1110 CHAPTE R 36 DI FFRACTION

Module 36-3 Diffraction by a Circular Aperture •24 Entoptic halos. If someone looks at a bright outdoor lamp
•18 The wall of a large room is covered with acoustic tile in in otherwise dark surroundings, the lamp appears to be surrounded
which small holes are drilled 5.0 mm from center to center. How by bright and dark rings (hence halos) that are actually a circular dif-
far can a person be from such a tile and still distinguish the indi- fraction pattern as in Fig. 36-10, with the central maximum overlap-
vidual holes, assuming ideal conditions, the pupil diameter of the ping the direct light from the lamp. The diffraction is produced by
observer’s eye to be 4.0 mm, and the wavelength of the room structures within the cornea or lens of the eye (hence entoptic). If the
light to be 550 nm? lamp is monochromatic at wavelength 550 nm and the first dark ring
•19 (a) How far from grains of red sand must you be to position subtends angular diameter 2.5° in the observer’s view, what is the
yourself just at the limit of resolving the grains if your pupil diame- (linear) diameter of the structure producing the diffraction?
ter is 1.5 mm, the grains are spherical with radius 50 mm, and the •25 ILW Find the separation of two points on the Moon’s surface
light from the grains has wavelength 650 nm? (b) If the grains were that can just be resolved by the 200 in. (! 5.1 m) telescope at
blue and the light from them had wavelength 400 nm, would the Mount Palomar, assuming that this separation is determined by
answer to (a) be larger or smaller? diffraction effects. The distance from Earth to the Moon is 3.8 "
•20 The radar system of a navy cruiser transmits at a wavelength 105 km. Assume a wavelength of 550 nm for the light.
of 1.6 cm, from a circular antenna with a diameter of 2.3 m. At a •26 The telescopes on some commercial surveillance satellites
range of 6.2 km, what is the smallest distance that two speedboats can resolve objects on the ground as small as 85 cm across (see
can be from each other and still be resolved as two separate objects Google Earth), and the telescopes on military surveillance satel-
by the radar system? lites reportedly can resolve objects as small as 10 cm across.
•21 SSM WWW Estimate the linear separation of two objects on Assume first that object resolution is determined entirely by
Mars that can just be resolved under ideal conditions by an Rayleigh’s criterion and is not degraded by turbulence in the at-
observer on Earth (a) using the naked eye and (b) using the 200 in. mosphere. Also assume that the satellites are at a typical altitude of
(! 5.1 m) Mount Palomar telescope. Use the following data: 400 km and that the wavelength of visible light is 550 nm. What
distance to Mars ! 8.0 " 107 km, diameter of pupil ! 5.0 mm, would be the required diameter of the telescope aperture for
wavelength of light ! 550 nm. (a) 85 cm resolution and (b) 10 cm resolution? (c) Now, consider-
ing that turbulence is certain to degrade resolution and that the
•22 Assume that Rayleigh’s criterion gives the limit of reso-
aperture diameter of the Hubble Space Telescope is 2.4 m, what
lution of an astronaut’s eye looking down on Earth’s surface from a
can you say about the answer to (b) and about how the military
typical space shuttle altitude of 400 km. (a) Under that idealized as-
surveillance resolutions are accomplished?
sumption, estimate the smallest linear width on Earth’s surface that
the astronaut can resolve. Take the astronaut’s pupil diameter to be •27 If Superman really had x-ray vision at 0.10 nm wavelength
5 mm and the wavelength of visible light to be 550 nm. (b) Can the and a 4.0 mm pupil diameter, at what maximum altitude could he
astronaut resolve the Great Wall of China (Fig. 36-40), which is distinguish villains from heroes, assuming that he needs to resolve
more than 3000 km long, 5 to 10 m thick at its base, 4 m thick at its points separated by 5.0 cm to do this?
top, and 8 m in height? (c) Would the astronaut be able to resolve ••28 The wings of tiger beetles (Fig. 36-41) are colored
any unmistakable sign of intelligent life on Earth’s surface? by interference due to thin cuticle-like layers. In addition, these lay-
ers are arranged in patches that are 60 mm across and produce dif-
ferent colors. The color you see is a pointillistic mixture of thin-film
interference colors that varies with perspective. Approximately

©AP/Wide World Photos

Figure 36-40 Problem 22. The Great Wall of China.

•23 SSM The two headlights of an approaching automobile are

1.4 m apart. At what (a) angular separation and (b) maximum dis-
tance will the eye resolve them? Assume that the pupil diameter is
5.0 mm, and use a wavelength of 550 nm for the light. Also assume Kjell B. Sandved/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot Holdings Ltd.
that diffraction effects alone limit the resolution so that Rayleigh’s Figure 36-41 Problem 28. Tiger beetles are colored by pointillistic
criterion can be applied. mixtures of thin-film interference colors.
 PROB LE M S 1111

