pallava

Rathas at Mahabalipuram were the initiator of this typology in southern part of
the country.9 The Kailaśa temple was conceived and carried out when structural
temple architecture in the stone medium had already developed. It is also
interesting that there was no contemporary monolithic architecture to take
immediate inspiration except for Rathas of Mahabalipuram.10 It must have been
a novel experimentation in terms of freestanding monolithic complex hewn in
the living rock. The most prominent and an innovative experimentation was
done by the King Narsimhvarman I, Māmalla. Mamallapuram was the famous
sea-port of the Pallavas. King Narsimhavarman might have chosen it
implements his dream to make sanctuary of vestured legends.11

7
Bhattacharyya, Asok. (1988). „Ellora Sculpture: A Stylistic Examination‟ in Ellora Caves: Sculpture and
Architecture, Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannal, Shivaji Pannikar, et. al, New Delhi: Books & Books. p. 274.
8
Rajan, K. V. Soundra. (1988). The Ellora Monoliths. Delhi: Gian Publishing House. p. 4.
9
Tadgell, Christopher, op. cit., pp. 74-75.
10
Rajan, K. V. Soundra, Rock-cut Temple Styles, op. cit., p. 132.
11
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 346.

204 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

Karka-II, Rastrakuta monarch rightly mentioned about this temple as:12

Elāpur-āchala-gat-ādbhuta-sanniveśaṁ yad=vīkşya
vismita-vimana-char-āmarendrāḥ I

Etat savayambhu siva-dhāma na kṛtrime

srīs dṛṣt=edṛs=iti satatam bahu charchayanti II

Bhūyas-lathāvidha-kṛtau vyavasāya-hānir-
Etan-mayā katham-aho kṛtm=ity-akasmāt I

Karttāpi yasya khalum, ver vismayam-āpa śilpi

Tan-nāma-kīrttanam=akārayyata yena rājnā II

Meaning13: (That King) by whom verily was caused to be constructed a temple

on the hill at Elāpura of wonderful structure, - on seeing which the best of the
immortals who move in celestial cars struck with astonishment, think mush
constantly, saying, “this temple of Śiva is self-existent; in a thing made by art
such beauty is not seen”- a temple, the architect-builder of which, in
consequences of the failure of his energy as regards (the construction of)
another such work, was himself suddenly struck with astonishment, saying, Oh,
how was it that I built it!”

If we see the rock of the Deccan trap it would be difficult to believe that the
complexes at Ellora were created with such an aesthetic perfection. However, it
is equally true that Kailaśa temple was not built in a day. 14 It is evident from the
site that it took ages for the development of architectural skills to reach such a
level of perfection which have been discussed in the subsequent chapters.

12
Dayalan, D., op. cit., p. 3.
13
Ibid, p. 4.
14
Dhavalikar, M. K. “Kailasa: A Structural Analysis”, op. cit. p. 353.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 205

At the time of initiation of Kailaśa temple, as already mentioned,
Mahabalipuram group of temples served as a model. But in the late eighth
century monolithic architectural models were well patronized. The earliest of
these temples are- Vettuvankoil15 (800 CE) at Kalugumalai in the Pandyan
country, after that Dhamner (850 CE)16 in Madhya Pradesh, the Chaturbhuj
Viṣnu on Gwalior Hill17 during late ninth century. The series of seven monoliths
at Masrur in Kangra valley18 of the same time. The small rectangular unfinished
shrine with wagon types sikhara at Coglong in Bihar,19 sometime later. The
excavation of monolithic temples is practically go out of vogue after ninth
century A. D.20

The importance of Ellora largely stems from the awesome showpiece of the
Kailaśa temple. Ellora was part of a chain of monolithic carvings of
architectural forms set in motion from the time of Dantidurga. It carried on up
to the second quarter of the ninth century CE, beyond the time of Govinda III. 21
There is much variety in this series of five. The Kailaśa temple built by Krishna
I is the most ambitious, complete and intricate of the series at Ellora.22 It is
overwhelming and attributed to the perfect rhythm and harmony of component
parts. The double story excavation of Kailaśa temple complex is a marvel
example in realm of monolithic architectural edifices. It is located in the central
place in the 34 caves at Ellora.23 Not only the location but also the style of
execution gives an important place in the history of architecture.

15
Rajan, K. V. Soundra, The Ellora Monoliths, op. cit., pp. 2-3.
16
Dayalan, D. op. cit., p.2
17
Ibid, p. 3.
18
Ibid, p. 4.
19
Ibid, p.5
20
Ibid, p.4.
21
Dayalan, D., op. cit., p. 5.
22
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., p. 342.
23
Dhavalikar, M. K. op. cit., p.6.

206 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

Philosophical aspect of the Kailash temple

It is quite strange that the vastu-sastras are almost quiet on this style of
architecture. M. N. Deshpande24 in his paper has proposed that the monolithic
temples in general and the Kailaśa temple at Ellora in particular had the impact
of Śankara‟s philosophy of Advaita (monism). Here, it is important to mention
that the very first reference of monolithic temple‟s association with Advaita
philosophy is from Amṛtānubhava in Marathi. It is written by Jnāneśvara, a
thirteenth century saint poet of Maharashtra.

Deva deūla parivāru kīje korunī dongaru

Taisā bhaktīkā vyavashāru kana vhāvā I

- Amṛtānubhava (9.43)25

Meaning:26 “God, shrine and devotee carved in the rocky hill, such is the affair
of non-dualist unity of knowledge and devotion‟.

The physical relationship between the caves and the cliff is a strange one. They
differ from it even as they are of it, and they are visible within it even as they
sometimes seem to disappear in its own variegated surface.27 There also have
physical, philosophical and religious grounding which inspired the construction
of the caves.28 While the relationship between a religion or philosophy and its
physical manifestations is a complicated one, the cave temples at Ellora clearly
depict Indian beliefs about and desires for architecture, pilgrimage sites and
ritual. Stella Kramrisch has written that “tirthas and ksetras on Indian soil are
potent sites where a presence is felt to dwell. Its support is in the place itself.

24
Deshpande, M. N., „Kailāśa: A Study in its symbolism in the light of contemporary Philosophical concepts
and Tradition‟, in Ellora Caves: Sculpture and Architecture, Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannal, Shivaji
Pannikar, et. al, (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1988), pp. 232-234.
25
Deshpande, M. N., op. cit. p. 240.
26
Ibid, p. 241.
27
Havell, E. B., op. cit., p. 187.
28
Ibid, p. 188.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 207

Whatever makes the site conspicuous or memorable is reinforced in its effect by
the attention of the people directed towards and concentrated on that spot.”29

The text of Amṛtānubhava also gives details about the technique of carving.
Interestingly, Saint Jnāneśvara expresses his surprise about the reverse process
of starting the carving of the Kailaśa temple from top to bottom in a very mystic
style. He says, „the space was created out of a tamarind leaf and the
construction laid down the pinnacle first and the foundation last.‟30 While
praising the skill of the artisans at Ellora, Carmel Berkson has said, “The
Raśtrakutas artists seem to have been driven also by the philosophy which
denied by absolute with corollary. It would nullify an exclusive focus on the
theory that the central point influences all forces within the configuration of the
panel. The conceptions which eliminate God and might also prove to be useful
tool by means of which to approach the art in the relief panels, since magnetic
forces outside the panel sometimes force a relative view of all the elements.”31It
shows the qualities of the absolute exist in the central point. In this way, a
certain ambiguity arises out of the question of what is beyond the circumference
of the cave.

The association of the name Ilapura and Ellora represents a long mythological
tradition. Ila is the Goddess of priests and the kings in the Vedic period. 32 The
Puranas mention a river Ela somewhere in the Deccan and a tribe called Elikas
or Ailikas.33 There is also reference of Chalukyan King Vijyaditya issued a
grant during his military encampment at Elāpura in 704 A.D.34 It may be

29
Kramrisch, Stella, op. cit., p. 4.
30
Baumer, Bettina. (1988). „From Guha to Akasa: The Mystical Cave in the Vedic and Shaiva Traditions, in
the Ellora Caves: Sculpture and Architecture, Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannel and Shivaji Panikkar (ed.
all). New Delhi Books & Books. pp. 62-63.p. 77.
31
Berkson, Carmel. (1988). „Daśāvtāra Cave: Its Importance in the History of the World Art‟ in Ellora Caves:
Sculpture and Architecture, Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannal, Shivaji Pannikar, et. al. New Delhi: Books &
Books. p. 218.
32
Soar, Micaela, op. cit. p. 81.
33
Ibid, p. 82.
34
Ibid, p. 83.

208 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

proposed that the circumference which exists in Ellora was occupied by many
powerful dynasties.

Micaela Soar has stressed on the quasi mythical stories providing a paradigm
for worship at Ellora. This story according to soar, suggest lingam worship by
women at Ellora.35 Another medieval Marathi story about the queen Manikavati
and the king of Elapura was also discussed by Dr. M.K. Dhavalikar. Dhavalikar
has also written a stylistic analysis of Kailasha another interesting study.36

The Mansara, a text on architecture describes in details that all such cities have
special significance as they are based on cosmic geometry also called vastu-
purush mandala. It is generally square is shape. All the four corners of this
square represent the four cardinal directions of the world. Within this square
there is a circular design. This circular design represents the universe. Square
and circle these two geometrical signs also represent the celestial and domestic
fires. Fire in Vedas is omnipotent. It is the most vital source of energy. This
energy is both spiritual and temporal. It contains occult potentiality. So cosmic
city also consists of spiritual power which is subtle and sublime and it is
inherent in the sacred ecology of the cosmic town.37

Architectural Plan

After visiting Kailash, one could understand that the ground plan of the Kailaśa
approximates in area that of the Parthenon at Athens. Its height is one and half
times that of the same Greek masterpiece, some idea of the magnitude of the
undertaking may be conceived.38

In its plan and general arrangements the Kailaśa bears a certain resemblance to
the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal, even then a recent building, and one which
was no doubt at the time considered the last word in temple design. But
although the early Chalukyan example may have provided some inspiration.
35
Soar, Micaela. (1988). „The Tirtha at Ellora‟ in Ellora Caves: Sculptures and Architecture. RatanParimoo,
Deepak Kannel and Shivaji Panikkar (ed. all). New Delhi: Books & Books. pp. 80-85.
36
Dhavalikar, M. K., (1988). „Kailasa-A Structural Analysis‟ in Ellora Caves: Sculptures and Architecture.
Ratan Parimoo, (et. all). New Delhi: Books & Books. pp. 351-361.
37
Shukla, D. N. (2003). VastuShastra, vol. 1, Hindu Science of Architecture. New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 368-70.
38
Brown, Percy, op. cit., p. 73.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 209

The Kailash is more than twice its size, and is clearly an illustration of the
normal development of the Dravidian temple-type, adapted to conform to the
particular technique involved.39

Figure 90: Plan of Lower Section, Ellora Kailasa Temple (After Burgess)
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

39
Huntington, Susan L. (1985). The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain. New York and Tokyo:
Weather Hill. pp. 325-330.

210 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

 Figure 91: Plan of Upper Section Ellora Kailasa Temple (After Burgess)
Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

It is only logical that each individual temple at this formative period of the art,
should be a copy of its predecessor, but improved and enriched by the
accumulation of previous experience. Once the idea of the Kailash was
conceived, its production became a matter of time, patience, and skilled labour,
all of which appear to have been readily forthcoming. It was an expression of
exalted religious emotion. It is obvious, but even this condition could not have
made such a monument possible. It must had the patronage of a ruler with

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 211

unlimited resources and who was at the same time moved by the loftiest
ideals.40

Description of the Kailash Temple

Describing Kailash is the most difficult and stupendous job. The sheer
magnitude of the monolithic temple excavated and carved into gigantic form. Its
back cliff rising and falling into an immense colossal mass of stone.
Significantly, a maze of courtyard, galleries, porches, porticoes, a courtyard
surrounding the main temple. The mahamandapa, the dhwajastambhas, the
elephants and semi divinities and divinities are simply a creation of no ordinary
mortals. It is a most beautiful example of the blend of the north and south, both
at its best. It may be called as one of the well-planned and well-designed
temple, excavated with the support of the prosperous Rashtrakuta dynasty.41

Figure 92: Roof of the Rangamandapa has been Decorated with Moving Lions
Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

It rises to a rocky height of approximately 100 feet, its length about 145 feet
nearly 250 feet deep and 150 feet broad. While making notes on architectural
plan, Percy Brown had observed, "three trenches were made at right angles and

40
Burgess, James. (1972). Elura Cave Temples. Varanasi and Delhi: Indological Book House. pp. 29-32.
41
Ibid, p. 33.

212 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

cut down at right angles to the level of the base of the hill. First a mass of rock
200 feet long, 100 feet wide, 100 feet in height was isolated. Than the mass was
hammered into shape. Then the sculptors began their work.”42

Figure 93: Lion trampling elephant on the sukanasa

Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

Each part of the carved

details appears to have been
completely finished as the
work progressed downwards.
It might be obvious that the
entire plan of the temple was
conceived before starting the
excavation which can be Figure 94: Lion on the karankuta
Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi
postulated on the basis of its
dimensions, the location of the halls and pillars, staircases, the panels, the

42
Brown, Percy, op. cit., pp. 73-75.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 213

shikaras of the main and sub shrines, lotuses, elephants, lions on the roof, then
the karnakutas, the salas, the kapota etc., all were pre-conceived. The walls of
the main shrine that were carved with flying gandharvas above and other
deities. The main hall, then the huge adhisthana (plinth) with a vyalavari, the
jagati (tall flat course). The upama of the adhisthana (plinth) showing lions
attacking elephants at corners and finally the upapitha rising from the floor
level with a series recessed offsets.43

Figure 95: Adhisthana of the temple is supported by the elephants

Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

The work was commenced by cutting three mighty trenches in the solid
rock―two of them at right angles to the front of the rock. More than 90 yards in
length, and the third connecting their inner ends, over 50 yards long and 107
feet deep.44 A great mass of rock was left in front of the court to represent the
gopura of Dravidian temples which is here in two storeys. The lower one

43
Rajan, K. V. Soundara. (1988). The Ellora Monoliths. Delhi: Gian Publishing House. pp. 35-40.
44
Ibid, p. 41.

214 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

with rooms inside, and the exterior adorned with figures of Siva, Vishnu and
other Hindu pantheon.45

The gopura is pierced in the centre, by an entrance passage with rooms on each
side. Beyond this, a large sculpture of Lakshmi seated on lotuses with her
attendant elephants has been carved. The leaves of the lotuses contain some
letters and a date, probably of the 15th century CE. There have been inscriptions
on the bases of the pilasters on each side, which bear characters of the 8thcentury
CE.46
Gajalakshmi panel

Figure 96: Gajalakshmi Panel on the entrance porch below Nandimandapa © Kushal Parkash
Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

45
Ibid, p. 42.
46
Qureshi, Dulari. (2010). Rock-cut Temple of Western India. Delhi: Bhartiya Kala Prakashan. pp. 165-70.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 215

Right in front of the entrance gateway when one enters the gateway, the
magnificent panel of Gajalakshmi is carved below the Nandimandapa facing
west. Lakshmi is generally regarded as goddesses of fortune. Though the panel
has been mutilated, the deity of wealth and fortune is seated on a double lotus in
the middle of kshirsagar (Milk Ocean) from where she was born as a result of
churning of the ocean. Four elephants represent the four cardinal directions who
are pouring water on the deity47. Another panel is located opposite the entrance
passage leading to the Lankeshwara shrine on the northern side. She has been
mentioned in Rig Veda as a destroyer of the evil48.

Eta ena vyakaran khile ga vishthitaaiv I

Ramanta pranyan lakshmiryan papishta aneensham II (RV 10:71:2

As mentioned earlier, the Kailasha is a combination of the southern and

northern styles. It has, however, a strong Dravidian Complex with the following
components:49

(i) Gopuram or entrance gate-way

(ii) Nandi mandapa

(iii) The main vimana

(iv) The surrounding cloisters and

(v) An adjoining mandapa.

On the two sides of the courtyard (the north and the south) supplementary halls
are carved. In the northern courtyard is the Lankesvara shrine, and the shrine of
the river goddesses.50 These however may be later additions.

47
Deshpande, M. N.,“Kailasha: A Study in its Symbilism in the Light of Contemporary philosophical
Concepts and Tradition” in the Ellora Caves: Sculpture and Architecture, Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannel
and Shivaji Panikkar (ed. all), P.245.
48
Kapoor, Subodh, Indian Gods and Goddesses, pp. 50-51.
49
Ibid, p. 52.
50
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., pp. 85-92.

216 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

The entrance gateway is two storeyed and has a sala-sikhara. Over the upper
entrance is a rectangular griva and a wagon topped sikhara. The Nandi mandapa
is 25 feet square and stands on a highly decorative base. The plinth or adisthana
shows mouldings.

The lower mouldings, however, are not

properly finished. The plinth shows
pilasters with sculptured panels. Near the
floor the base rises in the series of
recessed offset. Above, in the central
space of the side, is a frieze of elephants
and lions. Above the plinth is frieze of
elephants and then the kapota. The kantha
of the plinth shows a number of mithuna
sculptures. The Nandi mandapa is
connected with the gate of the bridge. The
gate house is double storeyed with ample
Figure 97: Mithuna couple on the wall of
accommodation for the temple mandapa
Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies,
guardians.51 Gurgaon

The base of the vimana proper measures 164 feet from the east to west, and 109
feet from north to south. The adhisthana or plinth of the vimana is a solid mass
of rock and its impressive height lends grandeous to the entire structure. The
base greatly resembles the lower part of a chariot. The whole temple looks like a
chariot resting on the back of elephants.52

51
Ibid, p. 93.
52
Brown, Percy, op. cit. pp. 74-75.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 217

The vimana proper is approached by flights of steps from both the courtyards.
The flight of steps lead to a porch, the ceiling of which shows some interesting
painting. The oldest of these may be contemporaneous with the temple.53

River Goddesses Shrine

A shrine 23½ feet long by 9 feet deep and 11 feet high, with two pillars in front,
is just behind the northern elephant. The pillars have moulded bases, sixteen-
sided shafts, and massive capitals with a double bracket above. The floor is
approached by five steps, with an elephant's head and front feet on each side of
them. The rest of the podium is divided into three panels on each side,
containing small sculptures. 54

Figure 98: River Goddesses shrine

Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

The ends also had the heads of elephants. The facade was terminated by
gigantic dvarapalas with several arms and wearing high tiaras. The doorway of
the shrine is intricately decorated with geometrical patterns and human figures.
53
Ranade, P. V. (1980).Ellora Paintings. Aurangabad: Parimal Prakashan. pp. 12-18.
54
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., pp. 27-33.

