ELC2702

Electronic Circuits and Systems

Dr. Mohamed El-Dakroury

[email protected]
Mid term=30, Project and Oral=20 (Project 10, oral or MCQ 10), lab=10
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 2 Instructor: mdakroury
 Class Materials
• Textbook:
Microelectronic Circuits (5th or 6th or 7th Edition)
by A. Sedra, K. Smith, Oxford Univ. Press 2004,
2010, 2015
• Other Books:
Fundamentals of Microelectronics 2nd Ed. By B. Razavi,
Wiley Press 2014

• Lecture notes will be posted on Teams

• Assignments will be posted online at Teams

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 3 Instructor: mdakroury

 Course topics
• Current Sources & Differential Amplifiers
• Operational Amplifier (Op Amp) as a black box
• Op Amp circuits
• Active Filters
• Oscillators

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 4 Instructor: mdakroury

Introduction
 Early History of IC Devices
Lee DeENIAC-The
Forest, 1906
first digital computer

1940’s: Vacuum-tube era

– Vacuum tubes were used for radios,
television, telephone equipment,
and computers
… but they were expensive, bulky,
fragile, and energy-hungry
→ Invention of the point-contact transistor
▪ Walter Brattain, John Bardeen,
and William Shockley, Bell Labs, 1947
Nobel Prize in Physics 1956
– reproducibility was an issue, however
→ Invention of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
▪ William Shockley, Bell Labs, 1950
– more stable and reliable; easier and cheaper to make
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 6 Instructor: mdakroury
 Discrete Electronic Circuits
• In 1954, Texas Instruments produced the first commercial
silicon transistor.

~$2.50 each

• Before the invention of the integrated circuit, electronic

equipment was composed of discrete components such as
transistors, resistors, and capacitors. These components,
often simply called “discretes”, were manufactured separately
and were wired or soldered together onto circuit boards.
Discretes took up a lot of room and were expensive and
cumbersome to assemble, so engineers began, in the mid-
1950s, to search for a simpler approach…
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 7 Instructor: mdakroury
 The Integrated Circuit (IC)
• An IC consists of interconnected electronic components in a
single piece (“chip”) of semiconductor material.
– In 1958, Jack S. Kilby (Texas – In 1959, Robert Noyce
Instruments) showed that it (Fairchild Semiconductor)
was possible to fabricate a demonstrated an IC made in
simple IC in germanium. silicon using SiO2 as the
insulator and Al for the
metallic interconnects.

The first planar IC

(actual size: ~1.5mm diameter)

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 8 Instructor: mdakroury

From a Few, to Billions of Components
• By connecting a large number of components, each performing
simple operations, an IC that performs complex tasks can be built.
• The degree of integration has increased at an exponential pace
over the past ~40 years.
– The number of devices on a chip doubles
every ~2 years, for the same price. Intel Penryn® Processor

“Moore’s Law” still holds today.

300mm Si wafer

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 9 Instructor: mdakroury

 The Silicon Revolution
• Steady progress in integrated-circuit technology over 40+ years
has had dramatic impact on the way people live, work, and play.
• The semiconductor industry is approaching $300B/yr in sales:

Military
2% Communications
Computers
24%
42%

Industrial Transportation Consumer Electronics

8% 8% 16%
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 10 Instructor: mdakroury
 Biasing of BJT
• Transistors must be biased because
1. They must operate in the active region, and
2. Their small-signal model parameters are set by
the bias conditions.

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 11 Instructor: mdakroury

DC Analysis vs. Small-Signal Analysis
• Firstly, DC analysis is performed to determine
the operating point and to obtain the small-
signal model parameters.
• Secondly, independent sources are set to zero
and the small-signal model is used.

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 12 Instructor: mdakroury

 Simplified Notation
• Hereafter, the voltage source that supplies
power to the circuit is replaced by a horizontal
bar labeled VCC, and input signal is simplified
as one node labeled vin.

