Connection Oriented Networks
Connection Oriented Networks
Networks
X.25
X.25
X.25 is generally a protocol that was developed by Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) of
International Telecommunication Union.
It was originally designed for use in the 1970s and became very popular in 1980s. Presently, it is used for
networks for ATMs and credit card verification.
It usually allows various logical channels to make use of same physical line.
It basically defines a series of documents particularly issued by ITU. These documents are also known as
X.25 Recommendations.
X.25 also supports various conversations by multiplexing packets and also with the help of virtual
communication channels.
X.25
It also permits data exchange between terminals with different communication speeds.
X.25 basically encompasses or suits to the lower three layers of the Open System Interconnection
(OSI) reference model for networking. These three protocol layers are :
Physical Layer
Frame Layer
Packet Layer
1. Physical Layer
This layer is basically concerned with electrical or signaling. It lays out the physical, electrical and
functional characteristics that interface between the computer terminal and the link to the packet
switched node.
This layer provides various communication lines that transmit or transfer some electrical signals.
X.21 implementer is usually required for linking.
The physical layer interface for connecting data terminal equipment (DTE), such as computers and
terminals at the customer premises, with the data communications equipment (DCE), such as X.25
packet switches at the X.25 carrier’s facilities. The physical layer interface of X.25 is called X.21bis
and was derived from the RS-232 interface for serial transmission.
2. Data Link Layer
Data link layer is also known as Frame Layer. This layer is an implementation or development of
ISO High-Level Data Link Layer (HDLC) standard which is known as LAPB (Link Access Procedure
Balanced).
It also provides a communication link and transmission that is error-free among any two physically
connected nodes or X.25 nodes.
LAPB also allows DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) or DCE (Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment)
simply to start or end a communication session or start data transmission.
This layer is one of the most important and essential parts of X.25 Protocol.
2. Data Link Layer
This layer also provides a mechanism for checking in each hop during the transmission. This service also
ensures a bit-oriented, error-free, and also sequenced and ordered delivery of data frames or packets. There
are many protocols that can be used in frame-level as given below :
Link Access Procedure Balanced (LAPB) – It is specified by ITU-T Recommendation X usually
derived from HDLC. It is the most commonly used protocol that allows establishing a logical connection.
Link Access Protocol (LAP) – This protocol is very rarely used. This is usually used for framing and
transferring data packets across point-to-point links.
2. Data Link Layer
Link Access Procedure D-channel (LAPD) – It is used to convey or transfer data over D-channel. It
also enables and allows transmission of data among DTEs through D channel especially among a DTE
and an ISDN node.
Logical Link Control (LLC) – It is used to manage and ensure the integrity of transmissions of data.
It also allows transmission of X.25 data packets or frames through a LAN (Local Area Network)
channel.
3. Packet Layer
This layer also governs and manages set-up and teardown and also flow control among
DTE devices as well as various routing functions along with multiplexing multiple logical
or virtual connections.
This layer also defines and explains the format of data packets and also the procedures for
control and transmission of data frames.
This layer is also responsible for establishing a connection, transmitting data frames or
packets, ending or terminating a connection, error and flow control, transmitting data
packets over external virtual circuits.
What is X.25?
A packet-switching protocol for wide area network (WAN) connectivity that uses a public data network
(PDN) that parallels the voice network of the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN). The current X.25
standard supports synchronous, full-duplex communication at speeds up to 2 Mbps over two pairs of wires,
but most implementations are 64-Kbps connections via a standard DS0 link.
X.25 was developed by common carriers in the early 1970s and approved in 1976 by the CCITT, the
precursor of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and was designed as a global standard for a
packet-switching network. X.25 was originally designed to connect remote character-based terminals
to mainframe hosts. The original X.25 standard operated only at 19.2 Kbps, but this was generally sufficient
for character-based communication between mainframes and terminals.
What is X.25?
Because X.25 was designed when analog telephone transmission over copper wire was the norm, X.25
packets have a relatively large overhead of error-correction information, resulting in comparatively low
overall bandwidth. Newer WAN technologies such as frame relay, Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN), and T-carrier services are now generally preferred over X.25. However, X.25 networks still have
applications in areas such as credit card verification, automatic teller machine transactions, and other
dedicated business and financial uses.