218 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

On either side are female dwarapalikas. On the left hand side is the River
goddess Ganga, standing on a makara, and on the right Yamuna standing on a
tortoise.55

The other two lean slightly towards her-the one on the left standing on a lotus
flower, with creeping plants and birds among their leaves. To the right on a
tortoise (kurma), with creepers and water-plants behind. These two represent
Sarasvati and Yamuna respectively. The frieze of the facade has been divided
into seven panels. In the central panel three figures and in each of the others a
male and female have been shown seated together. Over these are some
mouldings. In front this of an unfinished cave is located above. It has a low rail
carved with water jars, separated by two little colonnades.56

Cloisters

The cloisters that surround the main temple are of great interest presenting as
they do through the medium of stone. The story of Shiva and other gods of the
Hindu pantheon. In the panel of the cloisters. The Hindu mythology springs into
life in all its glory. A plethora of Hindu gods full of life and energy depicting all
human emotions of love, hate, greed, anger, ecstasy.57

The demon Ravana sacrificing his heads to God Shiva or God Shiva himself
setting out in a chariot driven by Brahma to destroy the triple castles of the
Asuras. Vishnu pushing king Bali into the earth, or killing the demon
Hiranyakashyapa these and other sculptures fills the walls of the side cloisters.58

Some of the best panels are the Siva Kalyanasundaramurti. The graceful figure
of Parvati at the first touch of her Lord makes her blush coyly. One of the most
expressive panels is the powerful dancing pose of Shiva are some of the most

55
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., p. 103.
56
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 36-38.
57
Qureshi, Dulari, op. cit., pp. 160-165.
58
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., 172-175.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 219

memorable sculptures in these cloisters.59 The great saga of the past moves
before one's eyes and then one gets lost into it. The effect is overwhelming, as it
is full of strength, life, vigour and beauty. The architectural effect when the
visitor looks at the long rows of columns and the continuous series of sculptural
panels from one end of them its most fascinating.60

On the back wall is-1, Ganapati; 2, a

female with a child sitting on a wolf;
3, Indrani; 4, Parvati with a bull in
front of the seat, and a child destroyed;
5, Vaishnavi and child destroyed, with
Garuda below; 6, Kartikeyi, and child
crawling on the knee, with a peacock
holding a snake as a cognizance; 7,
a devi with trisula and a humped bull
below; 8, Sarasvati holding a rosary;
and 9, another Devi with four arms,
holding a shallow vessel.61

On the east wall are three female

seated figures. These are sometimes
Figure 99: Panel of Kalyansundarmurti Shiva
named Sivakali Bhadrakali, and Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts,
New Delhi
Mahakali. Each holding a chauri, but
without the nimbus and cognizance. They are separated from the others by a fat
dwarf who sits with his back to the three. Under the west end of the sacrificial
hall is a small low cave, the verandah of which is divided from the inner room
by an arch springing from two attached pillars. The inside has an altar for some

59
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., pp. 171-182.
60
Ibid, p. 183.
61
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 65-67.

220 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

idol. The rock on the right side of the great temple has been excavated in four
storeys, none of them quite finished.62

This corridor on the south side measures 118 feet in length. The wall is divided
by pilasters into twelve compartments, each containing a large sculpture as
follows:63
1. Annapurna, four-armed, holding a water pot, rosary, spike or bud, and
wearing her hair in the jata style.
2. Siva as Balaji who slew Indrajit, the son of Ravana, four-armed, with
club, discus or chakra, and conch; has a supplicant and a small female in
front of his club.
3. Vishnu as Krishna, four-armed, with the sankha and sword, holding the
seven-hooded snake Kaliya by the tail, and planting his foot on its breast.
4. Varaha, four-armed, with the chakra, sankha, and the snake under his foot,
raising Prithvi.
5. A four-armed Vishnu on Garuda. 6. Vishnu, six-armed, with a long sword,
club, shield, chakra, and sankha, in the Vamana or dwarf incarnation, with
his foot uplifted over the head of Bali, holding his pot of jewels.
7. A four-armed Vishnu as Krishna upholding the lintel of a compartment to
represent the base of a hill over the flocks of Vraj.
8. Sesha Narayana or Vishnu on the great snake, with Brahma on the lotus
springing from his navel, and five fat little figures below.
9. Narasimha, tearing out the entrails of his enemy.
10. A figure with three faces and four arms, trying to pull up the linga.
11. Siva, four-armed, with Nandi.
12. Ardhanariswar, four-armed, with Nandi.

62
Ibid, p. 68.
63
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 52-64.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 221

The sculptures from the west end of the twelve corresponding bays on the north
side (120 feet in length) are:64

1. Siva springing from the linga to protect Markandeya from Yama, the god
of death.

2. Siva and two worshippers, one of them a huntsman with a bow.

3. Siva and Parvati playing at chausar; below are Nandi and eleven gana.

4. Siva and Parvati, with Narada below playing on some wind instrument.

5. Siva, with Parvati above, her arms twined in Siya's; Ravana is below, but
not complete.

6. Rishi Muchhukunda, with two arms and a bag on his left shoulder.

7. Siva and Parvati seated, facing one another.

8. Siva, four-armed, with snake and rosary, and Nandi on the right.

9. Siva and Parvati seated, and Nandi below.

10. The same pair, with a linga altar between them, and Nandi below.

11. Siva with Parvati on his left knee, and a seated and a standing figure below.

12. A linga with nine heads round it, and a kneeling figure of Ravana
upholding the vedi, and cutting off his tenth head in devotion to Siva.65

The nineteen subjects occupying the compartments in the east corridor (189 feet
in length) are:66

1. Siva as Kala Bhairava, four-armed, with the trisila, and accompanied by

Parvati.
64
Burgess, Jas, op. cit. pp. 27-32.
65
Ibid, p. 33.
66
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 456-458.

222 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

2. A god stepping out from lotuses, with a small figure of a goddess holding
him by the finger.

3. Siva, four-armed, with the trisula, beside Parvati.

4. Siva, four-armed, with the trisula in one of the left hands,

and gandharvas above and other attendants below.

5. Siva with a long-shafted trisula dancing on a dwarf.

6. Chanda or Bhupala Bhairava, with a ribbon over his thighs, a trisula over
his left shoulder, a begging bowl in the left hand, and a small drum in the
right, with Parvati in front of him.

7. Siva, four-armed, holding a cobra, with Nandi on the right and Parvati on
the left.

8. Siva and Nandi.

9. Brahma, three-faced and four-armed, with the ascetic's water-pot and

rosary, and his sacred goose.

10. Siva with a cobra and Nandi.

11. Vishnu, four-armed, with sankh and lotus; also a worshipper with his hands
clasped.

12. Siva holding the trisula, with Nandi and a worshipper.

13. Siva, holding a snake, the Ganges flowing from his hair; Parvati is on his
left and an elephant on his right; above is Brahma, and overhead
a gandharva

14. Siva in a linga with Brahma and Varaha.

15. Siva with four-arms, damru, club, and bell.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 223

16. Siva and Parvati, with Nandi below.

17. Siva with six arms, going to war against Tripurasura; Brahma, armed
with trisula, club, bow, and quiver, drives him in the sun's chariot, with the
four Vedas as horses; Nandi is on the top of the club.

18. Virabhadra, six-armed, with damru, bowl, and trisula, holding up his
victim Ratnasura. He is accompanied by Parvati, Kali, a goblin, and a
vampire.

19. Siva holding a flower, with Parvati on his left, and Bhringi, his skeleton
attendant, waiting below. A door from the north corridor leads into a
continuation of it, 57 feet long. This is situated immediately under
Lankesvara, and the two front pillars are elegantly ornamented, but there
are no sculptures at the back.67
Mandapa

A mandapa, 26 feet square and two storeys in height. It has been carved in front
of the court. The lower storey of the mandapa is solid, and the upper one is
connected with the gopura and with the temple by bridges cut in the rock.
Figures of lions and fat dwarfs are placed on the roofs of the gopura, of the
Nandi mandapa, and of the great hall itself. They stand about 4 feet high, and
are executed in the same bold style as the figures of lions and elephants round
the base of the temple.68

The main hall on the first floor is a substantial dimensions measuring 57 by 55.
Sixteen beautifully carved pillars support the ceiling. Earlier these pillars and
plans have already been discussed. On the ceiling of the central hall is a panel
depicting Siva dancing the Lalitam.69

67
Ibid, p. 459.
68
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., pp. 94-97.
69
Qureshi, Dulari, op. cit., 168-70.

224 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

The entrance to the hall is to the left, in front of the Nandi. A low screen wall
connects the west line of pillars. The roof is low, and is supported by twenty-
seven massive pillars and corresponding pilasters, most of them richly carved
and of varied and appropriate design, but of later date than the central temple.70
The arrangement of the sixteen pillars in the centre is identical with that of the
greater temple. The central aisle and the central cross aisle are wider. The hall
has a more spacious appearance than the porch of the temple. The floor of the
central area is somewhat raised above the surrounding aisles.71

Antechamber: The vestibule of the shrine is at the east end of the hall. On the
left side wall of the antechamber is a big standing Nandi accompanied by
Ganesha.72 On the ceiling of the antechamber is a beautifully carved Annapurna,
standing on a lotus, with high jata head-dress. Brahma squats at her right elbow
and probably Vishnu is on her left. Gandharvas have been depicted on corners
of the sculpture.73 The north wall of the vestibule has the depiction of Siva and
Parvati. They are shown playing the chausur. On the south, both are on Nandi
couchant on a slab supported by four ganas, with a fifth at the end. Siva has a
child on his right knee and behind him are four attendants. 74 The dvarapalas on
each side of the shrine door is flanked by female dvarpalas. One of them is on
a makara, and the other on a tortoise. These female dvarpalas can be identified
as Ganga and Yamuna respectively. The shrine is a plain cell, 15 feet square
inside, with a large rosette on the roof.

The central fane is raised on a solid basement of rock 27 feet high. Under the
bridge connecting the temple with the mandapa are two large sculptures,-the
one on the west being Siva as Kala Bhairava in a state of frantic excitement. He

70
Ibid, p. 29.
71
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 56-64.
72
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 32-35.
73
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., pp. 162-66.
74
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 45-55.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 225

has been depicted with flaming eyes. The Saptamatras have been depicted on
his feet. On the east side, Siva is shown as Mahayogi.75

The whole of the temple was plastered over and painted, and hence its name
Rang Mahal or the painted palace. The painting was renewed again and again,
and some bits of old fresco-paintings of two or three successive coatings, still
remain on the roof of the porch of the upper temple.76

Figure 100: Dancing Shiva in Rangmandapa Figure 101: Pillar in the mandapa
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi
New Delhi

A door leads to the main hall of the temple. It is 57 side and 55 deep. There are
sixteen pillars, somewhat in the style of the four great central columns. The
door at each end of the cross aisle leads out into a side balcony with two richly
carved pillars in front. The massiveness of the sixteen great square pillars gives
a solidity and grandeur to the hall. These pillars represents the dynamism in the
history of Indian architecture.77

75
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 28-32.
76
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 450-52.
77
Brown, Percy, op. cit., p. 74-76.

226 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

These pillars are arranged in groups of four, one in each quarter, leaving a big
central nave and two huge procession paths. One from the door to the vestibule
which leads to the cellar and the other to the two side balconies. The whole
arrangement according to Dr. Gupta is that of a navarangamandapa. In this the
navaranga are as follows:78

(i) The central square

(ii) The space between the two groups of northern pillars

(iii) The space between the eastern pillars

(iv) The space between the southern pillars

(v) The space between the western pillars

(vi) The space between four north western pillars

(vii) The space between four north eastern pillars

(viii) The space between four south

eastern pillars

(ix) The space between four south

western pillars

Two doors on the eastern side of the

mahamandapa open into the open terrace
behind.

The door is guarded by gigantic

Saiva dvarapalas, leaning on heavy
maces. It has wide central and cross
aisles. The four massive square columns Figure 102: Naga-hooded figures
in each corner are supporting the roof. Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies,
Gurgaon

78
Qureshi, Dulari, op. cit., pp. 165-170.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 227

The four pillars round the central area are of one pattern, differing only in the
details of their sculpture. The remaining twelve are also of general type. 79

Among the details worth noting are the windows and panels. There are six
windows, two in front and two on each side, of which one on the south-east is very
much broken. Three of them are arabesques of very rich but entirely different
designs, and the other two are a combination of animal and vegetable forms.80
Rati: the goddess of sensuousness

In the next panel to the Mashishmardini Durga, Rati is depicted significantly

with Kamadev (Pradyumna)81. They are represented standing side by side
holding the sugar-cane stalk which represents the rasa- essence of life82. As per
her beauty and sensuality she is pictured here as a maiden who holds the power
to enchant the god of passion. When Shiva burnt her husband to ashes, it was
Rati, whose penance leads to the promise of Kamadeva's resurrection 83. Often,
this resurrection occurs when Kamadev is reborn as Pradyumna, the son of
Krishna. Another depiction of Rati with Kamadev can be observed along the
inside aspect of the front enclosure wall. Kamadeva is shown having an arrow
in his hand and Ikshukhanda has been depicted in between the twosome. Rati is
shown standing in abhanga pose84.

Uma/ Parvati

The earliest reference of Uma Himavati is found in the Kena Upnshad where
she looks to remove ignorance arisen due to egotism85. Hence, she appears a
goddess of knowledge.

79
Dhavalikar, M. K. (2003). Monumental Legacy: Ellora. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 53-59.
80
Ibid, p. 60.
81
Ibid, pp. 74-75.
82
Rajan, K. V. Soundra, op. cit., p.100
83
Ibid, p.101
84
Ibid, p. 102
85
Panikkar, Shivaji K., op. cit., p. 23.

228 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

A rare iconic sculpture of Parvati is depicted along the gateway complex
(gopura dvara) which is surmounted by Shala shikhara) where she becomes part
of the triad. In the niche Shiva is shown carrying the linga on his shoulders and
Brahma and Vishnu are depicted in the lateral part of Shala Shikhra86.

Along the inside look of front enclosure wall, Parvati is depicted in Uma-sahita
Shiva panel. She is depicted seated in ardhaprayanka pose. In the same panel,
the female seated cross-legged in a mood of indecision and male is with is legs
placed forward and arms in protestation, seemingly pulling the female to make
the next move. The upper torso of the female is plain. This incident corresponds
to the narrative that of Uma and garrulous Brahmachari form taken by Shiva
took to test Uma87.
Mahishasurmardini Durga:

After holy bath at river goddess shrine, the sculpted

panel of Durga as Mahishasurmardini can be
noticed in the south-west corner of the northern
flank of the courtyard. Durga is depicted here as a
dynamic force of Prakriti (nature) as a destroyer of
the evil88. In the panel Durga is shown trampling
Mahishasur which is represented both with the
animal head as well as the human body emerging of
the neck of the human form of the demon89. On

both sides, one each is depicted fighting with Figure 103: Mahisasurmardini ©
Archaeological Survey of India
Durga. It may be a synoptic view showing all the Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

three demon figures probably being the

86
Deshpande, M. N., op. cit., p. 242.
87
Rajan, K. V. Sounda, op. cit., p. 103.
88
Ibid, p. 243.
89
Soundara Rajan, K. V., op. cit., pp. 95-96.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 229

Mahishasur90. The appearance of Durga is quite interesting. She appears or
made to appear by Vishnu and Shiva at the request of Brahma91. She appears
from the fire came out as an anger from the mouth of Vishnu and Shiva with
inexpressible beauty92. A beautiful and vigorous representation of
Mahishasurmardini Durga can also be seen on the inner face of the front
enclosure wall. Durga is shown seated on the lion is an ardhapryankasana pose
in fight with Mahishasur. She is holding a bow in one of her hands with the
other hand, she is discharging the arrows. The bend of the bow denotes the full
stretch in discharge of the arrows. The remaining of her eight arms carries
different weapons like Sula (trident), Khadaga (sword) and Khetak (shield)93.

The front of the mandapa, to the north of the entrance, has a panel with Siva,
four-armed, standing on the back of a kneeling figure, with Parvati by his side.
He holds with one of his hands a long lock of hair out of the top of his head-
dress.94

Ravananugrahmurti

The sculptures of the lofty basement of the

temple commence from behind these bas-
reliefs, and continue in an unbroken line, but
not on the south side, which had a bridge,
since fallen down, from the balcony of the
temple to a cave in the scarp. Beneath this is a
fine sculpture of Ravana under Kailaśa.95

Figure 104: Panel of Ravana Shaking

Kailash on the southern side of the porch
90
Ibid, p. 97. Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre
91
Kapoor, Subodh pp. 74-75. for the Arts, New Delhi
92
Ibid, p. 74-75.
93
Rajan, K. V. Soundra op. cit., p. 99.
94
Huntington, Susan L., pp. 342-345.
95
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., p. 107.

230 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

The Ravana-anugrahmurti panel represents the majestic three dimensional
sculpture. In the panel, the upper half depicts Parvati restlessly clutches Shiva 96.
Ravana is depicted multi-armed who is shaking the Mount Kailasha where
Shiva is shown seated in repose, and the pride of Ravana is trampled by just the
pressure of the toe of Shiva. Parvati represents the aristocratic strain of the
feminine is easily observable. There are also many others panel in the eastern
and northern cloister wall representing various narratives such as- Shiva rescued
from the lotus pond, Shiva as a mendicant, Shiva playing Chaupad game with
Parvati, Vinadhara Shiva and Shiva seated with Parvati.
Gangadhra Shiva Panel

The Gangadhara panel on the northerly

side of the mandapa (porch) represents
Shiva, stands one side of the dialog
box on the back of Ghana (attendant)
in abhanga pose. Parvati is depicted
standing cross-legged resting on
lotuses and right arm is holding the left
arm of Shiva. Here the artisan very
nicely expressed the mutual
understanding of the fact that the
origin of the Ganga and acceptance by
Shiva shows rivalry in her territory.
The bashful, aristocratically Parvati
appears again in a well curved Figure 105: Gangadhar Shiva panel © Kushal Parkash
tribhanga pose in Gangadharashiva Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

panel. Heinrich Zimmer97 says „The Perfect serenity and timeless harmony of
the couple is emphasized in this relief by their response to an attempt of a
demon to shake their Olympus from below.’ In the antrala (vestibule), on the

96
Datta, Bimal Kumar Introduction to Indian Art, p. 70.
97
Deshpande, M. N., op. cit., p. 249.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 231

left, Shiva and Parvati are shown in akshakrida, the eternal game of creation
from the union of Purusha and Prakriti. And on the right side is Uma-sahita
Skandamurti Shiva98. Near the Gangadhara Shiva panel facing south is shown
further in the corner panel of Ardhanarishwara (an androgynous form of Shiva).
It exhibits the feminine outline on the left side of the body also including left
part of the head. Though maximum parts of hands, whole of the head and legs
are lost. The remaining part such as the shoulder of Shiva and curved shoulder
of Uma and smoothly rounded breast along with a hand resting on the well-
formed hips are a singular representation of Purusha and Prakriti. The fertility
aspect of the nature is well represented here. It seems an attempt of making a
conciliation between the Shiva and Shakti cults signifying the fusion of the two
to make a composite cult.99

Privardevata Shrine

On three sides of the terrace and at the two back corners, there are five sub-
shrines. These are mounted over prominent projections of the tall base and have
their own adhisthana. The terrace itself forms the base of the spire, which rises
to a height of 96 feet from the court below. Below, between pilasters are a
number of Shiva and Vishnu panels. Above these are some interesting flying
figures carved in various postures of front, back and sides. Over these begin the
horizontal mouldings of the sikhara.100

Moulding on adhistahna

A door in each of the back corners of the hall leads to the terrace behind, and a
wide path goes round the outside of the shrine, which forms the base of
the sikhara or spire. The pradakshina for circumambulation is provided for by
the doors in the east wall leading on to the terrace, on which are also five small
shrines. These have little carving on their walls, beyond the dvarapalas at the

98
M. N. Deshpande, op. cit., p. 245.
99
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 45-55.
100
Ibid, p. 58.

232 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

door; and there are altars in all of them for images, but the shrine on the south
side has also a bench round the back and ends.101

In an advanced recess in the corner of the temple facing the shrine in the north
side is an image of Ganapati. On the facade above is a figure with its face to the
wall. The image in the corresponding recess on the south-west of the temple is
perhaps Vishnu.102

The base is in panels, six on each side and five on the back. These panels
contain the various forms of Shiva, Durga, and Vishnu, standing on fat dwarfs
and accompanied by other attendants. At the upper corners of the panels are
conventionalised figures of peacocks with long tails. A Devi is shown seated
cross-legged over each panel. The wall above contains flying figures, and over
them are the horizontal mouldings of the sikhara.103

Gopura and Nandi Shrine

The entrance of the hall is connected by a bridge outside the porch, to a pavilion
with four doors and a broken Nandi. Several chambers are located to the west,
over the entrance porch. There is access to the roof of the small chambers that
form the screen in front of the court. The screen is covered with mythological
sculptures in recessed panels, and is crowned on the outer side by a defended
parapet.104 Each parapet has been carved with three balls, and below them is a
string of small figures in high relief, on foot, on horseback, in carts and fighting.
There are twenty-five large panels. The south of the screen is a rock-cut cistern
22 feet by 19 feet. On each side of the entrance to the porch is a sitting figure
with one foot up. On the front of the inner jamb on each side a female with
umbrella and chauri overhead has been depicted. She is accompanied by a small
attendant.105

101
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 455-65
102
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., pp. 32-34.
103
Ibid, p. 35.
104
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 34-38.
105
Ibid, p. 39.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 233

Dwarf figures have been carved blowing sankhs over the gopura. The passage
of gopura has been decorated with many sculptures. On the outer side of the
north wall is the large Mahishasurmardini. The return wall of the court is
embellished with figures. To the north of this is an unfinished cave in the
screen, with four short stout pillars having thick compressed cushion-shaped
capitals. There are several sculptures on the south side of the entrance and partly
on the west wall. Next to this is an unfinished excavation in the south end of the
screen, apparently intended for a small open room or shrine.106

Lankeshwara shrine

An important part of the Kailasha temple is the Lankesvara shrine. It has been
excavated on the northern side of it. It can be approached by a flight of steps in
the left corridor. On ascending the steps in imposing temple is seen. The mere
sight of the shrine overwhelms the visitor. A front corridor runs east and west.
Right in front of the small Nandi shrine carved in the back wall is the shrine
proper. The Nandi is seated on an elevated platform looking majestic.107

The temple is raised on a platform with is beautiful polished floor. It is

surrounded on two sides by an imposing plinth. The plinth has been carved with
a number of couples to enhance the structure extremely beautiful. The size of
123 feet deep and 60 feet wide size of raised platform gives an imposing
architectural effect. The plinth, the floor and the pillars become decorative
elements to be added.108

106
Dhavalikar, M. K., p. cit., pp. 64-65.
107
Dhavalikar, op. cit., pp. 67-68.
108
Ibid, 69.

234 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

Dhwajastambhas

On two sides of the Nandi shrine, of the

first floor in the two courtyards, are two
huge elephants and two
dhwajastambhas. This gave an air of
majesty to the entire temple. The
elephants are life size. The
dhwajastambhas are 45 feet high. They
are perfect pieces of art and lend great
dignity to the temple. The trisula which
once decorated the capitals of these
pillars is gone.109

The pillars are of the Dravidian order

the characteristics of which are cushion
member over a constricted neck. A
development of this combination
produced the Dravidian order of which
these monolithic columns are an
interpretation, the constricted neck
having been transformed into that
sloping shape below the cushion cap a
contraction of the outline which is
unmistakable.110

On either side of the main temple on the

exterior wall behind the
dhwajastambhas are two interesting
Figure 106: Dhvjasatambha, Kailasa Temple,
panels of scenes from Mahabharata and Ellora (After Burgess)
Ramayana. 111 Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

109
Brown, Percy, op. cit., pp. 73-75.
110
Dhavlikar, M. K., op. cit. pp. 56.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 235

Panels of Ramayana and Mahabharata

On the northern wall of the sabha-mandapa has been carved with the scenes
from Mahabharata. These panels are in seven rows. The lower two rows depict
the childhood exploits of Krishna and the above five rows scenes of Arjuna's
penance, the Kirata-Arjuna fight, and episodes from the Mahabharata war.

Figure 107: A panel depicting Scenes from Ramayna on the southern side of the porch
Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

The Ramayana panel in the southern wall of the sabha-mandapa is portrayed a

number of scenes again in seven rows. The scenes of Rama's departure from
Ayodhya, Bharata trying to persuade him to return.112 In continuation, the forest
scenes of Shurpanakha, depiction of abduction of Sita by Ravana. Rama
meeting Hanumana, Hanumana crossing the ocean to reach Lanka, the
Ashokavana, the scene in the court of Ravana, and the last row the monkey
army building a bridge of stones to reach Lanka.113

111
Ibid, 57.
112
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 32-33.
113
Ibid, 34.

236 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

Sacrificial Hall (Yajnashala)

A cave is below, under the scarp on the south side, and measures 37 feet by 15
feet. It is consist of two square pillars and pilasters in front. Each pillar has a tall
female warder with hair hanging in loose folds towards her left shoulder. There
are two dwarf attendants behind and the pillar is a low square pedestal.114

The mothers of creation are sculptured round the three inner sides of this
sacrificial hall. The first being Waghesvari is on the west. She has been depicted
four-armed, holding a trisula, and with the tiger under her feet. The second is a
somewhat similar figure. The third is Kala, a grinning skeleton, with Kali and
another skeleton companion behind. Kala has been adorned with a cobra girdle
and necklace. He is shown seated on two dying men, and a wolf gnaws the leg
of one.115

Second Storey

The veranda of the second storey is 61 feet by 22 feet, inclusive of the two
pillars in front, and leads into a dark hall 55 feet by 34 feet, with four heavy
plain pillars. A staircase at the west end of the veranda leads to a third storey. It
is almost identical in dimensions and arrangements, and with a similar veranda
and hall. The provision of sunlight has been provided by a door and two
windows.116

The fronts of the second and third storeys are protected by thick eaves. These
are quadrantal on the outer surface and the inner sides carved in imitation of
wooden ribs. It a bears a rafter running horizontally through them. In the third
storey, the four pillars which support the roof are connected by something like
arches. The roof of the area within the pillars is considerably raised by a deep
cornice.117

114
Ibid, p. 66.
115
Ibid, p. 67.
116
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 452-459.
117
Ibid, p. 460.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 237

The roof is similarly elevated by a double architrave surrounding it. The pillars
are about three diameters in height, and this proportion is suited for rock-cut
architecture than any other that has been adopted in India. They have bold
capitals and brackets. The inner side of each of the pillars on the south face is
connected by a low screen. The western entrance is adorned with sculpture.118

The right side of the entrance to the pradakshina has Siva and Parvati, with
Ravana below, and a maid running off. The same gods are in the north entrance
playing at chausar. A tree is behind them, and the Nandi and gana are shown
below. A female is on each side of the shrine, one standing on a makara, and
the other on a tortoise. The salunkha inside the shrine has been destroyed.119

The back wall has a grotesque Trimurti, or Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva in very
low relief, each four-armed. Brahma has three faces, and the goose as
his vahana or vehicle and Sarasvati his consort are by the side of him. The
central figure is Siva holding up his trisula. A snake with Nandi and an
attendant are by his side. The third is Vishnu, with the discus and a great club,
attended by a male and a female.120

Saptamatrikas:

Saptamatrika worship probably symbolically began as early as the Harappan

period. However, Saptmatrikas takes its final form in the Puranic period121.
They have significantly been mentioned in classical Sanskrit literature such as

118
Ibid, p. 461.
119
Ibid, p. 76.
120
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 341-48.
121
MCP Srivastava, op. cit., p. 201.

238 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

Daridra Charudatta by Bhasa, Mrichhakatka of Shudraka, Harshcharita and
Kadambari of Banabhatta.122

The chapel of Saptamtrikas is located on the south west corner of the temple
complex. The Puranas as well as the epics furnishes enough material.
Saptamatrakas are the Shaivite goddess because they are flanked the Shaiva
deities Ganesha and Virabhadra. The seven mother-goddesses are: Brahmi holds
a rosary and a water pot, 2. Maheshwari is seated on a bull, holds a trident, and
wears serpent bracelet and adorned with the crescent moon, 3. Kumari: created
from Karttikeya, rides a peacock and holds a spear, 4. Vaishnavi: is seated on
Garuda and holds a conch, wheel, mace, bow and sword, 5. Varahi: has a boar
from 6. Narsimhi is lion-woman, 7. Aindri: holds a thunderbolt and is seated on
a charging elephant123. These divinities consist of six Deva Shaktis and one
Devi Shakti124. In each of these Matrikas, the attributes of male deities can
easily be noticed. The Matrikas are armed with the same weapons as their
respective gods and also have the same mounts.125

It has been mentioned in folk narratives that after defeating the demons they
resume back into the great goddess Devi. The associated myth states that male
gods create Shaktis or female counterparts of themselves to help the Devi on the
battlefields. Saptmatrikas have significantly been mentioned in classical
Sanskrit literature such as Daridra Charudatta by Bhasa, Mrichhakatka of
Shudraka, Harshcharita and Kadambari of Banabhatta.126

122
Shivaji K. Panikkar, op. cit., pp. 22-23.
123
Margaret Stutley, The illustrated Dictionary of Hindu Iconography, p. 124.
124
Ibid, p. 170.
125
Margaret Stutley, op. cit., p. 124.
126
Shivaji K. Panikkar, op. cit., pp. 22-23.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 239

 Figure 108: Saptamtrikas chamber © Archaeological Survey of India
Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

Hypothetical method of carving of Kailash Temple

Several scholars had given various suggestions including Dhavalikar who had
specifically dealt with his view of the modus operandi, which opts for a facial
attack in stepped phases, to put it briefly. It is inevitable that the excavation of
the magnitude of the 'Kailash' should evoke not merely wonder and confusion
but also attempts at the possible reconstruction of the technique and
methodology. However, Soundara Rajan127 has pointed the fact that “temple
building had certainly revealed certain first principles of architecture, of its
own which could not but have been brought into play in such enlarged
endeavour, through the knowledge of the sthapati and his knowledgeable
associates.” The manifested familiarity with the measureable geometric and
symmetric principles of massing, besides the necessary principles of down-
cutting are evident the process of carving.128

127
Rajan, Soundara K. V., op. cit., pp. 192-93.
128
Brown, Percy, op. cit., p. 74.

240 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

It is can be surmised from the part of the sculpted architecture and the uniform
common level that firstly the rock should have been cut down in three parts.
These parts contain the primary part of the Vimana up to the porch of the
sabhamandapa and the nandimandapa, and the secondary part of the entrance
with its dvara-sala tower.129

Courtesy: Rajan, K.V. Soundra. (1988). The Ellora Monoliths

129
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., pp. 27-28.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 241

It is also inherent from the part of the sculpted architecture and the uniform
common level to which the primary part, of the Vimana upto the porch of the
sabhamamndapa and the isolated nandimandapa, and the secondary part of the
entrance with its dvara-sala tower, that they should have been separated into
three successive blocks before setting about shaping them into the required
individual organic and traditional temple parts, with a solid surbase in the case
of the main first phase and with hollow under-passages for the remaining axial
parts.130

In the first step, either a possible eroded rain gully cutting or on deliberately
provided from the front. The excavation was conducted 300 feet by 175 feet to
create an isolated piece of 200 feet by 100 feet. On either flank for access to the
transportation of men and materials. It should have been worked out to the level
at which the architects and artisans had to work for a reasonably long first
phase. At the upper most surface of the hill also would have been cut out. The
corresponding deep shaft which would broadly have been as wide as the outer
circumambulatory open court between the cloister and the main complex should
also have been cut at the same time.131

Further, towards the west, a ramp cum steps would have been cut down to the
outer front entrance. On that area, the scarp would have been vertically cut and
the base part of the front hill eliminated to form an open ground level-front
court to the complex. Thus, a marginal shaft all around the intended monolithic
design area would have been provided. It might have been done precisely and
effectively reduced to the ultimate layout.132

The actual work of the cutting down might not have been undertaken at the
same time. Indeed the 'fixed points' of each solid mass required for the proposed
130
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., pp. 27-28.
131
Mahajan, Malti. (2004). A gate to Ancient Indian Architecture. Delhi: Sharada Publishing House. pp. 92-93.
132
Fergusson, James & Burgess James, op. cit., pp. 452-456.

242 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

design of the temple. It would have done by taking a series of datum lines on
the hill top. After it had been cleared of its defects and slopes in the area which
would verily be the architectural zone. This process would be based on the same
principles as of a structural temple, horizontally and vertically for the required
basal plinth area, which would have marked out on the cleared hill slope.133

This downward cutting thereafter would also have been tala by tala and to start
with for executing the sikhara, griva and the entablature of the uppermost tala
proposed. Axially, this work would go for the main vimana separately and the
sabhamandapa with its triple projecting porches. Similarly separately for the
nandi mandapa block and the Dvara gopura roof level parts. However, all the
datum lines fixed in a series and work simultaneously overseen for proper level
and component correlations.134

Figure 109: View from South West, Kailash Temple Ellora

Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi

133
Mahajan, Malti, op. cit., pp. 92-94.
134
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., 192-93.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 243

It means that the level of the upper axial series from the main shrine to the
gopura roof level was kept at a firm horizontal datum. Almost until this entire
work was completed. For this the horizontal level would place the projecting
porches or the sambhamandapa would have been at the same plan as the
Lankesvara cave temple on the northern flank (upper level) of Kailaśa complex.
Similarly the cornice and vedi of the ground floor of the triple storeyed cave on
the southern flank, however been conceived of towards the later stage of
completion of the monolith.135

The earlier of these two would have involved only the main circumambulation
sanctum, its linga and Mahesa panel on the sanctum rear wall. The vestibule
ends one bay more into a south-facing veranda façade. It faces possibly into an
access that had been taken out from the western part of the hill. At one time of
the main temple down-cutting, it would have been linked with the Lankesvara
shrine. Most possibly, in the same way as we find a link bridge vestiges on the
south side of the projecting porch.136 At that stage, the façade of the main
Kailash complex, fixing out the boundary wall and entrance point would have
been organized so that the clear axial orientation of the temple complex could
be constantly before the eye
of the artisans.137

It is relevant at this juncture

to note that:138 (a) in the
entire range of Rashtrakuta
cave temples or others at
Ellora, Lankesvara alone
shows a cella with
Courtesy: Rajan, K.V. Soundra. (1988). The Ellora Monoliths
135
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 32-36.
136
Ibid, p. 37.
137
Brown, Percy, op. cit., pp. 74-75.
138
Ibid, p. 76.

244 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

circumambulation, all the others being nirandhara; (b) similarly, in no
Rashtrakuta creations at Ellora, a square linga pitha has been seen, all the
others being of circular type; (c) the innermost wall flank leading from the
antarala of Lankesvara towards the edge of the outer prakara court pit of
Kailaśa, contains a large Tandava Siva panel. It is distinctively different in style
from all the rest of the inner northern wall panels flanking the sabhamandapa of
the present Lankesvara layout. It can be said coeval in style in the latter with the
inner pillars vedi carvings. The nandi also at the western end in a scooped
chamber.139

The shrine would have then been nirandhara, the lingapitha circular if the main
Lankesvara cave had been carved
in one continuous effort much
later to the completion of the
Kailaśa monolithic. All the above
features, (a) to (c) would not have
obtained or been even stylistically
relevant. It would not have had
the Mahesa panel. Also, the
carvings would have all been of
the same type as the tale carvings
around Kailash complex.140

The Siva tandava mentioned is

indeed equivalent in style to the
Narasimha panel on the outer
prakara wall of Kailaśa entrance
Figure 110: Upper view from south west
exterior. It shows that this single Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

139
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., pp. 192-93.
140
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James op. cit., pp. 452-58.

Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora 245

Siva Tandava panel on the edge of the floor had been executed when the main
temple cutting had been operating in that level, in the porch of the
sabhamandapa. Hence, it was part of the central stage of Kailaśa execution and
the garbhagriha and antarala of Lankesvara had then been pre-existing.141

All these factors are sufficient to draw the inference that the main Lankesvara
cella and antarala were early Rashtrakuta or perhaps even pre-Rashtrakuta. The
rest of Lankesvara might have been contingent upon the completed Kailaśa
complex. It can be deduced that the stairway, the nandi mandapa and the
sabhamandapa were all of a piece in a much later addition. On the other hand,
the fact that the cloister showing some remarkable range of ritual iconography.
It has been commenced from the very point of the ground floor periphery where
the Lankesvara cave sanctum above is located, showing that the latter was pre-
existing.142

Once the work of the main temple had been completed at the upper level
horizontal plan held at the axial line. The rest of the part would have
commenced of down-cutting further to the level of the present courtyard pit.
While cutting the massive sub-base or upapitha up to the point of the main
upper level porch, the ground floor level below the nandi mandapa and the
Dvara gopura have been carved below the lower than the prakara court.143

The under passages for the above two axial units were designed. It could also
provide solid north-south screen walls for display of the magnificent
Gajalakshmi panel. The provision of the covered flights of steps one on the
north and south leading to the porch of upper entrance. Its side walls were
ultimately to be embellished with the narrative story-telling rows of miniature
panels from Ramayana and Mahabharata.144

141
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., pp. 28-36.
142
Brown, Percy, op. cit., pp. 73-75.
143
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 32-36.
144
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., 193-94.

246 Kailash Temple: Culmination of Monolithic Architecture at Ellora

Thus, the main upper complex of temple parts was cut down and finished in
three stages:

Firstly, for the main vimana proper which was designed as an astha-parivara
scheme. After that the sabhamandapa with its three porch projections and
subsequently for the nandi mandapa and the dvara gopura. It must have been
commenced and mostly carried out during the time of Krishna I, uncle of
Dantidurga. Most probably was completed by the time of Govinda in the 9th
century AD.145 Hence, it can be surmised that, the Kailash monolithic complex
was most plausibly cut downwards. It was certainly not a stepped progression
but the execution was a fully pre-mediated strategy of action by architects.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 247
 Chapter-7

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later

Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and
Kazhugumalai
The founder of Jainism, Mahavira (599 BCE-527 BCE) was a senior

contemporary of Buddha. He was one of the 24 Tirthankaras, among whom

Parshvanarh (23rd Tirthankara), who lived 350 years before Mahavira, is also

said to be a historical personage. Among the 24 Tirthankaras, the first 22 are

supposed to be mythical. Rishabha or Adinath and Parshvanath are the most

important of the Tirthankaras, and so also is Shantinath to a lesser extent. 1

The image of Mahavira, is often represented by the Digambaras. He and

Parasvanath are frequently figured in Digambara cave sculpture, both naked.

They are depicted with creeping plants growing over their limbs but

Parasvanath has also a polysepalous snake overshadowing him with its hoods.2

The Jain Caves at Ellora occupy the northern spur of the hill. They consist of

five caves of various ages, dating probably from the 8th to the 13th century.3

There are five Jaina caves from cave no. 30 to 34.

1
Dhavalikar, M. K. (2003). Monumental Legacy: Ellora. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 86-87.
2
Huntington, Susan L. (1985). The Art of Ancient India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain. New York and Tokyo:
Weather Hill. pp. 31-32.
3
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., p. 87.

248 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
 Cave 30: Chhota Kailash

Figure 111: A View of Chhota Kailash

Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

The Chhota Kailasa is the most southerly cave of the Jaina group. It is a free
standing monolithic shrine, in imitation, on a small scale, of the great
Brahmanical temple of Kailasa. The hall is 36 feet 4 inches square, and has
sixteen columns arranged in four groups. The porch in front is 10 feet square,
and the shrine at the back, 14½ feet by 11¼ feet.4 The whole temple is situated
in a pit, 80 feet by 130 feet, with a small excavation in each side. The exterior of
the shrine is in the Dravidian style. It is only single storey but the spire is low
and unfinished. It is quite possible that this and the larger Kailasa are not far
distant in date.5

The gopura is not well decorated. On the interior of the side walls sculptures of
Tirthankaras have been carved. The figure of the twelve-armed Chakreshvari,
the yakshi of Rishabhanath has become more interesting. She holds a lotus, a

4
Burgess, Jas. (1883). Report on Elura Cave Temples and The Brahmanical and Jaina Caves in Western India.
London: Trubner & Co. and Ludgate Hill. pp. 26-27.
5
Dhavalikar, M. K. Dhavalikar, op. cit., p. 88.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 249
discus, a conch, a mace and even a sword, and wears elaborate jewellery. Her
mount, an eagle, is seen below her seat. There are two dancing figures of yaksha
Sourandhendra over the portico. A small image of Mahavira with his attendants
have been decorated above. There is another six-armed yaksha on the left of the
portico. A loose sculpture of a female in the portico is dated Saka 1169 (1247
CE), which evidently is much later than its date.6 There are traces of paintings
on the ceiling. In the hall are several images of Tirthankaras. They are also
carved on the entrance gateway.

Cave 31

Cave 31 is an unfinished
cave. Its porch is hewn
out entirely on three
sides. It stands in a deep
excavated pit. The pillars
have been carefully
chiselled, and have
compressed cushion
capitals. The porch stand
Figure 112: Entrance of the cave 31
on a screen supported by
Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies,
elephants, and are Gurgaon

ornamented with water jars in compartments.7

Cave 32: Indra Sabha

Cave 32 or sometimes known as 33. It is really a group of excavations,

consisting of two caves with double storeys and a single-storeyed cave, with
wings and subordinate chapels. The first is the Indra Sabha proper, and the
second is the Jagannath Sabha. Cave 32 is known as Indra Sabha. The court of
6
Ibid, p. 89.
7
Ibid, p. 90.

250 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
the cave is entered by a screen wall facing the south. On the-outside of this, to
the east, is a shrine 19 feet by 13 feet, with two pillars in front and two more at
the back. The pillars are square below, and octagonal above, including the
capitals.8

Figure 113: Frontal porch of the cave

Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

The sculptures on the walls represent Parasvanath's temptation on the north end.
In this panel a nude figure of the saint is overshadowed by a seven-hooded
snake. A female attendant, with a snake-hood, holds a chhatri (umbrella) over
him. On each side are Hindu divinities, and below are two Naga maidens. A
male figure is above riding on a buffalo, with gandharvas and another figure is
blowing a conch.9

The demon Kamatha has been depicted riding on a lion to the right of the
sculpture and below him are two worshippers. On the south end, the tapas or
asceticism of Gautama Rishi has been depicted. A creeper is twining round his

8
Burgess, James. (1972). Elura Cave Temples. Varanasi and Delhi: Indological Book House. pp. 48-49.
9
Ibid, p. 50.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 251
 limbs. He is surrounded by female attendants and worshippers. The shrine
contains Mahavira, and nude figures like Buddha in the meditative attitude, with
a drummer and other musicians over their heads.10
On the back wall is Indra on an
elephant with two attendants. He is
shown seated under a tree with parrots
in it and Indrani to the right. A screen
wall left in the rock, terminates the
court on the south side. It is pierced
with a doorway with a Dravidian roof.
This court is 56 feet by 48 feet. A large
elephant on a pedestal is inside on the
right. A fine monolithic column, 27
feet 4 inches high, with a quadruple
image on the top is on the left. In the
centre of the court, a pavilion 8 feet 5
inches square inside, is over a
quadruple image of Mahavira.11
Figure 114: Mahavira’s sculpture in the shrine
It has been raised eight steps above the Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts,
New Delhi
level of the court. It has a door on each side with ascents only from the north
and south sides. Each door has two advanced pillars. The throne of the image is
supported by a wheel and lions. The style and details of the pavilion and the
gateway leading into the court are Dravidian.12 These caves were probably
made after the decadence of the Rathod dynasty in the ninth or tenth century
CE. The Rashtrakuta kingdom seems to have been divided in the time of

10
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James. (1969). The Cave Temples of India. Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint
Corporation. pp. 495-498.
11
Ibid, p. 499.
12
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 49.

252 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
Govinda III. It is most probable, when his younger brother, Indra, established a
separate kingdom in Gujarat, about the end of the eighth century CE.13

Exclusive of the veranda, the lower hall must have been intended to be about 72
feet wide by 56 feet deep. Beyond this, there are two free standing pillars, and
two in front of the vestibule to the shrine. The vestibule is 40 feet wide and 15
feet deep, inclusive of the pillars. The shrine alone has been completed, and is
17½ feet wide and 15 feet deep. It is sculptured much like the rest, with
Parasvanath on the right and Gautama on the left. Indra and Ambika at the back,
and Mahavira on a lion throne in the shrine, with the wheel or chakra in front.14

The stair lands in the verandah of the grand hall. The verandah is 54 feet long
by 10 feet wide by 14 feet 6 inches high. The hall is 55 feet deep and 78 feet
wide, and contains some fragments of painting on the roof. The veranda is
supported in front by two pillars of the "broken square"15 pattern, with their
pilasters connected by a low wall.16

It is divided from the hall by two other pillars, having boldly moulded square
bases, and sixteen-sided, shafts and capitals, with a low parapet wall between,
from the back of the verandah. The inside of the hall has twelve pillars of five
different patterns, resembling those in the Lankesvara cave.

In each end of the verandah is a colossal image, the male in the west, and the
female in the east, usually known as Indra and Indrani. The former being seated
on an elephant and the latter on a lion, with a tree behind the head of each, and
small figures of attendants beside them.17

13
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 341-345.
14
Fergusson, James & Burgess James, op. cit., pp. 497-98.
15
The pattern is so called due carving on main face of the pillar.
16
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 37-38.
17
Bhattacharya, B. C. (1939). The Jaina Iconography. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass. pp. 12-18.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 253
 Figure 115: Indra sitting on an Figure 116: Indrani sitting on a
elephant lion
Courtesy: Archaeological Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy,
Survey of India, New Delhi New Delhi

Behind each of these figures, but entered from the side aisles of the hall, is a
small room about 9 feet by 11 feet, by which access is obtained to the shrine on
each side of the front area. The walls of the sides and back aisles are divided
into compartments with Tirthankaras sculptures. The centre space on each end
has a large Jina seated cross-legged on a simhasana. The space on either side of
the shrine door is devoted to Parasvanath and Gomatesvara. 18 The others have
two Mahaviras each. They are shown seated under different trees, except that
between the trees is a figure holding up a garland. Above him is another
blowing the conch, while at the outer sides are gandharvas.19 A tall nude

18
Gosh, A. (Ed). (1974). Jaina Art and Architecture. New Delhi: Bhartiya Jnanpith. pp. 75-86.
19
Mahajan, Malti. (2004). A gate to Ancient Indian Architecture. Delhi: Sharada Publishing House. pp. 92- 94.

254 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
 guardian is on the pilaster on each side of the shrine door, and a squatting
Mahavira is on the pilaster next to it. The door is richly ornamented, and has a
mass of carving over and around it. Conspicuously, there are two slender
advanced pillars, called damru or the drum of the idol, because they resound
when beaten. The shrine is 12 feet 3 inches high, and is occupied with
Mahavira. A quadruple image was in a sort of salunkha in the centre of the great
hall. An immense lotus is on a square slab on the roof over it. It has been
provided with holes in the four corners and centre as if for pendant lamps.20

A door in the south-east corner passes through a cell containing a kind of a

trough. A natural hole in the roof leads into a small court on the east side of the
cave. The few steps leading down to it, occupy a small lobby carved all round
with Jinas. The hall, 25 feet wide by 23½ feet deep, has a veranda in front.
There are four square pillars with round capitals inside the hall.21

On each side of verandah is a deep recess. On the right is a naked figure of

Gomatesvara. On the left Parasvanath, also nude, has been depicted with
attendants. In similar recesses are figures of Mahavira seated cross-legged. The
shrine door is flanked by nude Jinadvarapalas on pilasters. The architraves are
carved with numerous small figures. Inside the shrine, a cross-legged Mahavira
is seated on the throne. On the east, the verandah has two pillars in front. Two
are rising behind from low screen walls. Ambika is in the south end facing the
entrance. On the right side Indra is represented with a bag in his left hand and a
cocoanut in his right.22

20
Ibid, p. 96.
21
Brown, Percy. (1956). Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods). Bombay: D. B. Taraporewala Sons
and Company. p. 75.
22
Ibid, p.76.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 255
 Figure 117: One of the paintings in cave
Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

Some scraps of painting still remain on the roof of the hall. A door in the north-
west corner of the great hall. It leads through a small room into the temple on
the west side which corresponds to the last described. This temple has a
carefully carved façade. On the right of the entrance is a four-armed Devi with
two discs in the upper hands, and a vajra in her left on her knee. To the left of
the entrance is a figure of Sarasvati, eight-armed, with a peacock.23

The hall is exactly similar to that on the east. The four central pillars have
capitals with looped drooping ears as in the great hall. The designs have been
finished more elaborately and sharply. The two pillars on the inner screen have
sixteen sides, and correspond to those on the screen in the great hall. Ambika is
seated at the right side of the steps, and a four-armed Devi is opposite to her.
Indra is seated on the west end of the verandah facing the entrance. Mahavira
occupies the shrines and several compartments in the walls. In deep recesses

23
Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 53.

256 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
again, Parasvanath is placed on the left and Gomatesvara on the right side of the
hall. Pairs of figures in coquetry fill the compartments of the low inner screen.
On the ceiling are some fragments of painting.24

The facade of the side cave is covered with sculpture. The right half of the rock
is excavated in two storeys. The upper of the two storeys on the right and the
one on the left has a vertical belt of carving. At the bottom is a representation of
a fight. Over this two females kneel on the left, and two males kneel on the right
of a stool. Over this again is Parasvanath seated cross-legged on a lion-throne,
with the wheel in front. A small worshipper at the right corner along with a
chauri-bearer with high cap on each side.25

The great seven-hooded snake behind him canopying his head. Above on the
left is a chaitya or dagoba. The lower storey has two neat pillars in front. On the
back wall are figures of Indra and Ambika. Parasvanath occupies the left end
and Gomatesvara the right, with deer and dogs at his feet. In the farther back a
seated cross-legged Tirthankara has been depicted.26

Figure 118: Tirthankara inside the Fhrini

Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

24
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 498-99.
25
Ibid, p. 500.
26
Rajan, K. V. Soundara. (1988). The Ellora Monoliths. Delhi: Gian Publishing House. pp. 80-81.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 257
In the shrine Mahavira with chauri-bearers has
been depicted. A triple umbrella and foliage has
been nicely carved behind his head. Over this is
another shrine with Prasvanath on the left side.
Two small figures of cross-legged Tirthankaras
on the upper half of the right side have been
depicted.27 Indra and Ambika are in recesses on
each side the shrine door, and a Jina is inside,
with chauri-bearers seated cross-legged
Figure 119: Mahavira seated in a
28 Meditative Pose
on a simhasana and the wheel in front.
Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies,
Gurgaon
Gomatesvara is carved at the front
between this shrine and the facade of the principal cave. A hall 30 feet wide by
25 feet deep, having a screen wall in frontto the left. A pillar rises on each side
of the entrance. The upper part of this screen is carved with water vases in small
panels. Each is separated by two colonnades and the lower portion. It has been
carved with elephants' heads separated by slender pilasters, and each playing
with or feeding on flowers.29

Inside are four pillars with high square bases and cushion capitals. Only the
front pillars are having much carving. In the central compartment, on the west
wall is Parasvanath, with female chhatri-bearer. The snake has been depicted
behind overshadowing his head with its hoods. At his feet there are two Naganis
and two richly dressed worshippers. There are numerous demons trying to
disturb his meditations.30

27
Ibid, p. 82.
28
Ibid, p. 83.
29
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., pp. 94-96.
30
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 498-500.

258 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
In the next compartment is a repetition of the same on a smaller scale, with a
cross-legged Jina above. On the east wall, Gomatesvara is represented in the
central compartment, with deer and perhaps a dog at his feet, and with female
attendants. Above him are gandharvas,-one with a large drum just over the
umbrella, and others with cymbals and garlands. In the compartment to the right
of this is a smaller figure of Parasvanath. A standing figure half-split off,
accompanied by deer, makara, elephant and ram has been depicted to the left.
Above this, there is a small figure of cross-legged Jina.31

Figure 120: Frontal part of the Cave

Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

On the back wall were Indra and Ambika, with an ascetic bearing a chhatri, and
holding up one hand to Ambika's left. Two stiff Jain dvarapalas guard the
shrine door. Inside the shrine is a Jina on a simhasana with the wheel in front.
He has two attendants and a triple umbrella, with gandharvas making music to

31
Ibid, p. 82.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 259
 him and bearing garlands.32 The facade over these rooms forms a parapet in
front of the hall above. There is a compartment in the centre carved with a male
and female, attended by two smaller females. Each of these figure holding the
stalk of a flower. At the sides are pilasters bearing makaras holding a torana.33

On each side, the wall is divided by small pilasters into panels. It contains
alternately an elephant's head playing with or feeding on flowers, and a rampant
sardula, trampling on a small elephant. Above this is a frieze of water-jars. A
drip projects covered with florid carving of flying figures have been depicted
above the hall. Along with that curious little dwarfs hanging over with garlands
have also been depicted. The next moulding is carved with numerous animals.
Over this moulding, there is a broad frieze, broken vertically by pilasters into
representations of little shrines each containing a figure.34

Indra is in the centre on the left, Ambika is on the right, and Gomatesvara,
Parasvanath, and other Jinas are in the remaining panels. The middle portion,
representing the side of a building with an arched roof upheld by four kneeling
figures, has a Jina seated cross-legged on the side, and another in a chaitya-
window shaped recess just above him.35

Cave- 33: Jaganath Sabha

A little beyond the Indra Sabha is the Jaganath Sabha, with a court in front 38
feet square. Much loose sculpture has been found about the cave, and the screen
and thechaumukha mandapa have disappeared. A hall on the west side of the
court is 27 feet square and 12 feet high, with two heavy square pillars in front
and four in the middle area. It is sculptured with Parasavanath on the left,

32
Pereira, Jose. (1977). Monolithic Jinas: The Iconography of the Jain Temples of Ellora. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass. p.7.
33
Ibid, p. 8.
34
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit. pp. 94-96
35
Gosh, A., op. cit., pp. 34-38.