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 13 Instructor: mdakroury

 NPN & PNP BJT Small-Signal Model
• The small-signal model for a PNP transistor is
identical to that of an NPN transistor.
– Note that the polarity of the small-signal currents
and voltages are defined to be in the opposite
direction with respect to the large-signal model.
This is OK, because the small-signal model is used
only to determine changes in currents and
voltages.

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 14 Instructor: mdakroury

 Voltage Amplifier
• In an ideal voltage amplifier,
the input impedance is
infinite and the output
impedance is zero.
• In reality, the input and
output impedances depart
from their ideal values.

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 15 Instructor: mdakroury

 Input/Output Impedances
• The figures below show how input and output
impedances are determined.
– All independent sources are set to zero.

vx
impedance 
ix
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 16 Instructor: mdakroury
 Input Impedance Example
• Note that input/output impedances are
usually regarded as small-signal quantities.
– The input impedance is obtained by applying a
small change in the input voltage and finding the
resultant change in the input current:

vx
= r
ix
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 17 Instructor: mdakroury
 Impedance at a Node
• When calculating I/O impedances at a port,
we usually ground one terminal. We often
refer to the “impedance seen at a node”
rather than the impedance between two
nodes (i.e. at a port).

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 18 Instructor: mdakroury

 Impedance seen at the Collector
• The impedance seen at the collector is equal
to the intrinsic output impedance of the
transistor, if the emitter is grounded.

Rout = ro

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 19 Instructor: mdakroury

 Impedance seen at the Emitter
• The impedance seen at the emitter is
approximately equal to the inverse of its
transconductance, if the base is grounded.
vx 1
=
ix g + 1
m
r
1
Rout 
gm
(V A = )

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 20 Instructor: mdakroury

 Summary of BJT Impedances
1. Looking into the base, the impedance is r if
the emitter is (ac) grounded.
2. Looking into the collector, the impedance is
ro if emitter is (ac) grounded.
3. Looking into the emitter, the impedance is
1/gm if base is (ac) grounded and Early effect
is neglected.

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 21 Instructor: mdakroury

 Comparison of BJT Amplifier Topologies
Common Emitter Common Base Emitter Follower
• Large Av < 0 • Large Av > 0 • 0 < Av ≤ 1
- Degraded by RE -Degraded by RE and RS - Degraded by RB/(b+1)
- Degraded by RB/(b+1) - Degraded by RB/(b+1)
• Large Rin
• Moderate Rin • Small Rin (due to RE(b+1))
- Increased by RB - Increased by RB/(b+1)
- Increased by RE(b+1) - Decreased by RE • Small Rout
- Effect of source
• Rout  RC • Rout  RC impedance is
reduced by b+1
• ro degrades Av, Rout • ro degrades Av, Rout - Decreased by RE
but impedance seen but impedance seen
looking into the collector looking into the collector • ro decreases Av, Rin,
can be “boosted” by can be “boosted” by and Rout
emitter degeneration emitter degeneration

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 22 Instructor: mdakroury

 Comparison of MOS Amplifier Topologies
Common Source Common Gate Source Follower
• Large Av < 0 • Large Av > 0 • 0 < Av ≤ 1
- degraded by RS -degraded by RS
• Large Rin
• Large Rin • Small Rin – determined by
- decreased by RS biasing circuitry
– determined by
biasing circuitry • Rout  RD • Small Rout
- decreased by RS
• Rout  RD • ro decreases Av & Rout
but impedance seen • ro decreases Av &
• ro decreases Av & Rout looking into the drain Rout
but impedance seen can be “boosted” by
looking into the drain source degeneration
can be “boosted” by
source degeneration

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 23 Instructor: mdakroury

 Common Emitter Stage

VA =  VA  
vout − RC

vin 1 RB
+ RE +
gm b +1
Rin = RB + r + ( b + 1) RE
Rout = RC Rout  RC || (rO 1 + g m ( RE || r ))
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 24 Instructor: mdakroury
 Common Base Stage

VA = 

vout RC RE
 
vin 1 RB RS + RE
+ RS RE +
gm b +1
 1 RB 
Rin   +  RE VA  
 gm b +1 
Rout = RC Rout  RC || (rO 1 + g m ( RE || r ))
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 25 Instructor: mdakroury
 Emitter Follower

VA =  VA  

vout RE vout RE || rO
= =
vin R + 1 + RS vin R || r + 1 + RS
gm b + 1 gm b +1
E E O

Rin = r + (1 + b ) RE Rin = r + (b + 1)(RE || rO )

 1 Rs   Rs 1 
Rout =  +  || RE Rout =  +  || RE || rO
 gm b +1   b +1 gm 
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 26 Instructor: mdakroury
 Ideal Current Source
Circuit Symbol I-V Characteristic Equivalent Circuit

• An ideal current source has infinite output

impedance.
How can we increase the output impedance of a
BJT that
is used as a current source?
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 27 Instructor: mdakroury
 Boosting the Output Impedance
• Recall that emitter degeneration boosts the
impedance seen looking into the collector.
– This improves the gain of the CE or CB amplifier.
However, headroom is reduced.

Rout = 1 + g m (RE || r )rO + RE || r

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 28 Instructor: mdakroury
 Review: Cascode Stage Rout
• The impedance seen looking into the collector can be boosted
significantly by using a BJT for emitter degeneration, with a
relatively small reduction in headroom.

Rout = [1 + g m (rO 2 || r 1 )]rO1 + rO 2 || r 1

Rout  g m1rO1 (rO 2 || r 1 )

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 29 Instructor: mdakroury

 Another View of a Cascode Stage
• Instead of considering a cascode as Q2
degenerating Q1, we can also think of it as Q1
stacked on top of Q2 (current source) to boost
Q2’s output impedance.

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 30 Instructor: mdakroury

 Temperature and Supply-Voltage
Dependence of Bias Current
• Circuits should be designed to operate
properly over a range of supply voltages and
temperatures.
• For the biasing scheme shown below, I1
depends on the temperature as well as the
supply voltage, since VT and IS depend on
I1 = I S eVBE / VT
temperature.
R2
VBE  VCC
R1 + R2

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 31 Instructor: mdakroury

 Concept of a Current Mirror
• Circuit designs to provide a supply- and
temperature-independent current exist, but
require many transistors to implement.
→ “golden current source”
• A current mirror is used to replicate the
current from a “golden current source” to
other locations.

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 32 Instructor: mdakroury

 Current Mirror Circuitry
• Diode-connected QREF produces an output voltage
VX that forces Icopy1 to be equal to IREF, if Q1 is
identical to QREF.
Current mirror concept Generation of required VBE Current Mirror Circuitry

 I copy1   I REF 

VX = VT ln   = V ln  
 T I 
I S ,1  I S ,1   S , REF 
I copy1 = I REF
I S , REF
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 33 Instructor: mdakroury
 Bad Current Mirror Example 1

• If the collector and base of QREF are not

shorted together, there will not be a path
for the base currents to flow, so that Icopy is
zero.
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 34 Instructor: mdakroury
 Bad Current Mirror Example 2

• Although it provides a path for base currents

to flow, this biasing approach is no better than
a resistive voltage divider.
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 35 Instructor: mdakroury
 Multiple Copies of IREF
• Multiple copies of IREF can be generated at
different locations by applying the current
mirror concept to multiple transistors.

IS, j
I copy , j = I REF
I S , REF
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 36 Instructor: mdakroury
 Current Scaling
• By scaling the emitter area of Qj by a factor of n
with respect to the emitter area of QREF, Icopy,j is
scaled by a factor of n with respect to IREF.
– This is equivalent to placing n unit-sized transistors in
parallel.

I copy , j = nI REF
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 37 Instructor: mdakroury
 Example: Scaled Currents

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 38 Instructor: mdakroury

 Fractional Scaling
• A fraction of IREF can be created in Q1 by
scaling up the emitter area of QREF.

V  V 
I REF = 3I S exp  X  I copy = I S exp X 
 VT   VT 

1
I copy = I REF
3
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 39 Instructor: mdakroury
Example: Different Mirroring Ratios
• Using the concept of current scaling and
fractional scaling, Icopy1 = 0.05mA and Icopy2 =
0.5mA, derived from a single 0.2mA reference
current source (IREF).

