Unit-III (CAM)

Computer Numerical Control: Introduction,

numerical control, numerical control modes,
numerical control elements, CNC machine
tools, feedback devices, coordinate system.
Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
 Numerical control
• Numerical control can be defined as a form of programmable automation in which
the process is controlled by numbers, letters, and symbol
• In NC, the numbers form a program of instructions designed for a particular work
part or job.
• When the job changes, the program of instructions is changed.
• NC technology has been applied to a wide variety of operations, including drafting,
assembly, inspection, sheet metal press working, and spot welding.
• Numerical control finds its principal applications in metal machining processes.
• The machined work parts are designed in various sizes and shapes, and most
machined parts produced in industry today are made in small to medium-size batches.
• To produce each part, a sequence of drilling operations may be required, or a series of
turning or milling operations.
• The suitability of NC for these kinds of jobs is the reason for the tremendous growth
of numerical control in the metal-working industry over the last 25 years.
• BASIC COMPONENTS OF AN NC SYSTEM (NUMERICAL CONTROL ELEMENTS)
An operational numerical control system consists of the following three basic components:
l. Program of instructions
2. Controller unit, also called a machine control unit (MCU)
3. Machine tool or other controlled process
• Program of instructions
The program of instructions is the detailed step-by-step set of directions which tell the
machine tool what to do.
➢ It is coded in numerical or symbolic form on some type of input medium that can be interpreted by
the controller unit.
➢ The most common input medium today is l-in.-wide punched tape.
➢ Over the years, other forms of input media have been used, including punched cards, magnetic tape,
and even 35- mm motion picture film.
➢There are two other methods of input to the NC system.
➢The first is by manual entry of instructional data to the controller unit.
➢This method is called manual data input, abbreviated MDI, and is appropriate only for relatively
simple Jobs where the order will not be repeated.
➢The second other method of input is by means of a direct link with a computer. This is called direct
numerical control, or DNC,.
• Controller unit :

This consists of the electronics and hardware that read and interpret the program of
instructions and convert it into mechanical actions of the machine tool.
➢The typical elements of a conventional NC controller unit include the tape reader, a data buffer, signal
out-put channels to the machine tool, feedback channels from the machine tool, and the sequence
controls to coordinate the overall operation of the foregoing elements.
➢It should be noted that nearly all modern NC systems today are sold with a microcomputer as the
controller unit. This type of NC is called computer numerical control (CNC).
➢The tape reader is an electromechanical device for winding and reading the punched tape containing
the program of instructions.
➢ The data contained on the tape are read into the data buffer. The purpose of this device is to store
the input instructions in logical blocks of information.
➢A block of information usually represents one complete step in the sequence of processing elements.
For example, one block may be the data required to move the machine table to a certain position and
drill a hole at that location.
• The signal output channels are connected to the servomotors and other controls in the machine tool.
• Through these channels, the instructions are sent to the machine tool from the controller unit.
• To make certain that the instructions have been properly executed by the machine, feedback data are
sent back to the controller via the feedback channels.
• The most important function of this return loop is to assure that the table and work part have been
properly located with respect to the tool.
• Sequence controls coordinate the activities of the other elements of the controller unit.
• The tape reader is actuated to read data into the buffer from the tape, signals are sent to and from the
machine tool, and so on. These types of operations must be synchronized and this is the function of the
sequence controls.
• Machine tool or other controlled process
The third basic component of an NC system is the machine tool or other controlled process.
➢It is the part of the NC system which performs useful work.
➢In the most common example of an NC system, one designed to perform machining operations, the
machine tool consists of the workable and spindle as well as the motors and controls necessary to
drive them.
➢It also includes the cutting tools, work fixtures, and other auxiliary equipment needed in the
machining operation.

Machine Control
Program
Unit

MCU
Computer Processing Equipment
(cutting tool)
 NC Coordinate Systems :

• A part programmer must define a standard axis system to specify the position of
the work head .

• There are two axis systems used in NC :

1. Flat & prismatic workparts system.
2. Rotational parts system .

• Both are based on Cartesian coordinate system.

 1-System for flat & prismatic workparts :

• It consists of (x,y,z) plus three rotational axes (a,b,c) as shown below :

 System for flat & prismatic workparts :

• Generally , if the machine has four or five axes , three of them

will be linear (x,y,z) and one or two will be rotational axes .

• Most NC machine systems have less than six axes .

2. Rotational NC System :

Y-axis is not used!

Radial location of the

tool

Longitudinal axis ( parallel to

the rotation axis )
 Rotational NC System :

• The origin of the coordinate axis system is located based on

convenience , e.g., the corner of the part .