260 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
Gomatesvara on the right, and Mahavira on the shrine with other Jinas in the
pilasters and in a few recesses.36

Figure 121: Ambika sitting on the lion

Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

36
Ibid, p. 39.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 261
Indra occupies the left end, and Ambika the right end of the cave. A few letters
of some inscription in old Kanarese are legible on some of the pillars, and may
belong to the 9th century. The shrine is 9½ feet by 8½, and is 9 feet 1½ inches
high; and on each side of it is a cell, the left one breaking into the next cave. On
the other side of the court are two more small chapels, the walls of which are
covered with Jain sculpture.37

The lower floor on the main cave is on the model of that of the Indra Sabha, but
smaller. The hall is about 24 feet square and 13¾ feet high, with four pillars on
the floor. It has a narrow verandah in front with two square pillars on the screen
wall. The parapet has been finished only on the left of the entrance, with
elephant heads below and jars above. 38

Figure 122: Shrine Door flanked by Indra and Indrani

Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

37
Bhattacharya, B. C., pp. 45-48.
38
Ibid, p. 49.

262 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
The carving on the portion to the right of the entrance has only been begun
along the upper portion. Two more pillars on a low partition, separate the
verandah from the hall, which has two recesses. One on the left side containing
a standing Parasvanath with the snake hoods over him, and attended by figures,
and another on the right containing Gomatesvara and attendants.39

Figures of Jinas seated cross-legged fill the other six wall-areas between the
pilasters. In the verandah, Indra occupies the left and Ambika the right end. The
shrine is entered through a small ante-chamber with a fine torana over the
entrance. It is 9 feet by 7, and 10 feet 8 inches high, with a cross-legged
Mahavira on the throne.40

A rude stair at the light corner of the court leads to the upper storey, which
consists of a great twelve-pillared hall 57 feet wide by 44 feet deep, and varying
in height from 13 feet 10 inches to 14 feet 6 inches. Two columns in front, and
as many in the back row, have square bases, and round shafts with florid
shoulders. The others have massive bases, and except at the neck are square,
with round cushion capitals, which are not well-proportioned.41

Two more pillars on the bench screen wall in front of the cave, form three
openings in a length of 38 feet, to light the interior. Outside, the screen wall is
sculptured with a large elephant head at each end. In front of each pillar, smaller
human figures in the central division, and animals in the two side divisions have
been depicted. Over them is a rail of small colonnettes and water-jars, the body
of each of the latter being carved with human and other figures.42

The front of the drip above was carved with forty little gana, and other
sculptures were above them. Over this, but removed back a few feet, are the
remains of a frieze richly sculptured with elephants, makaras and human
39
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 49-50.
40
Ibid, p. 51.
41
Dhavalikar, M. K. pp. 94-96.
42
Burgess, Jas, op. cit. 49-50.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 263
 figures. The roof has been painted in large concentric circles. Mahavira has
been sculptured on the walls fifty or sixty times. Parasvanath has been depicted
nine or ten times.43

Figure 123: Tirthankaras seated in meditative pose

Courtesy: Indra Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi

The space over the heads of the Jinas has been painted with more Jinas and
worshippers. Indra and Ambika are on the back wall outside the dvarapalas. In
the shrine is a Jinendra with four lions on the front of the throne, and a wheel
upheld by a dwarf.44

Over the Jina, there is a triple umbrella, with dogs and deer lying at the foot of
the throne. A low cell is in the right side of the shrine; and a square hole is in
the floor. A door on the west end of the front aisle enters a low cell; and through
another cell at the opposite end of the same aisle, a hole in the wall leads into
the west wing of the Indra Sabha.45

43
Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad & Sinha, Shanti Swaroop. (2011). Jaina Art and Aesthetics. New Delhi:
Aryan Books International. p. 167-69.
44
Ibid, p. 70.
45
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 500-502.

264 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
Cave 34

Cave 34 is a small cave. It is located to the west of the preceding and is the last
in the series. The verandah had two square columns and pilasters, and the front
is pierced for a door and two windows. The hall is 20½ feet wide by 22 feet
deep, by 9 feet 8 inches high. It is supported by four short pillars. These are
square below with moulded bases. It has a flat triangular shield on each side.46

There are corresponding pilasters on the wall. The spaces between the pilasters
have been covered with rich sculpture. The back wall has Indra and Ambika
have been depicted in compartments. The remaining figures in the hall are
repetitions of those in the other Jain caves. The Tirthankaras are represented in
pairs on the side walls. They have been adorned with rich florid sculpture over
their heads. The wall on the right cuts into a cell of the west wing of the
Jaganath Sabha.47

On the slope of the spur below are some small caves all Jain but much ruined;
and near the summit is a plain cave with two square columns in front.

The influence of monolithic architecture on Jaina cave

'Chaumukh' in front of Indra Sabha

Chaumukh (Cave No. 32) is a fine adaptation of the southern style for the
pancharatha lay-out. It has a high adhisthana comprising upana, high, jagati,
padma, a kantha a tripatta kumuda, another bolder kantha, kapota, and prati.
The disposition of the pillars and pilasters of the shrine proper on it is just well
within the parati on a minor pitha, itself comprising padma and jagati.48

The pitha has projecting porches on their cardinal directions and supported by a
pair of free standing pillars on each side, while the main shrine is supported on

46
Ibid, p. 503.
47
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 53-54.
48
Dhavalikar, M. K., op. cit., 92-96.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 265
 four corner cantoning pilaster. The pillars show an evolution similar to the
Chalukya-Rashtrakuta idiom.49

The pilasters are nearer the unified southern idiom and are square-sectioned and
the free, standing pillars are circular sectioned in all their members. Over the
intersecting patikas of the pillar scheme run the uttira following the contours of
the projections of the corbels followed by a vajana and a kapota, whose inner
curvature shows the kodungai ribbings.50

The central part is entirely depicting the bold nasika fronts in the form of a
sukanasa, complete with the multi-foil barge board and sakti dhvaja. The way
in which the karnarathas are shown as slightly projecting beyond the central or
bhadra part and the way in which its own central part is showing a rectangular
carved piece suggests that it was the khandottara type.51

The kapota itself is further supported by rearing vyalas with their feet placed
upon the kumbha and had resting against the inside of the kapota in the case of
the free-standing pillars and with their padas resting upon the phalaka and head
resting against the corner kadungai of the kapota. The superstructure shows
kantha followed by valabhi and another kapota, forming the architrave.52

Over this rafter composition rises, with a series of basal frame work. The
projecting rafters followed by the end framework of projecting ends as well as
transverse beams. The ends decorated by makara terminals or other figure work.
This is visible only on the karnarathas.53

49
Prasad, B. Rajendra. (1983). Chalukyan Temples of Andhradesa. New Delhi: Abhinav Publication. pp. 15- 20.
50
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., pp. 75-76.
51
Ibid, p. 77.
52
Pereira, Jose, op. cit., 37-40.
53
Ibid, p. 41.

266 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
 Figure 124: Chaumukha in front of Indra sabha
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

The monolithic structure in front of Indra Sabha (Cave 32)going by the name
'Chaumukh' owing to its ritual function in a Jain temple unit, has a well splayed
outline in relation to the gate-way entrance leading into it and the further cave
temples excavated on the rear.54

The unified character of these four units, namely, the Chaumukh the Gate-
house, Flag-staff and the elephant. In addition, the two other monolithic
features, namely, the now broken manastambha representing the pillar 'order'
cognate to this excavation. The elephant in the round which are located on
either side of the Chaumukh along its diagonal points in front court-yard
between it and the gate.55

54
Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad & Sinha, Shanti Swaroop. pp. 72-78.
55
Bhattacharya, B. C., op. cit., 75-76.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 267
Thus, it is obvious that notwithstanding the possibility of simultaneous
excavations going on in the rear alongside the cutting of the monolith to the
front a clear design in the mind of this monolithic model and the appertaining
features mentioned above should have existed with the architects at the time the
work was started.56

The Chaumukh for all practical

purposes, was an independent entity
by itself. Although that it was to
become an ancillary feature to a larger
complex to come.57

It is quite interesting that after

Kailasha had been excavated in the
first half of the ninth century CE. The
excavators of the Chaumukh and the
so-called Indra Sabha should have
thought in terms of a monolithic
creation only for the Chaumukh but
not for the main unit behind it.58
Figure 125: Dhwjasatambha in Kailash
Temple and Indra Sabha Monolith
There might be two reasons- firstly Column (After Burgess)
Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of
India, New Delhi

the importance already gained by the Chaumukh structure in Jain temples which
called for a clear monolithic character for it in the courtyard of the temple. This
monolith should take the place of a perfect model of a dvitala temple of the
Dravida style.59 It is itself of some consequence and pre-supposes that deep-
rooted predilection of the Rashtrakuta architects in favour of the Dravida

56
Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad & Sinha, Shanti Swaroop. pp. 85-92.
57
Rajan, Soundara, K. V., op. cit. pp. 78-82.
58
Ibid, p. 83.
59
Ibid, p. 84.
268 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
vimana, as already at Kailasa and as further continued, somewhat later, in the
Chhota Kailasa.60

The second reason would be that at the time when these excavations were going
on, structural temples had been the norm so emphatically. Hence, excavation of
another larger monolith to represent the main unit to the rear of the Chaumukh
was perhaps considered a shade too tedious and unnecessary. Concurrently, the
very excavation of the cave temple type in storeyed form was essentially in
multiple shrines of almost the same type.61

It seems that it was intended to serve mainly as a balancing main backdrop for
ritual iconography detailed. The painted scenes on the walls and ceilings for the
Jain faith, complementary to the effort already manifest for the Brahmanical
faith as in the Kailasa and Ganesh Lena groups. It is no less interesting thus that
these logically led subsequently to an urge to carve out a monolithic temple
exclusively of Jain character as is found in the incomplete Chhota Kailasa.62

Therefore, the Chaumukh of the Indra Sabha can be said as a significant

predecessor to the Chhota Kailasa, and it is in this light as a monolithic that its
creation was envisaged by the architects.63

The Structural innovation

From the interior of the court access to the Chaumukh shrine proper has been
given by a fight of six steps on the western and eastern sides. The other two
directions, enforcing the parikrama of the image slab within has not been
provided with. The monolithic pillar shaft to the north of the Chamukh has a
plinth which is similar to the Chaumukh in its being of triratha type. The corner
portions much narrower than the bhadra. The mouldings show an upana, a

60
Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad & Sinha, Shanti Swaroop. pp. 72-78.
61
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 49-50.
62
Ibid, p. 51.
63
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., pp. 76-82.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 269
jagati, a padma, a kantha, vritta-kumuda followed by another padma, and a
heavy prati.64

The base of the shaft proper is continued again in triratha form. The bhadra
showing prominent pilasters which themselves would have represented in
miniature the monolithic shaft. Within the pilasters, individual figures are
shown one in each carrying objects like flower-buds with the lower stalk.65

The figures are themselves placed within a makara-torana. The makara having
their mouths gaping upwards from which toranas rise. They have been carved
leading to the terminal makaras facing each other at the top. Below the makaras
the pilasters show details such as: square-sectioned shaft part, an
undifferentiated kalasa, tadi, kumbha, padma, phalaka and virakanda. Above
this the main monolithic shaft had been badly mutilated and had fallen in three
parts.66

This fall took place due to natural phenomena, about a century ago. The
reconstruction of the full shaft from this base. It shows that a part (basal part)
just described rose the main shaft represented by an octagonal pattai
surmounted by a padma bandha.67

It has been followed by a sixteen-side shaft, circular malasthana and telescoped

kalasa. This style depicts very weak ribs and of two equal parts, one fixed into
the other, ending with the neck of the kalasa. The design of drooping in and
flaring out in a beaded rim is quite impressive. Above this, the next piece with
the ribbed tadi in double unit with multiple ribbed kumbha with equatorial
ratnapattai band. A circular recession on left plain with a flaring and ribbed

64
Ibid, p. 83.
65
Preira, Jose, op. cit., pp. 28-35.
66
Ibid, p. 36.
67
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., p. 500-502.

270 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
Padma which expanding as wide as kumbha. The tips of the ribs worked out as
the outturned petal ends.68

On this padma had rested a phalaka square in section decorated by a band

showing a series of rosettes within squares. On the phalaka over a padmapitha
formed of the urdhvapadma petals. It was caved with the padmasana postured
feet of the yakshas. The body and the remaining part of the shaft itself being
found in the lowest disunited piece.69

The way this piece has detached itself from the lower in such a smooth
horizontal plane would seem to suggest that it was never intended as a
monolithic part. Conspicuously, at the same time the absence of any dowels or
binding-mode like iron nail holes etc., would show it was just a natural
lamination that has resulted in this cleavage.70

Influence on Chhota Kailasa

This imitates the Kailasa in the method of a free standing monolith with an
inner shrine complete with ardha mandapa, maha mandapa, and mukha
mandapa. A dvara mandapa separated from it within which around the main
shrine the prakara runs. Though not carved at the same level, owing to the
incompleteness of the composition.71

The composition has been only brought down to the top level of the adhisthana
of the shrine proper. In contrast, the adhisthana of Kailasa shows a very high
upapitha of the whole tala. The main walls have not been completed excepting
for the projecting porch mandapas to the south and to the north. It shows dwarf
pillars on the parapets different from that of the corresponding kankanas in the
Kailasa cave.72

68
Preira, Jose, op. cit., pp. 35-40..
69
Ibid, p. 41
70
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., 50-52.
71
Ibid, p. 53.
72
Burgess, Jas, op. cit., pp. 49-50.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 271
 Figure 126: Vase and foliage design on the pillars
Courtesy: Lalit Kala Akademy, New Delhi

On the roof above the kapota over the rafter frame work is simply shown in
blocks of projecting rafters. It carry transverse beams above them is a hara of
kutas and salas with nasikas coming in between. Above this the roof of the
projecting mandapa is plain carrying only a triratha top parapet. It forms the
centre of the main hara of the maha mandapa roof just comprising salas, kutas
and nasikas.73

The projecting porches have their own parapets which, however, do not project
out in their end hara in triratha pattern. The centre of the roof of the maha
mandapa has a square sikhara unit mounted upon the vyalavari, vedi and griva
limits, triratha projection. On each side it forms a nasika, with an upper step,
upon which apparently the kalasa and stupi were placed originally.74

The main shrine shows on the ground tala kutasikharas at the corners of the
prastara and very bold nasika which is actually the end on projection of a sala-
sikhara. This nasika is rising higher than the kutasikharas of the first tala and is

73
Ibid, p. 51.
74
Preira, Jose, op. cit., pp. 24-28.

272 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
actually at the lowest part of a composite series of nasikas rising one above the
other without any relationship to the tala levels on three of its sides.75

Figure 127: Adhisthana like Kailash

Courtesy: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

On the fourth side, above the ardha mandapa and above the first tala ending
with the kutasikharas at the corners. There is a transversely rectangular pada
part. It has a central projection which is decorated with a very bold nasika kudu.
The kudu showing a stambha torana giving access to an upper shrine chamber
within the ardha mandapa roof.76

The pada part of this shrine chamber is surmounted at the corners by regular
kutasikhara. In the centre, it has another bold nasika, a little behind the fronton
over the kapota of the pada. Thus, while the composition is the same on the
four sides, the front side has been elevated in its dimensions much more on the
other sides.77

Inside of the upper shrine chamber and within a mukha mandapa and maha
mandapa is a transverse rectangular chamber carrying the figure of a seated
Jina. The figure has been depictedwith the asana-back supported by vyala
pilasters and makarabalustrades and carrying a prabhavali above them. Over

75
Ibid, p. 29.
76
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., pp. 52-54.
77
Ibid, p. 55.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 273
the prabhavali is the trichhatravali. The figure is flanked by two
chamaradharinis.78

This shrine is a variation to the Brahmanical temple pattern adapted to Jain

usage and showing evolved architectural forms and idioms in the composition
and superstructure, involving a composite unit of the typical southern style of
receding tiers of haras and the provision of bold nasikas on the cardinal
directions rising one above the other as in the northern style.79

It is nearer in style to the composition of the Chaumukh of the Indra Sabha. The
composition is in its extant stature a tritala vimana, although the top of the three
talas is abruptly ending in an incomplete character.80

The maha mandapa on the exterior wall shows a pilastered composition in

between the main pilasters which is of the vritta sputita type. It has been
embellished with a kapota composition much below the main kapota and with
its own prastara and nasika kudu above. The top of which is just below the
uttara. The potikas of the main wall are of the taranga type with a scroll work
median band. These taranga potikas have not been shown in Kailasa.81

Figure 128: Kamalbandha on the cieling like Kailash temple

Courtesy: National Museum, New Delhi

78
Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad & Sinha, Shanti Swaroop, op. cit., pp. 75-85.
79
Preira, Jose, op. cit., pp. 24-28.
80
Ibid, p. 28.
81
Ibid, 29.

274 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
The technique and sensitivity of carving out the monumental Kailasa temple are
unique and unparalleled in the art history of India. All the architectural
components are very systematically integrated. It is obvious that the architects
have adopted the Dravidian forms of vimana pattern. There is no confusion in
incorporating the Dravidian temple form.82

In fact the southern temple complex in its utilitarian and functional aspects is
reflected in the Kailasa temple. It is need less to go into geo-political factors for
this phenomenon. Suffice it to say that the later Jain monoliths at Ellors have
literally adopted the Kailasa temple format.83

Mention may be made here that the overhanging eves seen at different points of
the monolithic architecture have also been incorporated into the Jain
architecture. Cave 30, popularly known as the Chhota Kailasa, is not a
successful effort of imitating the great Kailasa temple.84

However, their sincere effort of carving a reduced version of Kailasa is above

the board. This was done irrespective of the religious needs and the monastic
compulsions of the followers of Jainism. The only departure seems to be a
avoiding a raised podium as seen in Kailasa temple.85

The sukanasa portion in Chhota Kailasa has been scopped further to make room
for housing one of the Tirthankaras. It is a dvitalavimana with a hara of kutas
and salas. It consist of mukha and mahamandapa and a dvimandapa placed
axially. Lieke the Kailasa temple, there are side mandapas. The architects for
the Chhota Kailasa have also attempted to carve cut side adjuncts, not as
ambitiously as those for the former.86

82
Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 49-50.
83
Ibid, p. 51.
84
Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad & Sinha, Shanti Swaroop, op. cit., pp. 85-95.
85
Pereira Jose, op. cit., pp. 56-58.
86
Rajan, K. V. Soundara., op. cit., pp. 50-54.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 275
 In spite of its unfinished state of condition, we may assume that this monolithic
temple is the outcome of a strongly prevailing architectural trend of creating cut
out temples.

It is well known that the Jain temples are comparatively later than the Hindu
cave temples at Ellora. Yet the excavators of cave 32 have adopted the plans
and the technique of the Hindu temples. The chaumukha in the courtyard of
Cave 32 is a tritala vimana. The entire vimana also resembles the vimana of
Kailasa temple.87

The above observations are sketchy and synoptic and require further elaboration
and systematic documentation based on grounds-plans, photographs, etc.

The Influence on Kazhugumalai

Location and Introduction: Kazhugumalai is twelve miles west of Koyilpatti

on the Madurai—Tirunelveli highway in Tamil Nadu. The rock-cut temple is
called Vettuvankoyil, 'a cutters' temple', suggesting the technique-followed in it.
A portion of a small hill, a monolithic rock, was copped out from the top and a
trench was made leaving about 90 centimeter width of space on three sides as
circumambulatory passage. The remaining solid rock in the middle was chiseled
from the top resulting in the present beautiful temple.88

Only the upper portion of the Vimana is finished but the lower portion as well
as the façade portion, were roughly cut and left unfinished. The reason for this
is not known, though a local folk tradition tries to give an explanation for this
status. According to this tradition there was a rivalry between a father and his
son, who followed different styles of architecture and in the feud the father
killed his son. Hence the name. What one may surmise from this is that a new

87
Ibid, p. 55.
88
Rajan,K. V. Soundra. (1998). Rock-cut Temple Styles: Early Pandyan Art and the Ellora Shrines. Mumbai:
Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd., 1998), pp. 99-101.

276 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
tradition was adopted whilst there existed an older tradition. As a result the
older tradition saw that the new tradition was no established.89

Figure 129: Unfinished Vimana of Vettuvankoyil

Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

The older tradition may be the tradition of bas relief work and the new tradition
may be the new rock-cut tradition, not the cut-in/cut-out tradition, but the cut-
from-the-top tradition. On the same hill, one sees near this rock-hewn temple a
huge panel for bas-relief depicting Jaina deities, belonging to a slightly earlier
period.90

Description: The Vimana consists of three-tiers, square in shape and has an

octagonal sikhara at the top immediately reminding one the Dharmaraja and
Arjuna rathas at Mamallapuram. It contains chaitya windows or kudus, "cages"
embellished by alternating shovel heads and lion-heads from above. In between

89
Ibid, p. 102.
90
Tiwari, Maruti Nandan Prasad & Sinha, Shanti Swaroop, op. cit. pp. 105-107.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 277
the kudus, the sculptor has used a beautiful decorative border running up to the
top of the sikhara.91

This type of ornamentation is called 'karukkuvelai' in Tamil. On the top of the

kudu a lion's head is portrayed and from its mouth hangs a tassel and its joins
with two makara faces on either side. This again expands and links with the
wide open mouths of two makaras engraved below.92

The top of the sikhara does not have anything on top of it now; but the hole
found there indicated an earlier existence of Kailash which was subsequently
broken. Just under this sikhara one finds four Nandis in the corners and in
between them four beautiful sculptures facing the four cardinal points. 'One
finds Siva' Parvati in a seated posture in the east, MridangaDaksinmurti in the
south, seated Narasimha in the west and seated Brahma on the north.93

Figure 130: Shiv and Parvati on the Shikhara of the Vimana

Courtesy: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

91
Ibid, p. 108.
92
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., pp. 98-102.
93
Ibid, p. 103.

278 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
Siva is portrayed with four hands. The back right hands is holding the axe
(Parsu) and the back left hand is holding the deer. The front right hand is broken
and the front left hand is kept on the left thigh keeping the palm up. He wears
the jatamukuta on his head and appears with a smiling face. He wears a
rudraksamala around his neck and snake armlets on his shoulders. The earlobes
are dropping due to the weight of the ornaments.94

The yajnopavita, with the bell-shaped clasp which falls from his left shoulder,
turn left near his navel. The slightly projected naval region suggests the tight
undarbandha. His right leg is folded. Parvati, who is seated near him, has a
slightly tilted face towards Siva, showing the dropping earlobe. Her right hand
rests near her folded right leg. She is wearing kuchabandha on her breasts. The
lion cloth is flowing beneath her navel. She sits with ease with her folded left
leg and showing up the knee. Based on the physiognomy, it can be observed
that affinities between this art and that of the late Pallava dynasty and the last
phase of the early Western Chalukyan.95

Beneath these beautiful sculptures one finds a vyala freeze. On the southern
side, just beneath the chaitya window, one sees an unusual Daksinamurti Siva
playing a mrdanga of the ankya type. His right leg is folded and the mrdangam
is placed on his lap. His left leg hangs down and rests on Muyalaka (apasmara)
who is holding a hooded snake in his right hand.96

Just above him and on the sides, the running vyala vari is depicted. Siva is
shown with four hands in the two upper hands he holds the axe and aksamala
respectively. He holds the mridanga with his left hands and plays on it with his
right hand. His jatabhara is shown with curly hair encircling his smiling face.97

Usually in the Tamil country one finds Daksinamûrti playing a veena, thus
acquiring the name Vinādhara Daksināmurti playing a veena. Hence, acquires

94
Ibid, p. 104.
95
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., pp. 319-21.
96
Ibid, p. 322.
97
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., pp. 99-100.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 279
the name VÏnādhara Daksinamurti. But here one notices a Daksinamurti playing
a mrdanga. This is noteworthy feature.98

Narasimha is shown on the west, in the seated posture. His right leg is folded
and his left leg is resting on a lotus pitha. He wears a crown like a lotus bud, a
feature that we find in Badami in the huge Narasimha there. He is shown with
four hands, the back ones hold chakra and sankha. In the front the right hand is
in tarjani mudra and the left hand rests on his lap.99

On the northern side, one observes Brahma seated in padmasana on a lotus. He

is shown with two profile faces looking sideways, and four hands. The two back
hands hold the aksamala and kundika. In the front the right hand is in abhaya
mudra and the left hands holds a book. He is portrayed as a youthful type and
not with a beard as in the north. He wears a vastra jaynopavita, and ornaments
adore his neck. Two nicely chiseled small elephants, facing each other, are
standing below.100

Beneath the Vyala vari, one finds an arched roof running on all four sides. In
the middle of the arch one observes a beautiful decorative karukku work flanked
by kudus on either sides.The kudus are embellished above and around by the
usual lion face, tassels and makras. The kudus contain peeping faces of young
men, who look like princes with crown-like head-gears. They are peeping at
young ladies carved up to their waist.101

This portrayal suggests that the kudus were windows linking with the chaityas.
The damsels are shown in different situations. One is shown as if she is just
coming out from a pool. The artistic portrayal makes one to forget that it is
made of rock, one is made to believe that there is water. The rock becomes so
pliable in the dexterous hands of the sculptor. Beneath this arch and side by side

98
Ibid, p. 101.
99
Huntington, Susan L., op. cit., op. cit., pp. 319-21.
100
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., pp. 100-01.
101
Ibid, p. 102.

280 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
the damsels, bhutaganas are portrayed in their gay moods, some dancing in
ecstasy, some holding the roof quite scrupulously.102

Amidst the bhutaganas some dwarfish sages are also depicted. Some sport
beards, and are wearing rudraksas,yajnopavitas and jatas. These contrasting
figures were probably carved here to juxtapose the sacred and the profane.
Along with these ganas, dwarfish monkeys are also delineated.103

Coming down to the lower tier, one notices small pavilions on all the four sides
and wagon-roofed salas in the middle. The usual decorations viz., the lion head,
the makaras and tassels are repeated. Dwarfish figures are shown supporting
these roof. Sometimes lions are also portrayed. Similarly the salas are also
shown with two dwarfs at the corners and in the middle. Beneath the kudus one
finds seated figures of deities.104

Under the kudus, shallow niches are carved and under them seated figures were
shown. On the extreme ends young damsels are portrayed. Thus one gets four
central figures under the salas such as- Daksinamurti in the south, seated Visnu
in the west, and seated Siva in the form of Visapaharana in the north.105

On either side of these central figures and in between the figures of the damsels
at the extreme ends, one observes two divine figures in the south, Surya and
Chandra are placed in the west and another divine figure together with
Subrahmanya in the north. Beneath these the Vyala vari is repeated.

Usually on the western side of a Dravidian temple somaskanda is depicted. But

the presence of Visnu on this die is an interesting feature of this early period,
for, it is replaced by the figure of a Lingodbhava in the later period. Similarly

102
Ibid, p. 103.
103
Huntington, Susan L. op. cit., pp. 318-320.
104
Ibid, p. 321.
105
Fergusson, James & Burgess, James, op. cit., pp. 485-87.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 281
 the presence of Daksinamurti in the southern side is quite unconventional in the
Vettuvankoyil.106

On the southern side Siva is depicted as Daksinamurti against the niche in the
central sala . He is shown in the sitting posture, the right leg folded and the left
leg hanging down in ardhaparyanka. He is shown with four hands, the upper
hands with fingers in Kartari mudra hold the deer (right) and aksamala (left),
respectively. The front right hand (probably in Vyakhyana mudra) is broken and
the front left hand slightly raised, is shown pressing his left lap. The yajnopavita
is delineated with three thick threads flowing down gently. He is also wearing
the hara and keyura.107

On the western side below the central sala one finds the seated figure of Visnu
in the maharaja lila pose.His right foot lifted and rested on the seat and the left
foot resting on a lotus pitha. He is shown with four hands, the upper ones
carrying chakra in prayoga bhava and sankha respectively.108

The front right hand (probably in the abhaya mudra) is broken and the left hand
rests on the throne. He wears the characteristic kirltamukuta and appears
majestic. There is a projection on his back suggesting a cushion behind him. His
throne is flanked by two lions characterizing it as a simhasana. On either side of
him both Surya and Chandra images are placed with halos behind their heads.
This is another of the characteristic feature one finds on this temple.109

On the northern side Siva is carved in a sitting posture with a seemingly sliding
snake in this right hand. His jata is heaped in the form of a kondai 'bun'. In the
right ear the patrakundala is dangling and the left ear empty. He is shown with

106
Rajan, K. V. Soundara, op. cit., pp. 99-102.
107
Ibid, p. 103.
108
Vijayavenugopal, V. (1988). ‘Kazhugumalai Vettuvankoyil, in in Ellora Caves: Sculptures and
Architecture. Ratan Parimoo, Deepak Kannel and Shivaji Panikkar (ed. all). New Delhi: Books & Books. pp.
447-48.
109
Prasad, B. Rajendra, op. cit., pp. 155-57.

282 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
four hands, the back ones holding the Parasu and the deer, whilst the front right
hands hold the snuous snake and the left hands rests on the seat. The right leg is
folded and the left leg is hanging down and rests on a pitha. This Visapaharana-
murti is unique, for nowhere one comes across such a sculpture in the Tamil
country.110

On the northern side Subrahmanya or Skanda's figure is carved. With the

channavtra on his chest he appears as a warrior. He is shown with four hands,
the back ones carry the sakti weapon and aksamala respectively. The front right
hands in abhayamudraand the left hand is resting on the lap. The right leg is
folded and the left leg is hanging down and resting on the pitha. Since he is
holding the aksamala the figure is also identified as Gurumurti.111

Architectural Interactions with Kailash: Thus the unfinished temple at

Vettuvankoyil furnishes us certain characteristic features. It contains some
unusual sculptures like the Mrdanga Daksinamurti, the Visapaharana Siva,
Visnu in maharaja lila pose, Skanda in partially Gurumurti form,
Umasahitamurti in casual posture, and the peeping princes and the bathing
damsels together with an interesting mithuna portrayal.

It is the only type of temple in Tamil Nadu that is rock-hewn and chiseled from
the top. Obviously it is dedicated to Siva though no linga is found inside the
cella. (Instead an idol of Ganesa is found installed there now).112

Through this temple is situated in the Pandya country, it has striking similarities
with Dharmaraja and Arjuna rathas of Mamallapuram, suggesting the influence
of the Pallava art. But why the temple is unfinished is still a mystery. It is true

110
Ibid, p. 158
111
Vijayavenugopal, V., op. cit., 448-89.
112
Ibid, p. 449-50.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 283
 that quite a few cave temples were found in the Pandya country modeled on
Pallava lines.113

These were due to the influence exerted by the bhakti movement that was
spreading through the Pandya country at the time. It is interesting to note that all
these cave temples were cut more or less on the same hills were one finds the
earlier Jaina Monuments and rock-cut beds. These conversions of the hills into
abodes of Hindu gods may be a reflection of their conversion from Jainism to
Hinduism.114

There is another motive in the construction of temples one notices in south

India. Temples were built as a mark of Victory over a king or a region. The
famous Virupaksa temple at Pattadakal was built by the queens of Viramaditya
II as a mark of his victory over Kanchi. According to the inscription in
Pattadaka, the temple was built by the acharis brought from the Pallava
country.115

It is here becomes important to consider and collect proofs as to whether similar

intention motivated the Pandyas in constructing Vettunakoyil. If it symbolizes
their victory over the Pallavas of Kanchi. There were frequent wars between the
Pandyas and the Pallavas, besides there were marriages too. But why the temple
was left unfinished? Perhaps a subsequent war might have prevented the
completion of the temple.116

Another reason, perhaps it might be a monument cut as a victory memorial

based on Kailasanatha temple at Ellora by the Rastrakuta king, Govinda III
(who came to throne in 794 CE), who conquered the Pallava king Dantivarman
and went up to Rameshvaram in Pandya country issuing a copper plate from
113
Tadgell, Christopher. (1990). The History of Architecture in India from the Dawn of Civilization to the End of
Raj.London: Phaiden Press. p. 46-50.
114
Sharma, Krishna. (1987). Bhakti and the Bhakti Movement A New Perspective. New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 110.
115
Vijayavenugopal, G., op. cit., pp.451-52.
116
Huntington, Susan L. op. cit., pp. 315-21.

284 Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai
there. These are all only speculations and strong evidences are yet to be
traced.117

With regard to the Kailash temple at Ellora, it is pointed out by many art
historians that it is modeled after Virupaksa temple of Pattadakal. The
Virupaksa temple in turn is built in imitation of Kailasanatha temple of
Kanchipuram by the artisans brought from Pallava region. Simiarly an
inscription from Papanatha temple at Pattadakal refers to the artisans from the
Tamil country.118

Thus there is a continuous interactions between Chalukyan and Pallava artisans.

The sikhara of the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora is octagonal. The octoganal
sikhara style is typically a Dravida feature, which is found in Dharamaraja
ratha and Arjuna ratha at Mamallapuram and also in Kazhugumalai
Vettuvankoyil. The similarities between these obviously point out to the Tamil
origin of this phenomenon.119

Hence, the direct Pallava influence on the Ellora temples is quite possible in
view of the recorded alliance, at about the time when they were made, between
the Rastrakutas and certain members of the Pallava royal family against their
common foe, the Chalukyas.

Percy Brown also points out that the Kailasanatha temple "is clearly an
illustration of the normal development of the Dravidian temple type, adopted to
conform to the particular technique involved".120

The rock-cut techniques followed in both the places are same the Vimana and
sikhara styles are same. Kailash temple at Ellora is unique because that is the
only type found in that region. Similarly Kazhugumalai Vettuvankoyil is the

117
Vijayavenugopl, G. op. cit., pp.451-53.
118
Ibid, p. 54.
119
Ibid., p. 55.
120
Brown, Percy, op. cit., pp. 73-75.

Influence of Kailash Monolith on Later Jaina Cave Architecture at Ellora and Kazhugumalai 285
only type found in Tamil Nadu. Both follow the Pallava art traditions of
monolith carving.

Rulers might have waged wars against each other, but they also admired arts
and architecture. They provided the resources and encouraged the artists. But
the artists developed their own idioms. They evolved certain patterns,
modified and integrated several ideas obtained from different places. It is
might not be proper to label these artistic idioms on the basis of empires but
rather on artistic styles of the artisans.

286 Conclusion
 Chapter-8
Conclusion
The great Kailash monolithic complex at Ellora is undisputedly one of the most
ambitious rock-architectural projects ever undertaken anywhere and brought to
successful conclusion. Considered by any standards of temple modelling, it
deserves the prime place by its aesthetic balance, formal majesty and
iconographic profundity. It should have been conceived and carried out at a time
when structural architecture in the stone medium had already been developed to
an impressive stage makes this magnum opus of the rock-art of the
Rashtrakutas. It is also to be noted that except for the Pallava monoliths at
Mahabalipuram there was no contemporary achievement to take immediate
inspiration from. The unspeakable power of creativeness at Ellora of the
Chalukyas and of Dantidurga Rashtrakuta, tried out for a bold and novel
experimentation of a free-standing model frozen in rock. Krishna, the second
monarch to sit on the throne of the Rashtrakutas, in the capital, perhaps located
near Ellora itself. The craft potential of the place should have already reassured
him of the success of the venture. But it is certainly indisputable that a new
spirit of religion and resurgent art was invoked by the royal patronage in
creating this miniature Kailash. The body mass of Deccan trap rock had thus
been preservingly reduced by a mysterious vision of the royal patron to a
sanctuary of impeccable rhythm. It resulted into the vesture of legend, mythical
and canonical iconography that clothed the shrine model was the expression of
the unsurpassed god-mindedness of the craftsmen.