what viewing distance from a wing puts you at the limit of resolv- One limitation on such a device is the spreading of the beam due to
ing the different colored patches according to Rayleigh’s criterion? diffraction, with resulting dilution of beam intensity. Consider such
Use 550 nm as the wavelength of light and 3.00 mm as the diame- a laser operating at a wavelength of 1.40 nm. The element that
ter of your pupil. emits light is the end of a wire with diameter 0.200 mm.
••29 (a) What is the angular separation of two stars if their im- (a) Calculate the diameter of the central beam at a target 2000 km
ages are barely resolved by the Thaw refracting telescope at the away from the beam source. (b) What is the ratio of the beam in-
Allegheny Observatory in Pittsburgh? The lens diameter is 76 cm tensity at the target to that at the end of the wire? (The laser is
and its focal length is 14 m. Assume l ! 550 nm. (b) Find the dis- fired from space, so neglect any atmospheric absorption.)
tance between these barely resolved stars if each of them is 10 •••34 A circular obstacle produces the same diffraction
light-years distant from Earth. (c) For the image of a single star in pattern as a circular hole of the same diameter (except very near
this telescope, find the diameter of the first dark ring in the diffrac- u ! 0). Airborne water drops are examples of such obstacles. When
tion pattern, as measured on a photographic plate placed at the you see the Moon through suspended water drops, such as in a fog,
focal plane of the telescope lens. Assume that the structure of you intercept the diffraction pattern from many drops. The com-
the image is associated entirely with diffraction at the lens aper- posite of the central diffraction maxima of those drops forms a
ture and not with lens “errors.” white region that surrounds the Moon and may obscure it. Figure
••30 Floaters. The floaters you see when viewing a 36-43 is a photograph in which the Moon is obscured. There are
bright, featureless background are diffraction patterns of defects two faint, colored rings around the Moon (the larger one may be
in the vitreous humor that fills most of your eye. Sighting through too faint to be seen in your copy of the photograph). The smaller
a pinhole sharpens the diffraction pattern. If you also view a ring is on the outer edge of the central maxima from the drops; the
small circular dot, you can approximate the defect’s size. Assume somewhat larger ring is on the outer edge of the smallest of the
that the defect diffracts light as a circular aperture does. Adjust the secondary maxima from the drops (see Fig. 36-10). The color is visi-
dot’s distance L from your eye (or eye lens) until the dot and the ble because the rings are adjacent to the diffraction minima (dark
circle of the first minimum in the diffraction pattern appear to rings) in the patterns. (Colors in other parts of the pattern overlap
have the same size in your view. That is, until they have the same too much to be visible.)
diameter D# on the retina at distance L# ! 2.0 cm from the front of (a) What is the color of these rings on the outer edges of
the eye, as suggested in Fig. 36-42a, where the angles on the two the diffraction maxima? (b) The colored ring around the central max-
sides of the eye lens are equal. Assume that the wavelength of visi- ima in Fig. 36-43 has an angular diameter that is 1.35 times the angu-
ble light is l ! 550 nm. If the dot has diameter D ! 2.0 mm and is lar diameter of the Moon, which is 0.50°. Assume that the drops all
distance L ! 45.0 cm from the eye and the defect is x ! 6.0 mm in have about the same diameter.Approximately what is that diameter?
front of the retina (Fig. 36-42b), what is the diameter of the defect?

Eye
Circular Retina Retina
lens
dot Defect
1
__
θ 2 D'
D D'
x 1
__
2 D'

L L'
(a) (b)
Figure 36-42 Problem 30.

••31 SSM Millimeter-wave radar generates a narrower beam than

conventional microwave radar, making it less vulnerable to anti-
radar missiles than conventional radar. (a) Calculate the angular
width 2u of the central maximum, from first minimum to first mini-
mum, produced by a 220 GHz radar beam emitted by a 55.0-cm-
diameter circular antenna. (The frequency is chosen to coincide
with a low-absorption atmospheric “window.”) (b) What is 2u for a
more conventional circular antenna that has a diameter of 2.3 m Pekka Parvianen/Photo Researchers, Inc.
and emits at wavelength 1.6 cm? Figure 36-43 Problem 34.The corona around the Moon is a composite
••32 (a) A circular diaphragm 60 cm in diameter oscillates at a of the diffraction patterns of airborne water drops.
frequency of 25 kHz as an underwater source of sound used for sub-
marine detection. Far from the source, the sound intensity is distrib- Module 36-4 Diffraction by a Double Slit
uted as the diffraction pattern of a circular hole whose diameter •35 Suppose that the central diffraction envelope of a double-slit
equals that of the diaphragm. Take the speed of sound in water to be diffraction pattern contains 11 bright fringes and the first diffrac-
1450 m/s and find the angle between the normal to the diaphragm tion minima eliminate (are coincident with) bright fringes. How
and a line from the diaphragm to the first minimum. (b) Is there such many bright fringes lie between the first and second minima of the
a minimum for a source having an (audible) frequency of 1.0 kHz? diffraction envelope?
••33 Nuclear-pumped x-ray lasers are seen as a possible •36 A beam of light of a single wavelength is incident perpendic-
weapon to destroy ICBM booster rockets at ranges up to 2000 km. ularly on a double-slit arrangement, as in Fig. 35-10. The slit widths

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1112 CHAPTE R 36 DI FFRACTION

are each 46 mm and the slit separation is 0.30 mm. How many the first diffraction-envelope minima to either side of the central
complete bright fringes appear between the two first-order minima maximum in a double-slit pattern if l ! 550 nm, d ! 0.150 mm,
of the diffraction pattern? and a ! 30.0 mm? (b) What is the ratio of the intensity of the third
•37 In a double-slit experiment, the slit separation d is 2.00 times bright fringe to the intensity of the central fringe?
the slit width w. How many bright interference fringes are in the Module 36-5 Diffraction Gratings
central diffraction envelope?
•44 Perhaps to confuse a predator, some tropical gyrinid
•38 In a certain two-slit interference pattern, 10 bright fringes lie beetles (whirligig beetles) are colored by optical interference that
within the second side peak of the diffraction envelope and diffrac- is due to scales whose alignment forms a diffraction grating (which
tion minima coincide with two-slit interference maxima. What is scatters light instead of transmitting it). When the incident light
the ratio of the slit separation to the slit width? rays are perpendicular to the grating, the angle between the first-
••39 Light of wavelength 440 nm passes through a double slit, order maxima (on opposite sides of the zeroth-order maximum) is
yielding a diffraction pattern whose graph of intensity I versus an- about 26° in light with a wavelength of 550 nm. What is the grating
gular position u is shown in Fig. 36-44. Calculate (a) the slit width spacing of the beetle?
and (b) the slit separation. (c) Verify the displayed intensities of •45 A diffraction grating 20.0 mm wide has 6000 rulings. Light of
the m ! 1 and m ! 2 interference fringes. wavelength 589 nm is incident perpendicularly on the grating.
What are the (a) largest, (b) second largest, and (c) third largest
values of u at which maxima appear on a distant viewing screen?
7
•46 Visible light is incident perpendicularly on a grating with 315
6 rulings/mm. What is the longest wavelength that can be seen in the
Intensity (mW/cm2)