• The tool must be positioned at the target point ( Location on

the worktable ) , where the axis system origin ( location in the
workpart ) is known relative to the target point .
• The purpose of the coordinate system is to provide a means of locating the tool in relation to the
work piece.
• Depending on the NC machine, the part programmer may have several different options available for
specifying this location.
• Fixed zero and floating zero : The programmer must determine the position of the tool relative to
the origin (zero point) of the coordinate system.
• NC machines have either of two methods for specifying the zero point.
• The first possibility is for the machine to have a fixed zero. In this case, the origin is always located
at the same position on the machine. Usually, that position is the southwest corner (lower left-hand
corner)of the table and all tool locations will be defined by positive x and y coordinates.
• The second and more common feature on modern NC machines allows the machine operator to set
the zero point at any position on the machine table. This feature is called floating zero.
• The part programmer is the one who decides where the zero point should be located.
• The decision is based on part programming convenience.
• For example, the work part may be symmetrical and the zero point should be established at the center
of symmetry.
• Absolute positioning and incremental positioning :
Another option sometimes available to the part programmer is to use either an absolute
system of tool positioning or an incremental system.
➢Absolute positioning means that the tool locations are always defined in relation to the zero point.
➢If a hole is to be drilled at a spot that is 8 in. above the x axis and 6in. to the right of the y axis, the
coordinate location of the hole would be specified as x = +6.OOO and y = +8.OOO.
➢By contrast, incremental positioning means that the next tool location must be defined with reference
to the previous tool location.
➢In drilling example, suppose that the previous hole had been drilled at an absolute position of x =
+4.OOO and y = +5.OOO.
➢Accordingly, the incremental position instructions would be specified as x = +2.OOO and y = +3.OOO
in order to move the drill to the desired spot.
NC MOTION CONTROL SYSTEMS (NUMERICAL CONTROL MODES)
• In order to accomplish the machining process, the cutting tool and workpiece must be moved relative
to each other.
• In NC, there are three basic types of motion control systems: -
l. Point-to-point
2. Straight cut
3. Contouring
➢ Point-to-point systems represent the lowest level of motion control between the tool and work piece.
➢ Contouring represents the highest level of control.
• Point-to-point NC: Point-to-point (PTP) is also sometimes called a positioning system.
• In PTP, the objective of the machine tool control system is to move the cutting tool to a predefined
location.
• The speed or path by which this movement is accomplished is not important in point-to-point NC.
• Once the tool reaches the desired location, the machining operation is performed at that position.
• NC drill presses are a good example of PTP systems. The spindle must first be positioned at a
particular location on the work piece. This is done under PTP control. Then the drilling of the hole is
performed at the location, and so forth. Since no cutting is performed between holes, there is no need
for controlling the relative motion of the tool and work piece between hole locations.
• Positioning systems are the simplest machine tool control systems and are therefore the least
expensive of the three types.
• However, for certain processes, such as drilling operations and spot welding, PIP is perfectly suited
to the task and any higher level of control would be unnecessary.
• Straight-cut NC
Straight-cut control systems are capable of moving the cutting tool parallel to one of the major axes
at a controlled rate suitable for machining.
▪ It is therefore appropriate for performing milling operations to fabricate work pieces of rectangular
configurations.
▪ With this type of NC system it is not possible to combine movements in more than a Single axis
direction.
▪ Therefore, angular cuts on the work piece would not be possible.
▪ An example of a straight-cut operation is shown in Figure.
• Contouring NC Contouring is the most complex, the most flexible, and the most expensive type of
machine tool control.
• It is capable of performing both PTP and straight-cut operations.
• In addition, the distinguishing feature of contouring NC systems is their capacity for simultaneous
control of more than one axis movement of the machine tool.
• The path of the cutter is continuously controlled to generate the desired geometry of the workpiece.
For this reason, contouring systems are also called continuous-path NC systems.
• Straight or plane surfaces at any orientation, circular paths, conical shapes, or most any other
mathematically definable form are possible under contouring control.
• Figure shows the versatility of continuous path NC.
• Milling and turning operations are common examples of the use of contouring control.
• In order to machine a curved path in a numerical control contouring system, the direction of the feed
rate must continuously be changed so as to follow the path.
• This is accomplished by breaking the curved path into very short straight-line segments that
approximate the curve.
• Then the tool is commanded to machine each segment in succession.
• The accuracy of the approximation is controlled by the "tolerance" between the actual curve and the
maximum deviation of the straight-line segments.
• In the tolerance is defined on the inside of the curve.

• It is also possible to define the tolerance on the outside of the curve, as in

• Finally, the tolerance can be specified on both inside and outside, as shown in
• The desired shape. The maximum error between the two can be controlled by
the length of the individual line segments, as illustrated in Figure.
Motion Control Systems :

• Some NC processes are performed at discrete locations on the

workpart (e.g., drilling , spot wedding )
• Other NC process are performed while the workhead is moving
( e.g. turning , milling , …)

• Types of movement :
Straight line , circular , curvilinear path ,…
Features of motion Control systems
Point-to-Point Versus Continuous Path Control :

1-Point-to-Point Systems ( positioning Systems ) :

• No regard to the path→ Just a series of point locations at
which operations are performed .
2. Continuous Path Systems :

• The tool trajectory relative to the workpart is controlled

→ Perform the process while moving .
Fundamentals of NC technology
Motion Control Systems
Continuous path systems :
(continuous path systems )

(Straight – cut NC ) (Contouring)

Tool moves parallel to Tool moves relative to two or

one axis “only“ more axes (simultaneous
control)
Interpolation Methods

• The smaller the line segments the better the accuracy

→ small tolerance .
• It is an important aspect of contouring .

• Tolerance :
Inside , Outside , Inside & Outside .
Inside Tolerance
Outside Tolerance
Inside & Outside
 NC MACHINE TOOLS (CNC MACHINE TOOLS)
• The basic objective behind the development of NC machine tools continues to remain the
reduction of cost of production and improvement in product quality.
• The major emphasis is directed towards the avoidance of non-productive time which is mainly
due to the number of set-ups, set-up time, work piece-handling time, tool change time and lead
time.
NC Machine-Tool Applications
• NC machines have been found quite suitable in industries such as the following:
1. For the parts having complex contours that cannot be manufactured by conventional machine tools.
2. For small lot production, often for even single (one-off) job production, such as for prototyping, tool
manufacturing, etc.
3. For jobs requiring very high accuracy and repeatability.
4. For jobs requiring many set-ups and/or the set-ups that are very expensive.
5. The parts that are subjected to frequent design changes and consequently require more expensive
manufacturing methods.
6. The inspection cost is a significant portion of the total manufacturing cost.
 Advantages of NC
• 1. Parts can be produced in less time and, therefore, are likely to be less
expensive. The idle (noncutting) time is reduced to absolute minimum. This,
of course, depends on the way the part program for the part is written. The
endeavour of the machine-tool builder is to provide facility whereby the non-
cutting time can be brought to the barest minimum possible. It is possible to
reduce the nonproductive time in NC machine tools in the following ways: •
by reducing the number of set-ups, • by reducing set-up time, • by reducing
workpiece-handling time, and • by reducing tool-changing time. These make
NC machines highly productive.
• 2. Parts can be produced more accurately even for smaller batches. In the
conventional machine tools, precision is largely determined by human skill.
NC machines, because of automation and the absence of inter-related human
factors, provide much higher precision and thereby promise a product of
consistent quality for the whole of its batch
3. The operator involvement in part manufacture is reduced to a
minimum and as a result, less scrap is generated due to operator
errors. No operator skill is needed except in setting up of the tools and
the work. Even here the set-up has been simplified to a very great
extent.
4. Since the part program takes care of the geometry generated, the
need for expensive jigs and fixtures is reduced or eliminated,
depending upon the part geometry. Even when the fixture is to be
used, it is very simple compared to a conventional machine tool. It is
far easier to make and store part programs (tapes).
5. Inspection time is reduced, since all the parts in a batch are identical
provided proper care is taken about the tool compensations and tool
wear in part-program preparation and operation. With the use of
inspection probes in the case of some advanced CNC controllers, the
measurement function also becomes part of the program.
6. The need for certain types of form tools is completely eliminated in NC
machines. This is because the profile to be generated can be programmed, even if
it involves 3 dimensions.
7. Lead times needed before the job can be put on the machine tool and can be
reduced to a great extent depending upon the complexity of the job. More complex
jobs may require fixtures or templates if they are to be machined in the
conventional machine tools, which can be reduced to a large extent.
8. CNC machining centres can perform a variety of machining operations that have
to be carried out on several conventional machine tools, thus reducing the number
of machine tools on the shop floor. This saves the floor space and also results in
less lead-time in manufacture. This results in the overall reduction in production
costs.
9. Many times the set-up times are reduced, since the set-up involves simple
location of the datum surface and position. Further, the number of set-ups needed
can also be reduced. All this translates into lower processing times. Many times, a
component could be fully machined in a single machining centre or turning centre,
each of which has wider machining capabilities. In conventional manufacture, if the
part has to be processed through a number of machine tools which are located in
different departments, the time involved in completion and the resultant in process
inventory, is large. This is greatly eliminated by the use of NC machine tools.
10. Machining times and costs are predictable to a greater accuracy,
since all the elements involved in manufacturing have to be thoroughly
analysed before a part program is prepared.
11. Operator fatigue does not come into picture in the manufacturing
of a part. The NC machine tool can be utilised continuously since these
are more rigid than the conven tional machine tools.
12. Tools can be utilised at optimum feeds and speeds that can be
programmed.
13. The modification to part design can be very easily translated into
manufacture by the simple changes in part programs without
expensive and time-consuming changes in jigs, fixtures and tooling.
This adds to the flexibility of manufacture.
14. The capability (metal removal) of NC machines is generally high
because of the very rigid construction employed in machine-tool design
compared to the conventional machine tools.
 Limitations of NC
1. The cost of an NC machine tool is much high compared to an equivalent
conventional machine tool. The cost is often 5 to 10 times. Also, the cost of
tooling is high. This is a very high initial investment. All this makes the
machine hourly rate high. As a result, it is necessary to utilise the machine
tool for a large percentage of time.
2. Cost and skill of the people required to operate an NC machine is generally
high in view of the complex and sophisticated technology involved. The need
is for part program mers, tool setters, punch operators and maintenance
staff (electronics and hydraulics) who have to be more educated and trained
compared to the conventional machine operators.
3. Special training needs to be given to the personnel manning the NC
machine tools. NC manufacturing requires training of personnel both for
software as well as hardware. Part programmers are trained to write
instructions in desired languages for the machines on the shop floor. They
need also to be acquainted with the manufacturing process. Similarly,
machine operators have to be prepared for the new NC culture. These
factors are important for the successful adoption and growth of NC
technology
4. As NC is a complex and sophisticated technology, it also requires
higher investments for maintenance in terms of wages of highly skilled
personnel and expensive spares. The need for maintenance engineers
trained in all the sub-systems present such as mechanical, hydraulic,
pneumatic and electronics makes the job more difficult. Though the
latest machines are equipped with a large number of diagnostic
facilities, still maintenance is one of the major limitations.
5. The automatic operation of NC machines implies relatively higher
running costs. Moreover, the requirements of conditioned environment
for operating NC technology adds further to the running costs.
 FEEDBACK DEVICES
The CNC machine tools use closed-loop control system with an
appropriate feedback to provide accurate control to the movement of
the axes. It requires an appropriate feedback device as shown in Fig.
10.19 to provide the necessary input to the control system. The
command position comes from the MCU as the actual amount
programmed. This is compared in the comparator with the current
position of the slide and provides the actual pulses required to move
the motor. These pulses are converted to the analog signal by a DAC
and fed through an amplifier to run the motor. The actual signal to the
motor will be further compared by the velocity feedback obtained
through the tacho generator. A large variety of sensors have been used
in CNC machine tools with varying success for providing the necessary
measurement of the displacement (current position of the axis).
The sensors that have become more common in the present day CNC
machine tools are the following.
• Encoders • Linear scales
Optical Rotary Encoder
An optical rotary encoder converts the rotary motion into a sequence of
digital pulses. The pulses are counted to convert to either absolute or
incremental position measurement. The encoders generally come in two
forms, absolute encoder and incremental encoder. The absolute encoder
provides the exact rotational position of the shaft whereas the incremental
encoder gives the relative position of the shaft in terms of digital pulses. The
optical encoder consists of a disc (as shown in Fig. 10.20) with a number of
accurately etched equidistant lines or slots along the periphery. The encoder
disc is attached to the shaft of the machine whose rotary position needs to
be measured. The disc is placed between a light source (generally infra red
LED) and a light measuring device (photo diode). When the disc rotates the
lines are interrupted and the light measuring device counts the number of
times the light is interrupted. By a careful counting and necessary calculations
it is possible to know the position traversed by the shaft.
 Linear Scale
For knowing the exact position reached by the slide, it is better to
measure the absolute position directly rather than in an indirect way
using an encoder as in the above case. The linear scale provides such a
system. In the linear scale, there is a finely graduated scale ( grating)
made of either glass or stainless steel, which provides a measuring
surface along with a scanning unit. One of them is fixed to a stationary
part of the machine tool while the other is fixed to the moving part as
shown in Fig. 10.24. The scanning unit consists of a light source (such
as infra red LED), a glass grid with graduated windows and some photo
diodes as receptors.