In its architecture and the spirit underlying it, the Kailash temple had not merely
to be different from the residence of ordinary men but had also to dominate its
surroundings. The upward thrust of the sanctum tower was symbolic of its
Conclusion 287
spiritual eminence. Nevertheless it stood solidly and firmly on the ground like a

288 Conclusion
broad-based pyramid amidst supplementary structures enclosed within a high
wall. While the tower loudly announced the presence of God, at close range the
temple over-whelmed the faithful by the variety and wealth of carvings on its
walls, pillars and ceilings. The temple itself became one enormous piece of
sculpture and its architectural features were often subordinated to the carver's
skill. Figures of gods and goddesses, lovely maidens, floral motifs, elephants,
horses, chariots, battle scenes, dwarfs and demons, stories from legends and
myths and often enough provocative erotic themes. All these sought to picture
before the faithful the righteous ways of the gods and the sins of evil-doers. In
short, the religious faith that the architecture of the temple evokes does not
spring from a cynical denial of life but from its warmest depths. In the
presentation of this idea the Hindu temple-builder was content to be governed
by established conventions rather than his inventive genius.

Long conditioned by a philosophy of self-abnegation, the men who built these

temples and carved their details rarely announced their names. So most of these
structures have remained anonymous. To these temple-builders art was neither
purely secular nor religious. It was all one, basically religious and symbolic.
The architecture of the temple only sought to convey, in spatial terms, the
intensity of their longing to identify the divine with the real.

The temple of Kailasa at Ellora is not only the most stupendous single work of
art executed in India, but as an example of rock-architecture it is unrivalled.
Standing within its precincts and surrounded by its grey and hoary pavilions, one
seems to be looking through into another world, not a world of time and space.
But one of intense spiritual devotion expressed by such an amazing artistic
creation hewn out of the earth itself. Gradually one becomes conscious of the
remarkable imagination which conceived it, the unstinted labour which enabled it
to be materialized (a work of a hundred years), and, finally, the sculpture with
which it is adorned. This plastic decoration is its crowning glory

Conclusion 289
something more than a record of artistic form. It is a great spiritual achievement,
every portion being a rich statement glowing with meaning. The Kailash is an
illustration of one of those rare occasions when men's minds, hearts, and hands
work in unison towards the consummation of a supreme ideal. It was under such
conditions of religious and cultural stability that this grand monolithic
representation of Siva's Paradise was produced.

Kailasa was not certainly born in a day. It shows the assimilation of the most
notable trends in formal architecture, both functional and ritual, and anticipates
the creations of IndraSabha and Chhota Kailasa (Jain caves). The atypical
precursor and successor were Dantidurga's mandapain front of Dasavatra cave,
carrying the inscribed record of that kind and the panchayatana lay-out displayed
on the southern upper ledge of the Kailasha pit. But the distinction in style
between the two aforesaid specimens and Krishna's Kailasha is well taken
because they show between a convincing familiarity with the 'northern' as well as
'southern' architectural modulations, the parallel developments of which had been
the most notable events of the art under the Chalukyas gone by. Together, thus,
with the two Jain monoliths mentioned earlier, they form a most substantial
contribution in the monolithic rock art of free-standing temple style and would
deserve a separate and detailed attention. It is needless to add that the
compressed architectural and plastic idioms, themes, and motifs that represent
the otherwise inert rock-mass of these creations would stand close scrutiny. If the
medium adopted - namely a monolithic rock-scoop was a shade regressive for the
age. The magnitude of sculptural vigour and planimplicit in it could not have
been more convincingly presented against a less colossal back-drop. As the finite
expression of an unshakable faith and resolute action in the religious plane of
contemporary Deccan.

At the time of the inception of the Rashtrakuta monoliths at Ellora, as already

stated, there were only the 'Rathas' of the Pallavas at Mamallapuram, as the

290 Conclusion
fore-runner. But a fairly well distributed patronage favouring monolithic models
was observed by the late eighth century CE, and the one following, and these
largely followed the prevalent local composition in style. The earliest of these,
would be Vettuvankoil at Kalugumalai in the Pandyan country, datable around
800 CE; followed by Dhamnar in Madhya Pradesh (displaying a reasonably
complex Astaparivarashrine-complex of the curvilinear northern type, datable of
mid-ninth century CE). The Charbhuja Vishnu temple on the brim of Gwalior
hill, of the late ninth century CE. The series of seven monoliths at Masrur in
Kangra valley of about the same time; and the small but variant rectangular
shrine (unfinished) with wagon-top sikharaat Coglong in Bihar, of perhaps the
same time, or somewhat later. Ellora's contributions thus, alike in quality as in
quantity, were more than adequate. Its reasonable homogeneity in style and
contemporaneity with stylistic modes elsewhere would seem to make them form
a compact Rashtrakuta milieu, and thus of intrinsic importance. That they should
have been so equally divided between Hinduism and Jainism in their affiliation
would also tend to show the discerning art-patronage of the Rashtrakuta
monarchs and the competitive role of Jainism in the then Western Indian scene.

If we see from the architectural point of view, the cave art at Ellora has many
sidelights. Its ritual framework is reasonably elaborate and well sustains an
integrated god-consort pattern. It presents purely Shaiva contexts as well as
mixed Shaiva and Vaishnava nexus, often predicated in context to a basic Shiva
shrine. The one example prior to it is presented only at Badami, the parent zone,
a purely Vaishnava situation in cave no.3. Rashtrakutas also initially continued
the Shaiva-Vaishnav nexus in its creation at Ellora.

In monolithic stage, this becomes less and an exultant Shaiva domain is

revealed. But one element which spotlights the monolithic mode of the
Rashtrakutas is the provision not only for both extra-Vindhyan and south Indian

Conclusion 291
 usages in layout, but also in a meticulous of a prakāra (surrounding
wall) wall for the temple complex. Thus it may be stated that the
Rashtrakutas, in their monoliths, desired to present the whole temple
panorama and transplanted the scene available at Pattadkal in
Karnataka region.

Throughout, the Jaina workmanship is ofa high order, yet the

planning, at Ellora, is inclined to be haphazard and improvisatory.
Moreover, as in many of the productions of the Jains, in spite of the
beauty of the embellishment, or perhaps in some obscure way on
account of it, there is a cold and impersonal feeling in these rock-cut
halls. It is not found in those of the Buddhist of Hindus, a
circumstance of some irony in view of the pronounced humanitarian
character of the creed that inspired them.

The culmination of monolithic architecture at Ellora not only

represent Kailash as a temple but it is more like a museum of the
sculptures of Hindu deities.

Glossary of Technical Terms 291

 Glossary of Technical Terms
Abhasa : See Cchanda and Vikalpa.

Achalalinga : This would mainly signify a rock-cut linga on its

own
pitha, both of which are immovable. Achalalinga thus is not
necessarily svayambhulinga.

Adhishthana : Plinth part, below the wall part, in a southern

context.
See also table under section IV (a) (i).
Alindra : The deliberately left perambulatory space between the
double walls of the sanctum, both the walls usually carrying
elevational features on their respective exterior. It has a relationship
to the thickness of the cella wall and cella width.

Alpavimana : The implies according to text a temple model

which
has only one tala and one hara. There are representations of such at
Mahabalipuram in Arjuna's penance Bas-relief, as also at Penamaga,
near Undavailli, (Krishna Dist.) of a similar kind.

Amalakasila : The topmost important feature of a northern temple

over the rekha sikhara. It is in the form of the ribbed myrobalan fruit
or its flattened variants…

Anarpitha : See ardhamandapa.

Ardhamandapa : The antechamber immediately

adjoining the
garbhagriha; essentially forming the entrance framework for the
292 Glossary of Technical Terms
 main shrine; known as antarala in the north especially in sandhara
temples; generally rectangular transversely and leading immediately
to the

Glossary of Technical Terms 293

 mahamandapa in the southern temples; in early forms, however,
both in the north and in the south, the temple unit contains only
cella and ardhamandapa, which in such cases would be called the
mukhamandapa, or when very narrow, a praggriva.

Arpita : Signifies in a southern temple, the hara units over each tala, and
prastara, not of free-standing nature forming regular parapets for the
pradakshina passage of successive talas, but rather applied to the
next following tala. Its counterpart is anarpita which is generally an
earlier form, indicating rudimentary provision for pradakshina at
each tala level. the passage involved is actually the alindra of the
southern architectonics.

Arshalinga : A type mentioned in the early texts to represent a linga

shaft which has only a square-sectioned lower half and a
cylindrical-sectioned upper half, the latter of which is thinner at the
base and bulging at the top. Typically noted only in the Chalukyan
early caves of the Deccan, as at Ellora, Elephanta etc.

Ayatasra : Rectangular in plan.

Bandhna : Signifies a horizontal patti or band running across the
exterior wall of the temple, more than once in some cases as in the
Central Indian Chandela temples, where the vertical registers by
such divisions are in harmony with the horizontal lay-out of the
rathas.

294 Glossary of Technical Terms

 Barandika : Represents the topmost part of the bada of the orissan
temple, showing cornice above and occurring over the bada inan
Orissan temple.

Bhadra : Essentially means the cardinal opening or projection.

In northern or southern temple plan it represents the cardinal ratha,
and signifies a tmple open on all the four sides, when used as a
sarvatobhadra. In south such a projection is also called mukha
bhadra.

Bharani : Represents the capital part of a pillar in northern usage,

corresponds to the padma and phalaka of the southern usage.

Bhitti : Represents the wall part of a temple and corresponds to pada of the
southern usage, jangha of the northern usage, bada of the eastern
and Kalinga usage and mandovara of the western Gujarati usage : is
found in this form in the earliest northern texts.
Bhumi : Literally, a vertical division of the super-structure, but essentially
employed in non-functional storeyed forms as in the Nagara rekha
sikhara, where it roughly stands for each of the nodes of the vertical
profile, delimited by a karnamalaka.
Cchanda : A term used in relation to other terms like jati, vikalpa
and abhasa and generally meaning certain gradations of the super
structural units, and probably also divisible in the form of free
standing temples, full relieved temples, partially relieved niche
models, and painted specimens respectively.

Glossary of Technical Terms 295

 Chalalinga : It is different from the svayambhu as well as achala.
This represents the category of all the lingas which are detachable
from the pithas and are not fixed naturally.

Chaturasra : Square in plan, representing one of the three major

fundamental architectural plans of temples, the other two being
astasra (octagonal), and vritta (circular). There are also ayatasra or
rectangular and Vrittayata or apsidal forms, the square essentially
pertaining to the northern temples. Ashtasra (octagonal) plan relates
to a Dravida temple in its pure form, but relates mainly to the form
of its sikhara and griva.

Chatushki : A complete mandapa unit found integrated with the

balcony porch of the sabhamandapa the pillars being four in number
and carrying decorative forms on the ceiling above.

Chitra : Generally meaning a picture or engraving, but in architectural

texts intended essentially to mean a sculpture in the round.
Chitrabhasa : See chitra and chitrardha. The terms means a
depiction,
in paint, of a divine form.
Chitrardha : It is different from Chitra. This means carving in
relief—a bas-relief.

Devakoshtha : Stands for the niches containing shrines of

divinities in
stipulated form and directions, as enjoined in the texts.
Dharalinga : One of the early linga forms in the south. It
represents
a shaft with multi-faceted or multi-fluted exterior meeting at the top
which is usually mildly flattened. In such cases, it does not have
any pitha or any visible

296 Glossary of Technical Terms

 pindika. Later dharalingas show divisions of the vertical part into
lesser and greater flutes. Dharalingas are considered to be the best
form of the lingas.

Dravida : One of the three major divisions of temple styles often

used in Silpa texts, the other two being Nagara and Vesara; it is
essentially restricted in texts to designate the octagonal diagonistic
sikhara feature, but has considerably more component features, for
identifying a temple as Dravida in a clinching way.
Dvara : Means gate-way, and it is divided into many forms in early texts,
such as dvarasala, dvarasobha, etc., and contains the germs for latter
day gopuradvaras. One of the earliest dvaras in south India will be
seen around Kailasanatha Shrine at Kanchi and the Shore Temple,
Mahabalipuram facing east.

Dvarapalas : These are the door keepers or pratiharas as known

in
northern usage and could sometimes by dvarapalikas as for Durga,
corresponding to pratiharis. They are generally found on the door
frame of the cella in Deccan, and North where they are also
accompanied by Ganga and Yamuna along side on their respective
mounts, namely, the makara and the kurma. In the south they are
generally placed outside the main temple units, be it arhamandapa
or mahamandapa in its most original lay-out and, as a result serve to
indicate the original limit of the temple, by their location. They
wear ayudhas reflecting and personifying the Sivaite or Vaisnavite
or Vaisnavite main deity.

Glossary of Technical Terms 297

 Dvarasakhas : These are the overdoors of the main doorway
entrance
into the cella. While these sakhas vary from a single one to
elaborate panchasakha units, they also differ in their lay-o0ut and
details, and are slightly orr-setted in Deccani usage, while they are
horizontally spread out elsewhere. The important sakhas of the
southern door frame are nagasakha, patrasakha, stambhasakha and
pushpasakha. They are usually encased in a frame work of
padmakosa. The lower southern Indian practice is that of a plain
featureless door frame.

Dvyasra : A term used apparently to denote a rectangle ending

with as apse. It could thus be well called a vrittayata, although the
latter could equally well mean the elliptical form. It is a prevalent
view that dvyasra has become 'vesara' in the terminological jargon.

Gajatalu : A component element of vitana decoration consisting

of integrated depressions at successive courses forming a series of
kosas or coffers, releving the projections in between the two.
Gavaksha : Pierced window-openings for ventilation and light.

Ghanadvara : The represents a large grill-window or a pilastered

niche provided on the cardinal points of the main shrine on its outer
walls. It implies essentially a false door. It is flanked on the outside
by two free-standing pillars. Such types are generally seen in the
Nagara prasadas of the North and the Deccan.

Ghantasamavarana : Miniature turrests running along the radial

limgs of the
exterior roof over the sabhamandapa and the chatushki,

298 Glossary of Technical Terms

 of a northern temple; shaped in the form of a ghanta or a bell
complete with a thin amalaka and a kalasa on top. A host of such is
a samvarana, receding courses of such rise in a stpped form on a
roof of the ancillary walls of the temple.

Griva : The nick of the super structure. See also table under section IV (a)
(i)

Hara : A string, literally, and connotes the string of shrine- miniatures

that runs over the parapet of each tala (generally excluding the last,
except in very early contexts) and comprising kutas at the corners,
and salas in between. Sometimes panajara units are also displayed in
the hara. See under panjara.

Harantara : The recession between kuta and sala in the southern

context and the bhadra, anuratha and kurna in the northern where it
is also called the salilantara, since it facilitates storm water drainage.

Jagati : See under padma. It is a recurrent form in southern temples at the

base of the adhishthana above the upana and is plain vertical right
angular moulding; it is different from the jagati of the northern
temple where it signifies a spacious structurai terrace upon which
the main temple is erected.

Jangha : See bhitti.

Jativimana : It is a type differentiating it from jatitara types and

from a mukhya vimana, and respresenting temple model which has
upto four talas.

Glossary of Technical Terms 299

 Kailasa : A primary form like Vairaja etc., and representing a
circular plan.

Kakshasana : A seat-back provided above the vedi on the inner

side
of the sabhamandapa along its outer limit, particularly in the
cardinal projections of the balconies.

Kalasa : The most important and topmost part of a temple structure;

showing a properly consecrated pot form usually encased in copper
metal. No temple is fit for or deemed as in active worship without
its being in position.

Kani : Known also as Karnika. This northern term is essentially depcting

a flattened kumuda-like moulding rising above the padma on the
plinth. It is very typical in Gujarat architecture.

Kapotabandha : An adhishthana form whose top member is a

kapota;
unlike that of padabandha and pratibandha, which have a patika. A
kapotabandha further should normally have a vrittakumuda, but
occasionally tripatta; typical of Chalukyan region and used early
only once in the south, in Dharmaraja ratha.

Karna : Signfies the corner unit of the plinth and wall carrying its on
superstructural elements in harmony with the main temple style.
Karnamalaka : Represents the end of each bhumi on the super
structure of a nagara rekha sikhara.

Karnatilaka : Represents a miniature Nagara sikhara unit placed at

the joinery between the main sikhara and the antarala on the side
profile; not found in the southern usage.

300 Glossary of Technical Terms

Kati : The term employed to represent pada or bhitti or jangha or slightly
later usage and is so mentioned in Visnudharmottara.
Kshipta : A vitana type wherein the designs are cut-in an
integrated mode, the patterns laid one within the other.

Kudyastambha : The pillars which additionally support a pada

and are
placed at regular intervals on the exterior of the wall over the plinth.

Kumuda : An important moulding of the adhishthana; see under

pattika. It has two classes, the vritta kumuda and the tripatta
kumuda, which are self explanatory. In Chalukyan country, we have
a multi-faceted kumuda also, in early usage, as at Aiholi, Nagaral
etc.
Kuta : A 'sikhara' unit in the 'southern' style, which has a square plan nad
is basically capping an alpa vimana or single-storeyed unit, but
stands for miniature or kshudra alpa vimana part of the multi-
storeyed temple. In these, it occupies the corner (karnakuta) of the
parapet, above the entablatures, of each storey or tala.
Kuta-chhadya : Essentially northern in connotation. It represents
the
plain projecting externally ribbed chajja-like cornice overhanging
main beam on the top of the jangha. Temples without kutachhadya
are often found in the north, particularly in Eastern India.

Lalatabimba : This represents a small ritual carved tablet located

in
the centre of the lintel of the cella door. It is popularly taken as oa
cognizancc of the religious affiliation of the deity within, but could
indeed be a merely auspicious

Glossary of Technical Terms 301

 common motif, employed more on a regional pattern than anything
else. The usual lalatabimba devatas are Gajalakshmni, Ganesa,
Garuda, Lakulisa, Anantasayi etc.

Latina : A term found in some northern texts to represent the highly

intricate and over-lapping Jalaka patterns on the rekha sikhara of the
northern temple.

Linga : Originally meaning a mere symbol or a formal criterion, having

the same sense as chinha, later appropriated to Svaite usage and
taking the form of a vertical shaft of stone either plain or facated. It
is also releved with figure work in the earliest instances. In such a
case, it is called a mukhalinga and may have a single mukha or five
mukhas. These are mounted directly on the square base and thus
vertically support the originally iconic character of Siva turned into
the symbolic pillar form subsequently.

Manasutra : The vertical plumb-line delimiting the projections of

the kapota or cornice and essentially coalescing with the projection
of the upana of the lowest moulding of the plinth in southern
temples, but not necessarily so, in the northern temples. In northern
temples, particularly in early medieval stages, the plinth flares out
much wider off than the drip line of the cornice.

Manchabandha : An adhishthana type of the simplest kind in the

form of
a high kantha, with an upana below and a pattika or kapota above. A
very popular chalukyan usage here it has a kapota top.

302 Glossary of Technical Terms

 Mandovara : See Bhitti.

Manika : Of the same group as Vairaja and Kailasa. It represents

an elliptical form.
Mulabhera : The main deity, usually of stone (Sila), brick and
stucco (Sudha) or in wood (daru) or in paint (Abhasa), and both in
iconic and aniconic forms.

Mulamanjari : The main tower found within the encircling

urashrin
gas or miniature half-turrests applied to it. In the earliest northern
usage of the term as in Visnudharmottara, in the form of manjari, it
represents the superstructure itself.

Mukhapatti : Horse-shoes snaped or trefoil barge board of

sukanasa
or even smaller nasikas. These are decorated in the former with side
cusps bearing nagas and with resette series along the border,
representing nail heads.
Mukhya vimana : Signifies a temple which has more than four
talas. The
text prescribes that a maximum number of talas for most of the
mukhya vimanas is between 12 to 15 and in any case, could not be
more than about 200 ft. in height. The term is essentially of southern
usage. The Great temple at Tanjore is an outstanding expression of
the highest example of the mukhya vimana with 13 talas.

Nabhicchanda : A major type of vitana in a northern mandapa

consisting of receding annular rings on the ceiling, ending in a
penentive and supported by brackets rising from the pillar corbels
and decorated with mandanikas as bracket struts.

Glossary of Technical Terms 303

 Nagara : Generally taken to mean 'northern' temples owing to
their sharp divergence from southern or Dravida; stands for a square
sectioned temple, whose sikhara is of the rekha type surmounted by
an amalakasila sometimes. It is, rather obscurely, taken to represent
any temple, in early Tamil literature.
Nasika : Representing small dormer windows on kapotas, prastaras and
sikhara roofs; shaped essentially in the form of the original Buddhist
chaitya dormer, owing to their peculiar projection forward, they are
known as such. In the most significant and larger-sized projection at
the base of the Sikhara on the main direction of orientation of the
temple or all the four cardinal directions, they are called sukanasa or
mahanasika respectively.
Nirandhara : As opposed to sandhara, this has a single wall for its
main temple cella and the pradakshina is to be made around it on the
open court or terrace. Generally a characteristic of southern temples.

Oma : Basal pitha of a pillar—generally found in the Deccani and

Northern series, but not in a temple of Tamilnadu until mediaeval
times. Its use is also noted in some texts only.
Pada : Wall part, above the adhishthana or plinth and below the cornice,
in southern context.

Padabandha : One of the adhishthana types of early southern

temples,
differing from the other importantform, namely,

304 Glossary of Technical Terms

 pratibandha in the two features, having a vritta kumuda and often
not having a prati.
Padma : Standing for the cyma recta of western usage and usually found in
the northern or Deccani usage and in the later southern temples. In
the earlier ones its place is assumed by a plain jagati or rectangular
high moulding.

Panjara : Meaning a cage and representing a nasika supported by

pilastered frame work at the lower levels of the tala and generally
located in the recessions of the harantara or salilantara portions of
the wall face. Where it is having a regular sikhara miniature, as
sometimes in evolved pre-mendieval Deccan usage, it is called
sikhara panjara. Where it has the base of the pilaster a large kumbha
and overflowing foliage on the top, as in the mediaeval southern
usage, it is called a kumbha panjara, and so on.
Parvaradevata : A subsidiary deity, which
is subordinate to and
attendant upon the main deity or mulabhera of a temple, in a given
sectarian context.

Pattika : Heavy oblong-sectioned topmost moulding of the

adhishthana in the southern temples, the other parts being kantha,
kumuda, padma or jagati and upana. It projects over the kantha. In
Tamil texts called 'agrapattiyal'.

Phalakalinga : A form mentioned in the text suggesting a

linga made
out of a rectangular or flattish block or nodule of rock. Some of
them are early. We have interesting specimens

Glossary of Technical Terms 305

 of this kind, though slightly later, at Gudimallam, where, however,
it is relieved with figure carvings.
Pindi or Griha pindi : The coping slab, single usually, that seals the
superstructure below the griva level; also stands for the wall
immediately surrounding the main deity in the cella.

Pindika : This is essentially the support or platform or pedestal,

upon which either the linga or the image is placed. In the former
case, it could be called a pitha where it rises fairly high; and where
it is kept very low almost close to the floor and often in a single
slab, it may be called pindika.

Pishtika : Stands for jagati of the northern usage and upapitha of

the southern usage and is employed in Kalinga
architecture.

Praggriva : Represents an incipient mukamandapa or antarala

terminating the temple unit, the only other part being the cella. Not
used in the south.

Prakara : The wall erected around the main temple unit, leaving
open space around for perambulation of the deity as well as the
devotee. It is intended as a measure of protection as mentioned in
the texts and employed mainly in the south.

Pramala : This signifies the provision architecturally made for

discharge of a abhisheka water from within the garbhagriha to the
prakara both for drainage as well as for ritual utilization by the
devotees. The earliest temples in the south upto the time of the
early Cholas

306 Glossary of Technical Terms

 generally do not have the pranala projections. In these instances it is
just a water channel (where found) essentially cut on the topmost
member of the adhisthana. In the Deccan how ever, there is a mixed
usage of pranalas as well as plain slab-cut water channels or nalas,
running at the level fot eh inner sandhara prasada and provided with
a reception opening within the cella. The pranalas according to texts
should be cut in the form of simha-vaktra (iron face) and should be
ridden over the nandi or ganas. The terminal is either in the form of
a makara or a vyala or an elephant trunk in the evolved cases. The
pranala is essentially different from varimarga or ambuumarga.

Prasada : A term generally employed to signify palace in civic

architecture in early times, but coming to mean temples
subsequently, of the northern type more commonly as a Nagara
Prasada. the southern usage prefers the word vimana although
Prasada is used.
Prastara : Entablature, namely, the parts above the pada or wall
part and below the griva or the neck part in the southern context.
For equival9ent terms in other regions see under section IV (a) (i).

Prati : The topmost course, cut or placed on the pattika or kapota, as the
case may be of the adhisthanal; it signifies the level of the
garbhagriha floor and is a basic level for compulation of elevational
portions. It is from this word that the Tamil word padi for step is
derived.

Glossary of Technical Terms 307

 Pratibhandha : An adhishthana type of the southern temples
tenerally
having a tripatta kumuda and a bold prati; usually o0lder in
provenance than the padambandha type.

Pushpaka : Of the same class as Vairaja, Kailasa, and Manika. It represents a

rectangular form.
Rajasenaka : A relieved figure carving shown on a band
immediately resting below the vedika of the northern usage; it
shows animated scenes of royal army etc.

Ratha : Graduated projections of a temple plan in the northern usage,

where ti could be triratha, pancharatha or saptaratha according to the
evolution of the style. Each of the projections in such cases is also
called rathaka.

Ruchaka : Square form as applied to pillar cross-section.

Essentially employed in northern texts. The other forms of pillar
sections are svastika (octagonal), vritta (circular), Bhadra (with
pratirathas), Vardhamana or pancharatha, shadasraka, (hexagonal).
It is interesting to note that these cover the Nagara, Dravida and
Vesara forms also (respectively of square, octagonal or hexagonal
and circular).

Sabhamandapa : Sometimes called the ranga mandapa. It is

the most
ornate outer vestibule of a northern temple, open on one, two or
three siedes and provided with a torana on the axial outer end;
corresponds to the mahamandapa of the southern temple usually
separate from themain unit; divided into nine compartment on plan
by the pillar series and thus to be called a navaranga mandapa.

308 Glossary of Technical Terms

 Sahasralinga : Evolved early mediaeval linga from wherein,
tier after
tier miniature lingas as picked out on the curved surface of the
lingashaft. In the north or western India it goes by the name of
Hazara linga.

Saktidhvaja : This signifies the upper part of the nasika face or

front
of a sukanasa; contains pennants and a simhalata or simha or vyala
crest.

Sala : Similar in import and usage to kuta and is found in multi-storyed

shrines along with the kuta and alternatingly. It always occurs in the
middle section in such cases, and never on the corners for the
obvious reason of its being rectangular in plan.

Salilantara : Also known as Jalantara (northern term), it largely

stands for the harantara recess of the southern usage. Its purpose is
for the drainage of water from the superstructure roof through nalas,
kept above the cornice in this recess, making them unobtrusive.
Samatala : A vitana type of a northern temple mandapa of almost level
horizontal ceiling design.

Sandhara : A shrine which has a closed perambulatory circuit

between the inner garbhagriha wall and the surrounding exterior
wall. Essentially a feature associated with northern temples but
rarely and not regularly found in the southern types.
Sardulas : These are the mythical leogriphs combining a lion and
the gryphon and employed as an embellishment not only in the
salilantara recesses of the tmple wall, but

Glossary of Technical Terms 309

 also on the roofs of the sambhamandapa and mahanasika, shown
with one of their fore-paws raised.
Sikhara : In the 'southern' style denotes only the topmost major
component of the temple elevation, above the griva or neck and
below the stupi. In the 'northern' usage, it stands for those whose the
superstructure of above the cornice level is.

Sringa : Miniature sikhara units placed all around the main superstructure
at the lowest level, the corresponding upper units of similar
character are called Urahsringas.
Stupi : The topmost ritual part of a temple elevation. It includes generally
the kalasa and the finial proper.
Sukanasa : Also called Mahanasika. This shows the integral
projection of the basal part of the superstructure forming the roof of
the antarala (or ardhamandapa). It is of two varieties, depending
upon whether the structure is a Nagara Prasad or a southern vimana.
In the former, it is in the form of the mammoth trefoil nasika
complete with the mukhapatti saktidhvaja and simahalalata. In the
southern, it takes essentially the form of a front-on sala, reared upon
a pada. The sukanasas are practically unknown in the temples south
of the Andhradesa, but are a diagnostic feature of the Chalukyan
genre.
Svayambhulinga : This signifies the natural form which have
taken the
shape of lingas and have been found fit for consecration and
erection of temples in situ over them. Svayambhulinga, thus, is
never planted.

310 Glossary of Technical Terms

Tala : Storey and generally involving a plinth, a pada, a prastara, a griva,
over which in a series occurs a sikhara, as in the southern style.
Tarangabodhika : Wavy corbel with or without a median band.
The caves
could themselves be in simple series or in paired volute forms or
with the corner rolls in involute type, or in double roll one above the
other, as in the chalukyan monuments.

Torana : This is an ornamental device used either in a free-

standing manner or in relief. In the former mode, it is located in
front of the mukhamandapa, at the very entrance into the temple
unit, and in the latter mode it is to be found in niche shrines on the
exterior walls. The free-standing citra torana could be very
elaborate, as in Gujarat where it is provided with two massive full
scale pillars surmounted by double architrave beams with makara
terminals and bearing a makara torana on the upper architrave.
Without the architraves and forming a continuous curved arch over
the pillars, it is found in Kalingadesa as at Bhubanesvar
(Muktesvar). In the form of relieved outer frame work of niche
shrines, it consists of two broad types, the stambha- torana and the
makaratorana. The latter would itself be either a patra-torna almost
entirely or makara-torana. Engaged toranas are also utilized as part
of the pillar frame work of the Sabha-mandapa in northern temples.
In such cases they rise from the upper part of the pillar in the form
of engrailed arches and are made to bear

Glossary of Technical Terms 311

 partially the weight of the cross-beams and serve essentially the
purpose of brackets.
Trivishtapa : Of the same group as Vairaja, Kailasa etc. It represents
an octagonal form.

Upana : The lowest and plain moulding of the adhishthana forming a basal
preparation of the temple plinth.

Upapitha : The basal additional and optional functional part of the

plinth below the adhishthana proper in a southern temple, often
consists of a simple macha bandha; generally employed only in
evolved temples or in special contexts, where the shrine does not
have sufficient elevated position.

Urahsringa : Miniature semi-towers which are applied to ths

main
structure both in the bhadra part as well as on the ratha and are
themselves receding backwards as they go up, and encase the
mulamanjari—a typical character of the Central Indian Chandela
and the Lata (Gujarat) temples of early mediaeval times.
Utsavabhera : The subsidiary to the image in the sanctum, and
the
main ritual image subjected to movement and abhisheka during
festivals, and which is usually made of bronze and prevalent mainly
in South India. It is placed either in front of the mulabhera in the
sanctum, or in the mahamandapa or a portable mancha or table.

Uttaranga : The mouldings and architectural parts above the uttara

of the main door frame of the garbhagriha. They usually carry
miniatures of temple vimanas or prasadas, and in the latter
northern usage have, in

312 Glossary of Technical Terms

 addition, the Saptamatras and Navagrahas, as in
Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Vairaja : A primary form, one among the five, representing a
square, and mentioned in early texts like
Visnudharmottara.

Valabhi : This is the zone located under the cornice known as the
kapota. It is essentially an overriding course connecting the uttara
with the prastara and tying the cornice (Kapota) as a cantilever. It is
usually decorated wither with a row of bhutas or ganas in which
case it is called a bhutavari; or it is embellished with hamsa or
geese. Usually in evolved contexts the valabhi is either having a
simple padamatala motif or is left plain with mild curvature. Rarely,
it is also of the bevel type. Etymologically, the valabhi would
represent turret roof and it is probably in this context that this term
is employed in the northern texts like Visnudharmottara.

Varimarga : This is a channel provided partially within the

garbhagriha and projecting into the thickness of the wall meeting
the pranala for the discharge of abhisheka water. Early temples
show essentially a varimarga, but no specific pranala. By reference
to a ban on the cutting of the top moulding of adhishthana for a
varimarga, the texts imply their provenance earlier. Early Pallava
temples have, one and all of them, only varimargas cut on the plinth
top. In the southern tradition during the circumambulation of the
cella either in sandhara types or in open prakara type a

Glossary of Technical Terms 313

 varimarga is crossed to reach the front of the temple. In the evolved
northern tradition, howeve the varimarga particularly is siva shrines
is not to be crossed, but the devotee is to retrace his step backwards
to the nandi mandapa. Usages as sell as textual references up hold
this.

Vedi : Represents a parapetting mainly divided into a series of pilasters

and intended to provide an outer walling over the plinth. In the
north, it additionally serves the purpose of having a kakshasana and
a chatushki borne over dwarf pillars forming open balconies in the
sabhamandapa of the temples.

Vesara : Notwithstanding the differences about its suggested connotation

and its covering the circular corss-section, also the term probably
stands for apsidal structure of gajaprishthakriti in elevation and
having a chaitya pent-house front for its super structure, the area of
its largest and prime incidence is the zone between Narmada and the
Krishna rivers.

Vikalpa : See Cchanda.

Vimana : The full minimal shrine unit, covering from plinth to
the spire (upanadi stupid paryantam). The term is used mainly to
refer to a Dravida or southern temple type, as different from the
word Prasada, which is used in the 'northern' context. (See under
Prasada). It is used only in religious and never in a secular context.

Vimanadevatas : Figures of divinities placed in koshthas on the

cardinal
points and sometimes on the vidiks also on the

314 Glossary of Technical Terms

 superstructure of the vimana at successive talas. The text prescribe a
specific vyaha for such vimana devatas, appurtenant to Saiva or
Vaishnava usage.

Vinyasasutra : An axial thread line indicated the norm of the

plinth
lay-out, the nature of the projections and recessions of the
madhyasala, karnakutas and the harantaras at plinth level. the
vinyasasutra line is generally dead straight in most of the southern
temples, while in northern temples the projection of the central
(Bhadra) part beyond the lateral parts in various ratha off-sets
results in ratha-from becoming the norm :

Vitana : Literally a ceiling, either with free-standing pillars and canopy of

part of the main structure or mandapa itself.

Vitanas : They are generally severely plain in southern temples.

They are found with a navagraha grid and a central panel of god-
head, in the Deccan, as in Chalukyan temples. But in the north,
particularly in Gujarat, they are provided with infinite variations of
patterns and are divisible into same-tala and nabhichchanda types.
These in turn have themselves many varieties of the kshipta typ-e or
kshipto-kshipta type, employing gajatalu or cusped teeth or moulds
and pendentives in the centre.

Vyalavari : Literally the gryphon course; it is a conventional

structural blocking-course or rafters running both longitudinally and
transversely and forming a framework, upon which the pada of each
tala including its cornice is sustained. Uusually in early specimens,
it

Glossary of Technical Terms 315

 is embellished by showing the projecting rafter ends as vyalamukhas only
or as vyalas in lateral full aspects, the corresponding cross rafters which tie
them being shown as having makara terminals. The vyalavari is usually
but not always found below the topmost member (pattika or kapota) of the
adhish than and correspondingly in the subsequent tales as the upper
member of the prastara below the vedi and griva of the hara. In evolved
architectural stages, the vyalavari tends to follow strictly the original wood
techniques, and displays only plain rafter ends and terminals.
oni : Generally taken as meaning Avudayar (Tamil) or the pindika or the pitha
in mediaeval usage, in relation to the word linga, particularly when such a
pitha is circular and with a water chute projection on the northern side. But
its originally meaning in the Sipa texts is that of a specific ritual
orientation of the main image and its platform to be fixed according to
Ayadi shadvarga formula, yoni itself being one of the shadvargas, the
others being aya, vyaya, tithi, etc.

Bibliography 315
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