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 40 Instructor: mdakroury

 Effect of Base Currents
I copy I copy
I REF = I C , REF + +
nb b

I copy
I C , REF =
n

nI REF
I copy =
1
1 + (n + 1)
b
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 41 Instructor: mdakroury
 Improved Mirroring Accuracy
• Use QF (rather than IREF) to supply the base
currents of QREF and Q1, reduce the mirroring
error
I REF = by I C , REF of b.
I B, Fa+factor
I copy I copy
IC ,F  I E ,F = +
nb b
I copy  1 
I B,F  2  + 1
I C , REF =
I copy
b n 
n

nI REF
I copy =
1
1 + 2 (n + 1)
b
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 42 Instructor: mdakroury
Different Mirroring Ratio Accuracy
I REF = I B, F + 4I C , REF I copy1 I copy2 I C , REF
IC ,F  + +4
b b b
15 I copy1
I B,F 
b2

I REF
I copy1 =
15
4+ 2
b
10 I REF
I C , REF = I copy1 I copy 2 =
15
4+ 2
b
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 43 Instructor: mdakroury
 PNP Current Mirror
• A PNP BJT current mirror can be used as a
current-source load for an NPN BJT amplifier
stage.

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 44 Instructor: mdakroury

 Generation of IREF for a
PNP-BJT Current Mirror

• Neglecting base currents, the currents

flowing through QM and QREF2 are the
ELC2702 Fallsame.
2022 Lecture 1, Slide 45 Instructor: mdakroury
 MOS Current Mirror
• The motivation behind a current mirror is to duplicate a
(scaled version of the) “golden current” to other locations.
Current mirror concept Generation of required VGS Current Mirror Circuitry

W  W 
I REF = nCox   (VX − VTH )
1
nCox   (VX − VTH )2
1
I copy1 =
2

2  L  REF 2  L 1

VX =
2 I REF
 nCox (W / L )1
+ VTH 1
I copy1 =
(W / L )1
I REF
(W / L )REF
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 46 Instructor: mdakroury
 MOS Current Mirror – NOT!
• This is not a current mirror, because the relationship between
VX and IREF is not clearly defined.

• The only way to clearly define VX with IREF is to use a diode-

connected MOS since it provides square-law I-V relationship.
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 47 Instructor: mdakroury
 Diode-Connected MOSFETs
Diode-connected NMOSFET Diode-connected PMOSFET

1 1
RX = ro1 RY = ro 2
g m1 gm2

Small-signal analysis circuit Small-signal analysis circuit

• Note that the small-signal model of a PMOSFET is identical to

that of an NMOSFET
ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 48 Instructor: mdakroury
 Example: Current Scaling
• MOS current mirrors can be used to scale IREF up or down
– I1 = 0.2mA; I2 = 0.5mA

 = 0:

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 49 Instructor: mdakroury

Impact of Channel-Length Modulation
 nCox   (VX − VTH )2 1 +  (VDS1 − VD , sat )
1 W 
I copy1 =
 0 2  L 1
W 
 nCox   (VX − VTH )2 1 +  (VDS1 − VGS + VTH )
1
=
2  L 1

I REF =  nCox   (VX − VTH ) 1 +  (VGS − VD ,sat )

1 W  2

2  L  REF
W 
=  nCox   (VX − VTH ) 1 + VTH 
1 2

2  L  REF

(W / L )1 1 +  (VDS1 − VGS + VTH ) (W / L )1   (VDS1 − VGS ) 

I copy1 = I REF = I REF 1 + 
(W / L )REF 1 + VTH (W / L )REF  1 + VTH 

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 50 Instructor: mdakroury

 CMOS Current Mirror

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 51 Instructor: mdakroury

 Current Mirror with Discrete BJTs
• If QREF and Q1 are discrete NPN BJTs, IREF and
Icopy1 can differ dramatically, due to IS
mismatch.

ELC2702 Fall 2022 Lecture 1, Slide 52 Instructor: mdakroury