fifth-order diffraction?
5
•47 SSM ILW A grating has 400 lines/mm. How many orders of
4 the entire visible spectrum (400 – 700 nm) can it produce in a dif-
fraction experiment, in addition to the m ! 0 order?
3
••48 A diffraction grating is made up of slits of width 300 nm with
2 separation 900 nm. The grating is illuminated by monochromatic
plane waves of wavelength l ! 600 nm at normal incidence.
1
(a) How many maxima are there in the full diffraction pattern?
(b) What is the angular width of a spectral line observed in the first
0 5
θ (degrees) order if the grating has 1000 slits?
Figure 36-44 Problem 39. ••49 SSM WWW Light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally
on a diffraction grating. Two adjacent maxima occur at angles given
••40 Figure 36-45 gives the pa- β (rad) by sin u ! 0.2 and sin u ! 0.3. The fourth-order maxima are missing.
rameter b of Eq. 36-20 versus the βs (a) What is the separation between adjacent slits? (b) What is the
sine of the angle u in a two-slit inter- smallest slit width this grating can have? For that slit width, what are
ference experiment using light of the (c) largest, (d) second largest, and (e) third largest values of the
wavelength 435 nm. The vertical axis order number m of the maxima produced by the grating?
scale is set by bs ! 80.0 rad.What are ••50 With light from a gaseous discharge tube incident normally
sin θ
(a) the slit separation, (b) the total 0 0.5 1 on a grating with slit separation 1.73 mm, sharp maxima of green
number of interference maxima light are experimentally found at angles u ! $17.6°, 37.3°, %37.1°,
Figure 36-45 Problem 40.
(count them on both sides of the 65.2°, and %65.0°. Compute the wavelength of the green light that
pattern’s center), (c) the smallest angle for a maxima, and (d) the best fits these data.
greatest angle for a minimum? Assume that none of the interference
••51 A diffraction grating having 180 lines/mm is illuminated
maxima are completely eliminated by a diffraction minimum.
with a light signal containing only two wavelengths, l1 ! 400 nm
••41 In the two-slit interference experiment of Fig. 35-10, the slit and l2 ! 500 nm. The signal is incident perpendicularly on the
widths are each 12.0 mm, their separation is 24.0 mm, the wavelength is grating. (a) What is the angular separation between the second-
600 nm, and the viewing screen is at a distance of 4.00 m. Let IP repre- order maxima of these two wavelengths? (b) What is the smallest
sent the intensity at point P on the screen, at height y ! 70.0 cm. (a) angle at which two of the resulting maxima are superimposed?
What is the ratio of IP to the intensity Im at the center of the pattern? (c) What is the highest order for which maxima for both wave-
(b) Determine where P is in the two-slit interference pattern by giving lengths are present in the diffraction pattern?
the maximum or minimum on which it lies or the maximum and mini-
••52 A beam of light consisting of wavelengths from
mum between which it lies. (c) In the same way, for the diffraction that
460.0 nm to 640.0 nm is directed perpendicularly onto a diffrac-
occurs, determine where point P is in the diffraction pattern.
tion grating with 160 lines/mm. (a) What is the lowest order that is
••42 (a) In a double-slit experiment, what largest ratio of d to a overlapped by another order? (b) What is the highest order for
causes diffraction to eliminate the fourth bright side fringe? which the complete wavelength range of the beam is present? In
(b) What other bright fringes are also eliminated? (c) How many that highest order, at what angle does the light at wavelength (c)
other ratios of d to a cause the diffraction to (exactly) eliminate 460.0 nm and (d) 640.0 nm appear? (e) What is the greatest angle
that bright fringe? at which the light at wavelength 460.0 nm appears?
••43 SSM WWW (a) How many bright fringes appear between ••53 A grating has 350 rulings/mm and is illuminated at normal
 PROB LE M S 1113

incidence by white light. A spectrum is formed on a screen 30.0 cm •66 An x-ray beam of a certain wavelength is incident on an NaCl
from the grating. If a hole 10.0 mm square is cut in the screen, its crystal, at 30.0° to a certain family of reflecting planes of spacing
inner edge being 50.0 mm from the central maximum and parallel 39.8 pm. If the reflection from those planes is of the first order,
to it, what are the (a) shortest and (b) longest wavelengths of the what is the wavelength of the x rays?
light that passes through the hole?
•67 Figure 36-46 is a graph of intensity versus angular position u
••54 Derive this expression for the intensity pattern for a three-slit for the diffraction of an x-ray beam by a crystal. The horizontal
“grating”: scale is set by us ! 2.00°. The beam consists of two wavelengths, and
I ! 19 Im(1 ' 4 cos f ' 4 cos2 f),
the spacing between the reflecting planes is 0.94 nm. What are the
where f ! (2pd sin u)/l and a & l. (a) shorter and (b) longer wavelengths in the beam?