• An X.25 network consists of a backbone of X.25 switches that are called
packet switching exchanges (PSEs). These switches provide packet-switching
services that connect DCEs at the local facilities of X.25 carriers. DTEs at
customer premises connect to DCEs at X.25 carrier facilities by using a device
called a packet assembler/disassembler (PAD). You can connect several DTEs
to a single DCE by using the multiplexing methods inherent in the X.25
protocol. Similarly, a single X.25 end node can establish several virtual
circuits simultaneously with remote nodes.
• An end node (DTE) can initiate a communication session with another end
node by dialing its X.121 address and establishing a virtual circuit that can be
either permanent or switched, depending on the level of service required.
Packets are routed through the X.25 backbone network by using the ID
number of the virtual circuit established for the particular communication
session. This ID number is called the logical channel identifier (LCI) and is a
12-bit address that identifies the virtual circuit. Packets are generally up to 128
bytes in size, although maximum packet sizes range from 64 to 4096 bytes,
depending on the system.
A network following the X.25
standard is made up of three basic
parts.
Data terminal equipment are
the network hosts and personal
computers that use the network.
Data circuit terminating
equipment are the modems and
packet switches that allow
communication between
computers and the network.
Packet switching exchanges are
the switches that actually transfer
data through the network.
Frame Relay
Frame Relay
Frame Relay (frame relay) is a packet switching technology that fragmented into
transmission units called frames and sent in high-speed bursts through a digital network.
Establishes an exclusive connection during the transmission period called virtual
connection.
It uses a technology called fast packet in which error checking does not occur in any
intermediate node of the transmission but done at the ends. It makes it more efficient than
X.25, and a higher process speed achieved (it can transmit over 2,044 Mbps).
Another advantage is that you need less powerful switching centers (nodes) and with
less memory capacity than those needed by X25 (each X25 switching center uses the
receive-store-check-relay method, while Frame Relay does not need checking or
correcting errors).
Frame Relay Devices are
DTE − Data Terminal Equipment
DCTE: − Data Circuit Terminating Equipment
Various key features of this protocol are as
follows:
1. The call control packets are used for setting up and clearing virtual
circuits.
2. In band signaling is used.
3. Multiplexing of virtual circuits takes place at layer 3.
4. Layer 2 and 3 include flow control and error control.
Characteristics of Frame Relay
Physical layer
• Frame relay supports ANSI standards.
• No specific protocol is defined for the physical layer.
The user can use any protocol which is recognized by
ANSI.
• The frame relay is being used for a number of reasons. Some of the
important reasons are as follows:
1. Higher data rates.
2. It allows transfer of bursty data.
3. It has lower overheads.
• Let us discuss these points one by one.
1. Higher Data Rates
In frame relay network, there are no acknowledgements sent from the switches
back to the sender.
There is no intermediate error check. The error checking takes place only at the
destination.
The intermediate host/switch does not keep a copy of the packet forwarded to the
next host/switch. This saves a lot of memory space of the hosts and switches.
All this lead to reduced overheads.
Frame relay architecture:
Frame relay can support the Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) as well as Switched
Virtual Circuits (SVC).
Whether to use PVC or SVC is decided by the user, based on the data transmission
requirements and the budget.
The Frame Relay works on the basis of virtual circuits. These virtual circuits are
created and used in the data link layer.
Each virtual circuit is identified by a number called Data Link Connection Identifier
(DLCI).
When a virtual circuit is established, a DTE (Data Transmission Equipment) is
provided with a DLCI which it can use to communicate with the remote DTE.
How frame relay works?
Assume that a virtual circuit has been established between computers A and C using the DLCI
numbers of Fig.
Then computer A uses DLCI = 68 (i.e. that of C) while sending a packet from A to C. On the other
hand, computer C uses DLCI = 30 (that of A) while sending a packet from C to A.
The DLCI numbers are assigned permanently if PVC IS being supported and on a per connection
basis if SVC is supported.
Frame relay switching: