Module: 3 - Nozzles

Nozzles
The task of the exhaust nozzle is to convert gas potential energy into kinetic energy (i.e. gas
velocity) necessary for the generation of thrust. This is accomplished solely by the geometrical
shape of the nozzle, which is basically a tube of varying cross-section. Not every nozzle type
performs in the same manner. Depending on the type of aircraft, and design flight speed,
different types of nozzles are employed.

To illustrate the nature of the flow in the different regions of Nozzle we consider the case of a
nozzle designed for air (Ɣ = 1.4) and ait exit Mach number M = 3 under different back
pressure

a. Pa/Pt, = I: The hack pressure is equal to the supply stagnation pressure and there is no
flow in the Nozzle.
b. Pa/Pt = 0.987: The back pressure is low enough to have the flow accelerate and choke
the throat
c. Pa/Pt = 0.70: Here the back pressure is low enough to ensure starting but not low enough
to permit supersonic flow throughout the nozzle. The supersonic flow must “shock
down.” that is. a normal shock must appear to bring down the Mach number to an
appropriate subsonic level so that a higher static pressure is produced behind the shock.
Further diffusion through the increasing area duct serves to bring the pressure at the
exit up to the appropriate level.

d. Pa/Pt = 0.28: In this instance. the back pressure is low enough to ensure supersonic flow
throughout the nozzle but still higher than the pressure at the end of the nozzle.
e. 0.28 :> Pa/Pt > 027: In this range of hack pressure the flow is continuously supersonic
throughout the nozzle and the adjustment of the exhaust pressure takes place through
shock waves occurring outside the nozzle proper. Because the back pressure is higher
than the exit pressure. the nozzle is said to be “over expanded.”
f. Pa/Pt = 0.027: Here the exit pressure is exactly equal to the back pressure, the flow is
continuously supersonic throughout. and the exhaust stream is perfectly adapted to the
surrounding ambient pressure. This case is called the perfectly expanded nozzle.

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Module: 3 - Nozzles

g. Pa/Pt< 0.027: For all back pressures below the perfectly expanded value the flow
through the nozzle is supersonic and the adjustment to the low back pressure takes place
outside the nozzle. This case is called the underexpanded’ nozzle.

Functions of the Nozzles:

 Accelerate the flow to a high velocity with minimum total pressure loss
 Match exit and atmospheric pressure as closely as desired
 Permit afterburner operation without affecting main engine operation
 Allow for cooling of blades
 Mix core and bypass streams of turbofan if necessary
 Allow for thrust vectoring
 Suppress jet noise and infrared radiation
 Thrust vector control.

The exhaust nozzles may be classified as

1. Convergent or C-D types
2. Axisymmetric or two-dimensional types
3. Fixed geometry or variable geometry types

Convergent nozzle

In a convergent nozzle that the cross-section of a duct decrease in the stream wise direction if
a subsonic fluid flow is to be accelerated. A convergent nozzle is fitted to all airliners which
fly at subsonic or transonic speeds. Thus it is either of the axisymmetric or annular geometry.
All subsonic/ transonic turbojets and turboprop engines have one axisymmetric convergent
nozzle

Convergent-Divergent Nozzles

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Module: 3 - Nozzles

For higher exhaust velocities above Mach 1.5. Convergent-Divergent nozzle shape is required.
The geometric characteristic of this nozzle is a decreasing cross- sectional area in its forward
part (much like a convergent nozzle), followed by a cross-sectional increase in its rearward
portion (the divergent section).

In this nozzle, the subsonic flow is accelerated in the converging section up to the minimum
area or throat. It reaches a sonic speed exactly at the throat In the divergent section, pressure is
allowed to decrease below its critical value, with fluid velocity continuing to accelerate to
supersonic values.

Variable Geometry Nozzles

Variable area nozzle, which is sometimes identified as adjustable nozzle, is necessary for
engines fitted with afterburners. Generally, as the nozzle is reduced in area, the turbine inlet
temperature increases and the exhaust velocity and thrust increase.
Three methods are available, namely:
1. Central plug at nozzle outlet
2. Ejector type nozzle
3. IRIS nozzle
Central plug at nozzle outlet

The plug nozzle is the exact analogue of the

isentropic spike inlet. The improvement in otT -
design performance results from the flow
remaining attached to the spike at pressure ratios
below design, while the stream tube leaving the
nozzle contracts to satisfy the requirements for
lower expansion ratio.

Variable geometry ejector nozzle with tailflaps:

This type of nozzle is effective through a secondary airflow and spring-loaded petals. At
subsonic speeds, the airflow constricts the exhaust to a convergent shape. As the aircraft speeds
up, the two nozzles dilate, which allows the exhaust to form a C-D shape, speeding the exhaust
gases past Mach 1 (Figure 11.7). Advantages of the ejector nozzle are relative simplicity and
reliability. Disadvantages are average performance (compared to the other nozzle type) and
relatively high drag due to the secondary airflow

IRIS nozzle

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Module: 3 - Nozzles

Iris nozzle, which is used for higher performance nozzles. This type uses overlapping,
hydraulically adjustable “petals.” Although more complex than the ejector nozzle, it has
significantly higher performance and smoother airflow. It is employed primarily on high-
performance fighters such as F-16. Some modern iris nozzles have the ability to change the
angle of the thrust

Choking Condition:
Ambient pressure is not a constant but decreases with altitude. If the aircraft flies at high
altitude, lower ambient pressure will cause exhaust velocity Ve to increase accordingly. This
process cannot go on indefinitely, however. There is a limit when the jet discharges at sonic
velocity. Static pressure at nozzle discharge is then said to be critical. When nozzle mass flow
rate is at its maximum, the nozzle is said to be ‘choked’, i.e. mass flow cannot be increased any
more. When a jet is discharging from the nozzle at a higher static pressure than ambient
pressure, its expansion is incomplete or under-expanded.

Thrust Reversers:
Based upon the types of engine, the conventional kind of reverse system is built into the
engine nacelle or at the end of the engine. The main function of the thrust reverser is to
redirect the airflow to generate the reverse engine thrust Thrust reverse system is applied
immediately when aircraft lands on the run way. The thrust reverse force is generated by
redirection the air flow through thrust system. In this case, the thrust reverser reaches its
highest value at high speed, but the wheel brakes are restricted by the high velocity. As the
airplane speed slow down, the thrust reverse force also decrease.
TYPES OF THRUST REVERSES

 Clamshell door system is used for turbojet engine;

 Bucket target system is suit for low bypass ratio (BPR) engine,
 Cold stream reverser system is designed for high bypass ratio turbofan engine.
Clamshell door system: forward position, which means the exhaust air flow is not guided by
this reverser system. And the doors situated before the end of the engine compose the
convergent part of the convergent-divergent nozzle.

When the pilot selects the reverse thrust, the two doors actuated by pneumatic system rotate to
the convergent area of the nozzle and form a cone-shaped space closing the exit of the
convergent duct. Meanwhile, the hot gas is directed by the cascade vanes located outside of the
engine. The air flow passed through the cascade vanes generates the opposing thrust.

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Module: 3 - Nozzles

Bucket target system:The bucket door thrust reverser designed at the end of the nozzle makes
up of divergent part of the convergent-divergent nozzle during the flaying situation

The buck door thrust reverser is actuated by hydraulic system. It is also constructed by two
doors actuated by a pushrod system. In the reverse thrust position, these two doors turn to the
end of the engine to deflect air flow which comes from bypass and core engine.

Cold stream reverser system: Cold stream reverser system, is used for high bypass ratio
turbofan engine. In this case, only the bypass air flow accelerated by the fan is guided to the
forward of the aircraft because the main part of the propulsive force is created by the bypass
air flow.
There are two types of cold stream reverser systems.

 cascade reverser,
 pivoting reverser.

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Module: 3 - Nozzles

Thrust Vectoring:

Thrust vectoring is a technique whereby the orientation of the primary exhaust jet from a
propulsive unit is varied in order to provide useful aircraft control moments.

1. Mechanical thrust vectoring is achieved by mechanically deflecting the exhaust

flow of an aircraft using some sort of physical object changes in nozzle
geometry. This is usually achieved using various nozzles or vanes.
2. On the other hand, fluidic thrust vectoring systems use a secondary air jet to control
the direction of the primary jet. Fluidic control in exhaust nozzles includes throat area,
expansion ratio, and thrust vector angle.