Module 36-6 Gratings: Dispersion and Resolving Power

•55 SSM ILW A source containing a mixture of hydrogen and
deuterium atoms emits red light at two wavelengths whose mean is

Intensity
656.3 nm and whose separation is 0.180 nm. Find the minimum
number of lines needed in a diffraction grating that can resolve
these lines in the first order.
•56 (a) How many rulings must a 4.00-cm-wide diffraction grating
have to resolve the wavelengths 415.496 and 415.487 nm in the second 0 θs
order? (b) At what angle are the second-order maxima found? θ (degrees)
•57 Light at wavelength 589 nm from a sodium lamp is incident per- Figure 36-46 Problem 67.
pendicularly on a grating with 40 000 rulings over width 76 nm. What
are the first-order (a) dispersion D and (b) resolving power R, the sec- •68 If first-order reflection occurs in a crystal at Bragg angle 3.4°,
ond-order (c) D and (d) R, and the third-order (e) D and (f) R? at what Bragg angle does second-order reflection occur from the
same family of reflecting planes?
•58 A grating has 600 rulings/mm and is 5.0 mm wide. (a) What is
the smallest wavelength interval it can resolve in the third order at •69 X rays of wavelength 0.12 nm are found to undergo second-
l ! 500 nm? (b) How many higher orders of maxima can be seen? order reflection at a Bragg angle of 28° from a lithium fluoride
crystal. What is the interplanar spacing of the reflecting planes in
•59 A diffraction grating with a width of 2.0 cm contains the crystal?
1000 lines/cm across that width. For an incident wavelength of
600 nm, what is the smallest wavelength difference this grating can ••70 In Fig. 36-47, first-order re-
flection from the reflection planes X rays
resolve in the second order? θ
shown occurs when an x-ray beam of
•60 The D line in the spectrum of sodium is a doublet with wave- wavelength 0.260 nm makes an angle
lengths 589.0 and 589.6 nm. Calculate the minimum number a0
u ! 63.8° with the top face of the
of lines needed in a grating that will resolve this doublet in the crystal. What is the unit cell size a0? a0
second-order spectrum.
••71 WWW In Fig. 36-48, let a beam
•61 With a particular grating the sodium doublet (589.00 nm and of x rays of wavelength 0.125 nm be
589.59 nm) is viewed in the third order at 10° to the normal and is incident on an NaCl crystal at angle
barely resolved. Find (a) the grating spacing and (b) the total width u ! 45.0° to the top face of the crys- Figure 36-47 Problem 70.
of the rulings. tal and a family of reflecting planes.
••62 A diffraction grating illuminated by monochromatic light Let the reflecting planes have sepa-
normal to the grating produces a certain line at angle u. (a) What is ration d ! 0.252 nm. The crystal is
the product of that line’s half-width and the grating’s resolving turned through angle f around an Incident
power? (b) Evaluate that product for the first order of a grating of axis perpendicular to the plane of the beam
page until these reflecting planes θ
slit separation 900 nm in light of wavelength 600 nm.
give diffraction maxima. What are d
••63 Assume that the limits of the visible spectrum are arbitrarily
the (a) smaller and (b) larger value
chosen as 430 and 680 nm. Calculate the number of rulings per mil- d
of f if the crystal is turned clockwise
limeter of a grating that will spread the first-order spectrum
and the (c) smaller and (d) larger Figure 36-48 Problems 71
through an angle of 20.0°.
value of f if it is turned counter- and 72.
Module 36-7 X-Ray Diffraction clockwise?
•64 What is the smallest Bragg angle for x rays of wavelength ••72 In Fig. 36-48, an x-ray beam of wavelengths from 95.0 to 140
30 pm to reflect from reflecting planes spaced 0.30 nm apart in a pm is incident at u ! 45.0° to a family of reflecting planes with spac-
calcite crystal? ing d ! 275 pm.What are the (a) longest wavelength l and (b) associ-
•65 An x-ray beam of wavelength A undergoes first-order reflection ated order number m and the (c) shortest l and (d) associated m of
(Bragg law diffraction) from a crystal when its angle of incidence to a the intensity maxima in the diffraction of the beam?
crystal face is 23°, and an x-ray beam of wavelength 97 pm undergoes ••73 Consider a two-dimensional square crystal structure, such as
third-order reflection when its angle of incidence to that face is 60°. one side of the structure shown in Fig. 36-28a. The largest interplanar
Assuming that the two beams reflect from the same family of reflecting spacing of reflecting planes is the unit cell size a0. Calculate and
planes, find (a) the interplanar spacing and (b) the wavelength A. sketch the (a) second largest, (b) third largest, (c) fourth largest, (d)

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1114 CHAPTE R 36 DI FFRACTION

fifth largest, and (e) sixth largest interplanar spacing. (f) Show that Show that bright fringes occur at angles u that satisfy the equation
your results in (a) through (e) are consistent with the general formula
d(sin c ' sin u) ! ml, for m ! 0, 1, 2, . . . .
a0 (Compare this equation with Eq. 36-25.) Only the special case
d! ,
1h2 ' k2 c ! 0 has been treated in this chapter.
82 A grating with d ! 1.50 mm is illuminated at various angles of
where h and k are relatively prime integers (they have no common
incidence by light of wavelength 600 nm. Plot, as a function of the
factor other than unity).
angle of incidence (0 to 90°), the angular deviation of the first-
Additional Problems order maximum from the incident direction. (See Problem 81.)
74 An astronaut in a space shuttle claims she can just barely re- 83 SSM In two-slit interference, if the slit separation is 14 mm and
solve two point sources on Earth’s surface, 160 km below. the slit widths are each 2.0 mm, (a) how many two-slit maxima are
Calculate their (a) angular and (b) linear separation, assuming in the central peak of the diffraction envelope and (b) how many
ideal conditions. Take l ! 540 nm and the pupil diameter of the as- are in either of the first side peak of the diffraction envelope?
tronaut’s eye to be 5.0 mm.
84 In a two-slit interference pattern, what is the ratio of slit
75 SSM Visible light is incident perpendicularly on a diffraction separation to slit width if there are 17 bright fringes within the cen-
grating of 200 rulings/mm. What are the (a) longest, (b) second tral diffraction envelope and the diffraction minima coincide with
longest, and (c) third longest wavelengths that can be associated two-slit interference maxima?
with an intensity maximum at u ! 30.0°?
85 A beam of light with a narrow wavelength range centered on
76 A beam of light consists of two wavelengths, 590.159 nm and 450 nm is incident perpendicularly on a diffraction grating with a
590.220 nm, that are to be resolved with a diffraction grating. If the width of 1.80 cm and a line density of 1400 lines/cm across that
grating has lines across a width of 3.80 cm, what is the minimum width. For this light, what is the smallest wavelength difference this
number of lines required for the two wavelengths to be resolved in grating can resolve in the third order?
the second order?
86 If you look at something 40 m from you, what is the smallest
77 SSM In a single-slit diffraction experiment, there is a mini- length (perpendicular to your line of sight) that you can resolve,
mum of intensity for orange light (l ! 600 nm) and a minimum of according to Rayleigh’s criterion? Assume the pupil of your eye
intensity for blue-green light (l ! 500 nm) at the same angle of has a diameter of 4.00 mm, and use 500 nm as the wavelength of
1.00 mrad. For what minimum slit width is this possible? the light reaching you.
78 A double-slit system with individual slit widths of 0.030 mm 87 Two yellow flowers are separated by 60 cm along a line per-
and a slit separation of 0.18 mm is illuminated with 500 nm light di- pendicular to your line of sight to the flowers. How far are you
rected perpendicular to the plane of the slits. What is the total from the flowers when they are at the limit of resolution accord-
number of complete bright fringes appearing between the two ing to the Rayleigh criterion? Assume the light from the flowers
first-order minima of the diffraction pattern? (Do not count the has a single wavelength of 550 nm and that your pupil has a diam-
fringes that coincide with the minima of the diffraction pattern.) eter of 5.5 mm.
79 SSM A diffraction grating has resolving power R ! lavg/(l ! 88 In a single-slit diffraction experiment, what must be the ratio
Nm. (a) Show that the corresponding frequency range (f that can of the slit width to the wavelength if the second diffraction minima
just be resolved is given by (f ! c/Nml. (b) From Fig. 36-22, show are to occur at an angle of 37.0° from the center of the diffraction
that the times required for light to travel along the ray at the bot- pattern on a viewing screen?
tom of the figure and the ray at the top differ by (t ! (Nd/c) sinu.
89 A diffraction grating 3.00 cm wide produces the second order
(c) Show that ((f )((t) ! 1, this relation being independent of the
at 33.0° with light of wavelength 600 nm. What is the total number
various grating parameters. Assume N ) 1.
of lines on the grating?
80 The pupil of a person’s eye has a diameter of 5.00 mm.
90 A single-slit diffraction experiment is set up with light of
According to Rayleigh’s criterion, what distance apart must two
wavelength 420 nm, incident perpendicularly on a slit of width
small objects be if their images are just barely resolved when they
5.10 mm. The viewing screen is 3.20 m distant. On the screen, what
are 250 mm from the eye? Assume they are illuminated with light
is the distance between the center of the diffraction pattern and
of wavelength 500 nm.
the second diffraction minimum?
81 Light is incident on a grating at an angle c as shown in Fig. 36-49.
91 A diffraction grating has 8900 slits across 1.20 cm. If light with
a wavelength of 500 nm is sent through it, how many orders (max-
ima) lie to one side of the central maximum?
e
av

92 In an experiment to monitor the Moon’s surface with a light

Dif
tw
en

beam, pulsed radiation from a ruby laser (l ! 0.69 mm) was di-
fra
cid

cte

rected to the Moon through a reflecting telescope with a mirror ra-

In

dius of 1.3 m. A reflector on the Moon behaved like a circular flat

wav

ψ θ
mirror with radius 10 cm, reflecting the light directly back toward
e

the telescope on Earth. The reflected light was then detected after
d being brought to a focus by this telescope. Approximately what
fraction of the original light energy was picked up by the detector?
Grating Assume that for each direction of travel all the energy is in the cen-
Figure 36-49 Problem 81. tral diffraction peak.
 PROB LE M S 1115

93 In June 1985, a laser beam was sent out from the Air Force 105 Show that a grating made up of alternately transparent and
Optical Station on Maui, Hawaii, and reflected back from the shuttle opaque strips of equal width eliminates all the even orders of max-
Discovery as it sped by 354 km overhead.The diameter of the central ima (except m ! 0).
maximum of the beam at the shuttle position was said to be 9.1 m,
106 Light of wavelength 500 nm diffracts through a slit of width
and the beam wavelength was 500 nm.What is the effective diameter
2.00 mm and onto a screen that is 2.00 m away. On the screen, what
of the laser aperture at the Maui ground station? (Hint: A laser beam
is the distance between the center of the diffraction pattern and
spreads only because of diffraction; assume a circular exit aperture.)
the third diffraction minimum?
94 A diffraction grating 1.00 cm wide has 10 000 parallel slits.
107 If, in a two-slit interference pattern, there are 8 bright fringes
Monochromatic light that is incident normally is diffracted
within the first side peak of the diffraction envelope and diffrac-
through 30° in the first order. What is the wavelength of the light?
tion minima coincide with two-slit interference maxima, then what
95 SSM If you double the width of a single slit, the intensity of is the ratio of slit separation to slit width?
the central maximum of the diffraction pattern increases by a
108 White light (consisting of wavelengths from 400 nm to 700 nm)
factor of 4, even though the energy passing through the slit only
is normally incident on a grating. Show that, no matter what the
doubles. Explain this quantitatively.
value of the grating spacing d, the second order and third order
96 When monochromatic light is incident on a slit 22.0 mm wide, overlap.
the first diffraction minimum lies at 1.80° from the direction of the
109 If we make d ! a in Fig. 36-50, the two slits
incident light. What is the wavelength?
coalesce into a single slit of width 2a. Show that
97 A spy satellite orbiting at 160 km above Earth’s surface has a lens Eq. 36-19 reduces to give the diffraction pattern a
with a focal length of 3.6 m and can resolve objects on the ground as for such a slit.
small as 30 cm. For example, it can easily measure the size of an air- d
110 Derive Eq. 36-28, the expression for the
craft’s air intake port. What is the effective diameter of the lens as de-
half-width of the lines in a grating’s diffraction
termined by diffraction consideration alone? Assume l ! 550 nm.
pattern. a
98 Suppose that two points are separated by 2.0 cm. If they are
111 Prove that it is not possible to determine
viewed by an eye with a pupil opening of 5.0 mm, what distance
both wavelength of incident radiation and spacing
from the viewer puts them at the Rayleigh limit of resolution?
of reflecting planes in a crystal by measuring the
Assume a light wavelength of 500 nm. Figure 36-50
Bragg angles for several orders.
99 A diffraction grating has 200 lines/mm. Light consisting of a Problem 109.
112 How many orders of the entire visible spec-
continuous range of wavelengths between 550 nm and 700 nm is
trum (400–700 nm) can be produced by a grating of 500 lines/mm?
incident perpendicularly on the grating. (a) What is the lowest or-
der that is overlapped by another order? (b) What is the highest 113 An acoustic double-slit system (of slit separation d and
order for which the complete spectrum is present? slit width a) is driven by two loudspeakers as shown in Fig. 36-51. By
use of a variable delay line, the phase of one of the speakers may be
100 A diffraction grating has 200 rulings/mm, and it produces an in-
varied relative to the other speaker. Describe in detail what changes
tensity maximum at u ! 30.0*. (a) What are the possible wavelengths
occur in the double-slit diffraction pattern at large distances as the
of the incident visible light? (b) To what colors do they correspond?
phase difference between the speakers is varied from zero to 2p.
101 SSM Show that the dispersion of a grating is D ! (tan u)/l. Take both interference and diffraction effects into account.
102 Monochromatic light (wavelength ! 450 nm) is incident per-
pendicularly on a single slit (width ! 0.40 mm). A screen is placed
Audio Variable
parallel to the slit plane, and on it the distance between the two
signal delay
minima on either side of the central maximum is 1.8 mm. (a) What generator line
is the distance from the slit to the screen? (Hint: The angle to ei-
ther minimum is small enough that sin u ! tan u.) (b) What is the Speakers
distance on the screen between the first minimum and the third
minimum on the same side of the central maximum?
103 Light containing a mixture of two wavelengths, 500 and
600 nm, is incident normally on a diffraction grating. It is desired
(1) that the first and second maxima for each wavelength appear at Figure 36-51 Problem 113.
u + 30*, (2) that the dispersion be as high as possible, and (3) that
the third order for the 600 nm light be a missing order. (a) What
should be the slit separation? (b) What is the smallest individual 114 Two emission lines have wavelengths l and l ' (l, respec-
slit width that can be used? (c) For the values calculated in (a) and tively, where (l & l. Show that their angular separation (u in a
(b) and the light of wavelength 600 nm, what is the largest order of grating spectrometer is given approximately by
maxima produced by the grating?
(l
104 A beam of x rays with wavelengths ranging from 0.120 nm to (u ! ,
2(d/m)2 % l2
0.0700 nm scatters from a family of reflecting planes in a crystal.
The plane separation is 0.250 nm. It is observed that scattered where d is the slit separation and m is the order at which the lines
beams are produced for 0.100 nm and 0.0750 nm. What is the angle are observed. Note that the angular separation is greater in the
between the incident and scattered beams? higher orders than the lower orders.

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 C H A P T E R 3 7

Relativity
37-1 SIMULTANEITY AND TIME DILATION
Learning Objectives
After reading this module, you should be able to . . .
37.01 Identify the two postulates of (special) relativity and the simultaneous events in one of the frames will generally
type of frames to which they apply. not be simultaneous in the other frame.
37.02 Identify the speed of light as the ultimate speed and 37.06 Explain what is meant by the entanglement of the
give its approximate value. spatial and temporal separations between two events.
37.03 Explain how the space and time coordinates of an 37.07 Identify the conditions in which a temporal separation
event can be measured with a three-dimensional array of of two events is a proper time.
clocks and measuring rods and how that eliminates the 37.08 Identify that if the temporal separation of two events is
need of a signal’s travel time to an observer. a proper time as measured in one frame, that separation is
37.04 Identify that the relativity of space and time has greater (dilated) as measured in another frame.
to do with transferring measurements between two 37.09 Apply the relationship between proper time (t0,
inertial frames with relative motion but we still use dilated time (t, and the relative speed v between two
classical kinematics and Newtonian mechanics frames.
within a frame. 37.10 Apply the relationships between the relative speed v,
37.05 Identify that for reference frames with relative motion, the speed parameter b, and the Lorentz factor g.

Key Ideas
● Einstein’s special theory of relativity is based on two ● If two successive events occur at the same place in an
postulates: (1) The laws of physics are the same for inertial reference frame, the time interval (t0 between them,
observers in all inertial reference frames. (2) The speed measured on a single clock where they occur, is the proper
of light in vacuum has the same value c in all directions time between them. Observers in frames moving relative to
and in all inertial reference frames. that frame will always measure a larger value (t for the time
● Three space coordinates and one time coordinate interval, an effect known as time dilation.
specify an event. One task of special relativity is to relate ● If the relative speed between the two frames is v, then
these coordinates as assigned by two observers who are (t0 (t0
in uniform motion with respect to each other. (t ! ! ! g (t0,
2
21 % (v/c) 21 % b 2
● If two observers are in relative motion, they
generally will not agree as to whether two events where b ! v/c is the speed parameter and g ! 1/21 % b 2 is
are simultaneous. the Lorentz factor.

What Is Physics?
One principal subject of physics is relativity, the field of study that measures
events (things that happen): where and when they happen, and by how much any
two events are separated in space and in time. In addition, relativity has to do
with transforming such measurements (and also measurements of energy and
momentum) between reference frames that move relative to each other. (Hence
the name relativity.)
Transformations and moving reference frames, such as those we discussed in
Modules 4-6 and 4-7, were well understood and quite routine to physicists in 1905.
1116
 37-1 SI M U LTAN E ITY AN D TI M E DI L ATION 1117

Then Albert Einstein (Fig. 37-1) published his special theory of relativity. The
adjective special means that the theory deals only with inertial reference frames,
which are frames in which Newton’s laws are valid. (Einstein’s general theory of
relativity treats the more challenging situation in which reference frames can
undergo gravitational acceleration; in this chapter the term relativity implies only
inertial reference frames.)
Starting with two deceivingly simple postulates, Einstein stunned the scien-
tific world by showing that the old ideas about relativity were wrong, even though
everyone was so accustomed to them that they seemed to be unquestionable
common sense. This supposed common sense, however, was derived only from
experience with things that move rather slowly. Einstein’s relativity, which turns
out to be correct for all physically possible speeds, predicted many effects that
were, at first study, bizarre because no one had ever experienced them.
Entangled. In particular, Einstein demonstrated that space and time are en-
tangled; that is, the time between two events depends on how far apart they oc-
cur, and vice versa. Also, the entanglement is different for observers who move
relative to each other. One result is that time does not pass at a fixed rate, as if it
were ticked off with mechanical regularity on some master grandfather clock that © Corbis-Bettmann
controls the universe. Rather, that rate is adjustable: Relative motion can change Figure 37-1 Einstein posing for a photograph
the rate at which time passes. Prior to 1905, no one but a few daydreamers would as fame began to accumulate.
have thought that. Now, engineers and scientists take it for granted because their
experience with special relativity has reshaped their common sense. For example,
any engineer involved with the Global Positioning System of the NAVSTAR
satellites must routinely use relativity (both special relativity and general relativ-
ity) to determine the rate at which time passes on the satellites because that rate
differs from the rate on Earth’s surface. If the engineers failed to take relativity
into account, GPS would become almost useless in less than one day.
Special relativity has the reputation of being difficult. It is not difficult math-
ematically, at least not here. However, it is difficult in that we must be very careful
about who measures what about an event and just how that measurement is
made — and it can be difficult because it can contradict routine experience.

The Postulates
We now examine the two postulates of relativity, on which Einstein’s theory is
based:

1. The Relativity Postulate: The laws of physics are the same for observers in all
inertial reference frames. No one frame is preferred over any other.

Galileo assumed that the laws of mechanics were the same in all inertial refer-
ence frames. Einstein extended that idea to include all the laws of physics, espe-
cially those of electromagnetism and optics. This postulate does not say that the
measured values of all physical quantities are the same for all inertial observers;
most are not the same. It is the laws of physics, which relate these measurements
to one another, that are the same.

2. The Speed of Light Postulate: The speed of light in vacuum has the same value c
in all directions and in all inertial reference frames.

We can also phrase this postulate to say that there is in nature an ultimate speed c,
the same in all directions and in all inertial reference frames. Light happens to
travel at this ultimate speed. However, no entity that carries energy or informa-
tion can exceed this limit. Moreover, no particle that has mass can actually reach
speed c, no matter how much or for how long that particle is accelerated. (Alas,

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1118 CHAPTE R 37 R E L ATIVITY

6 the faster-than-light warp drive used in many science fiction stories appears to be
Kinetic energy (MeV) impossible.)
Both postulates have been exhaustively tested, and no exceptions have ever
4 been found.

Ultimate speed
2
The Ultimate Speed
The existence of a limit to the speed of accelerated electrons was shown in a 1964
experiment by W. Bertozzi, who accelerated electrons to various measured
0 speeds and — by an independent method — measured their kinetic energies. He
1 2 3
found that as the force on a very fast electron is increased, the electron’s meas-
Speed (108 m/s)
ured kinetic energy increases toward very large values but its speed does not
Figure 37-2 The dots show measured values increase appreciably (Fig. 37-2). Electrons have been accelerated in laboratories
of the kinetic energy of an electron plot-
to at least 0.999 999 999 95 times the speed of light but — close though it may
ted against its measured speed. No matter
how much energy is given to an electron
be — that speed is still less than the ultimate speed c.
(or to any other particle having mass), its This ultimate speed has been defined to be exactly
speed can never equal or exceed the ulti- c ! 299 792 458 m/s. (37-1)
mate limiting speed c. (The plotted curve
through the dots shows the predictions of Caution: So far in this book we have (appropriately) approximated c as
Einstein’s special theory of relativity.) 3.0 " 108 m/s, but in this chapter we shall often use the exact value. You might
want to store the exact value in your calculator’s memory (if it is not there
already), to be called up when needed.

Testing the Speed of Light Postulate

If the speed of light is the same in all inertial reference frames, then the speed of
light emitted by a source moving relative to, say, a laboratory should be the same
as the speed of light that is emitted by a source at rest in the laboratory. This claim
has been tested directly, in an experiment of high precision. The “light source”
was the neutral pion (symbol p 0), an unstable, short-lived particle that can be pro-
duced by collisions in a particle accelerator. It decays (transforms) into two
gamma rays by the process
p 0 : g ' g. (37-2)
Gamma rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum (at very high frequencies)
and so obey the speed of light postulate, just as visible light does. (In this chapter
we shall use the term light for any type of electromagnetic wave, visible or not.)
In 1964, physicists at CERN, the European particle-physics laboratory near
Geneva, generated a beam of pions moving at a speed of 0.999 75c with respect to
the laboratory. The experimenters then measured the speed of the gamma rays
emitted from these very rapidly moving sources. They found that the speed of the
light emitted by the pions was the same as it would be if the pions were at rest in
the laboratory, namely c.