Mechanical Thrust Vectoring Methods

1. Flaps :Flaps deflect the engines flow in much the same way as wing flaps
deflect the external air flow see figure (15 a). This type of system introduces a thrust
loss of approximately 3-6% when vectored to 90 degrees. The vectoring flaps can also
be external to the nozzle as a part of the wing flap.
2. Bucket :The bucket thrust vectoring mechanism is similar to the commonly used
clamshell thrust reverser see figure(15 b).The great advantage to this concept is that all
the force is transmitted through the hinge line of the bucket meaning actuators
can be reasonably small. Another advantage of this system is that the turning surface
can be made very efficient. This method can be used to create 90 degree vectoring with
about 2-3% thrust loss.
3. Axisymmetric: In this type of nozzle (figure 15 c) the tailpipe is broken along slanted
lines into three pieces as shown. The three pieces are connected with circular rotating-
ring bearings so that the middle (shaded) piece can be rotated about its longitudinal axis
while the other parts remain un-rotated. This causes the middle and end parts of
the nozzle to vector thrust downward. This vectoring nozzle has a 3-5% thrust loss
when vectoring at 90 degrees
4. Ventral :The ventral nozzle (figure 15 d ) is simply a hole in the bottom of
the tailpipe leading to a downward facing nozzle. The normal exhaust opening is
blocked by some sort of valve. These valves can be used easily on aircraft with
afterburners because they can be placed upstream of the afterburner. These ventral
nozzlesan help solve the balance problem of VTOL aircraft. The ventral nozzle
has a thrust loss of 3-6% when vectored to 90 degrees
3. Elbow Nozzle: This type of nozzle is used on the AV-8 Harrier. The elbow nozzle is
simple and lightweight and doesn’t require much actuating force. A disadvantage of
this design is the fact that the flow is always being turned through a total of
180 degrees, even in forward flight. Because the flow is always being turned this
nozzle type suffers 6-8% thrust loss at all times. All the other types of vectoring nozzle
only impose a thrust loss during vertical flight.

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Module: 3 - Nozzles

Losses in a Nozzle
 Thrust loss due to exhaust velocity vector angularity.
 Thrust loss due to the reduction in velocity magnitude caused by friction in the
boundary layers
 Thrust loss due to loss of mass flow between nozzle entry and exit from leakage
through the nozzle walls
 Thrust loss due to flow no uniformities.

Behavior of the Nozzles at different altitudes

When exit pressure, Pe, is greater than the ambient pressure, Pa,
the expansion process to the ambient pressure is incomplete. The
nozzle is then said to be an under-expanded nozzle. The
opposite conditions prevail when Pe<Pa The exit pressure is
lower than the ambient pressure and the nozzle is said to be over-
expanded.
A rocket traverses different altitudes, and
the ambient pressure decreases as the
rocket moves away from the surface of the
Earth. If the area ratio of the nozzle is
designed for optimum conditions at a
given altitude of operation, it will be
operating in an 'under-expanded' condition
for altitudes higher than the design altitude
(Pe=Pa) whereas it will function as an
'over-expanded' nozzle for the lower
altitudes (Pe<Pa).

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Module: 3 - Nozzles

Engine backpressure control:

The throat area of the nozzle is one of the main means available to control the thrust
and fuel consumption characteristics of an existing engine. In preliminary engine cycle
analysis, selection of specific values for the engine design parameters and the design mass
flow rate fixes the throat area of the nozzle. This assumption of constant areas establishes
the off-design operating characteristics of the engine and the resulting operating lines for
each major component. Changing the nozzle throat area from its original design value will
change the engine design and the operating characteristics of the engine at both on- and
off-design conditions.
At reduced engine corrected mass flow rates, the operating line of a multistage
compressor moves closer to the stall or surge line. Steady-state operation close to the
stall or surge line is not desirable because transient operation may cause the compressor
to stall or surge. The operating line can be moved away from the stall or surge line
by increasing the exhaust nozzle throat area. This increase in nozzle throat area reduces
the engine backpressure and increases the corrected mass flow rate through the
compressor.

Large changes in the exhaust nozzle throat area are required for afterburning engines to
compensate for the large changes in total temperature leaving the afterburner. The
variable-area nozzle required for an afterburning engine can also be used for back pressure
control at its no afterburning settings.

One advantage of the variable-area exhaust nozzle is that it improves the starting of the engine.
Opening the nozzle throat area to its maximum value reduces the backpressure on the
turbine and increases its expansion ratio. Thus the necessary turbine power for starting
operation may be produced at a lower turbine inlet temperature. Also, because the
backpressure on the gas generator is reduced, the compressor may be started at a lower
engine speed, which reduces the required size of the engine starter.

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