Measuring an Event
An event is something that happens, and every event can be assigned three
space coordinates and one time coordinate. Among many possible events are
(1) the turning on or off of a tiny lightbulb, (2) the collision of two particles,
(3) the passage of a pulse of light through a specified point, (4) an explosion, and
Table 37-1 Record of Event A (5) the sweeping of the hand of a clock past a marker on the rim of the clock. A
certain observer, fixed in a certain inertial reference frame, might, for example,
Coordinate Value
assign to an event A the coordinates given in Table 37-1. Because space and time
x 3.58 m are entangled with each other in relativity, we can describe these coordinates
y 1.29 m collectively as spacetime coordinates. The coordinate system itself is part of the
z 0m reference frame of the observer.
A given event may be recorded by any number of observers, each in a dif-
t 34.5 s
ferent inertial reference frame. In general, different observers will assign differ-
 37-1 SI M U LTAN E ITY AN D TI M E DI L ATION 1119

ent spacetime coordinates to the same event. Note that an event does not
“belong” to any particular inertial reference frame. An event is just something
that happens, and anyone in any reference frame may detect it and assign space-
time coordinates to it.
Travel Times. Making such an assignment can be complicated by a practical
problem. For example, suppose a balloon bursts 1 km to your right while a fire-
cracker pops 2 km to your left, both at 9:00 A.M. However, you do not detect
either event precisely at 9:00 A.M. because at that instant light from the events has
not yet reached you. Because light from the firecracker pop has farther to go, it
arrives at your eyes later than does light from the balloon burst, and thus the pop
will seem to have occurred later than the burst. To sort out the actual times and to
assign 9:00 A.M. as the happening time for both events, you must calculate the
travel times of the light and then subtract these times from the arrival times.
This procedure can be very messy in more challenging situations, and we
need an easier procedure that automatically eliminates any concern about the
travel time from an event to an observer. To set up such a procedure, we shall
construct an imaginary array of measuring rods and clocks throughout the
observer’s inertial frame (the array moves rigidly with the observer). This
construction may seem contrived, but it spares us much confusion and calculation
and allows us to find the coordinates, as follows.
1. The Space Coordinates. We imagine the observer’s coordinate system fitted
with a close-packed, three-dimensional array of measuring rods, one set of
rods parallel to each of the three coordinate axes. These rods provide a way to
determine coordinates along the axes. Thus, if the event is, say, the turning on
of a small lightbulb, the observer, in order to locate the position of the event,
need only read the three space coordinates at the bulb’s location.
2. The Time Coordinate. For the time coordinate, we imagine that every point
of intersection in the array of measuring rods includes a tiny clock, which the
observer can read because the clock is illuminated by the light generated by
the event. Figure 37-3 suggests one plane in the “jungle gym” of clocks and
measuring rods we have described.
The array of clocks must be synchronized properly. It is not enough to
assemble a set of identical clocks, set them all to the same time, and then move
them to their assigned positions. We do not know, for example, whether mov-
ing the clocks will change their rates. (Actually, it will.) We must put the clocks
in place and then synchronize them.
If we had a method of transmitting signals at infinite speed, synchroniza- We use this array to assign
tion would be a simple matter. However, no known signal has this property. spacetime coordinates.
We therefore choose light (any part of the electromagnetic spectrum) to send y
out our synchronizing signals because, in vacuum, light travels at the greatest
possible speed, the limiting speed c.
Here is one of many ways in which an observer might synchronize an
array of clocks using light signals: The observer enlists the help of a great num- A
ber of temporary helpers, one for each clock. The observer then stands at a
point selected as the origin and sends out a pulse of light when the origin clock x
reads t ! 0. When the light pulse reaches the location of a helper, that helper z
sets the clock there to read t ! r/c, where r is the distance between the helper Figure 37-3 One section of a three-
and the origin. The clocks are then synchronized. dimensional array of clocks and measuring
3. The Spacetime Coordinates. The observer can now assign spacetime rods by which an observer can assign
spacetime coordinates to an event, such as
coordinates to an event by simply recording the time on the clock nearest the
a flash of light at point A. The event’s
event and the position as measured on the nearest measuring rods. If there are space coordinates are approximately
two events, the observer computes their separation in time as the difference in x ! 3.6 rod lengths, y ! 1.3 rod lengths,
the times on clocks near each and their separation in space from the differ- and z ! 0. The time coordinate is whatever
ences in coordinates on rods near each. We thus avoid the practical problem of time appears on the clock closest to A at
calculating the travel times of the signals to the observer from the events. the instant of the flash.

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1120 CHAPTE R 37 R E L ATIVITY

The Relativity of Simultaneity

Suppose that one observer (Sam) notes that two independent events (event Red
and event Blue) occur at the same time. Suppose also that another observer
(Sally), who is moving at a constant velocity v: with respect to Sam, also records
these same two events. Will Sally also find that they occur at the same time?
The answer is that in general she will not:

If two observers are in relative motion, they will not, in general, agree as to
whether two events are simultaneous. If one observer finds them to be simultane-
ous, the other generally will not.

We cannot say that one observer is right and the other wrong. Their observations
are equally valid, and there is no reason to favor one over the other.
v
The realization that two contradictory statements about the same natural
events can be correct is a seemingly strange outcome of Einstein’s theory. How-
B' Sally R' ever, in Chapter 17 we saw another way in which motion can affect measurement
without balking at the contradictory results: In the Doppler effect, the frequency
B Sam R an observer measures for a sound wave depends on the relative motion of
Event Blue Event Red
observer and source. Thus, two observers moving relative to each other can mea-
(a)
sure different frequencies for the same wave, and both measurements are correct.
We conclude the following:
v

Simultaneity is not an absolute concept but rather a relative one, depending on

B R the motion of the observer.
Sam detects both events
(b)
Waves from the two events reach If the relative speed of the observers is very much less than the speed of light,
Sam simultaneously but ... then measured departures from simultaneity are so small that they are not
noticeable. Such is the case for all our experiences of daily living; that is why the
relativity of simultaneity is unfamiliar.
Sally detects event Red
v A Closer Look at Simultaneity
Let us clarify the relativity of simultaneity with an example based on the postulates
B R of relativity, no clocks or measuring rods being directly involved. Figure 37-4 shows
two long spaceships (the SS Sally and the SS Sam), which can serve as inertial refer-
(c) ence frames for observers Sally and Sam. The two observers are stationed at the
... Sally receives the wave
from event Red first. midpoints of their ships. The ships are separating along a common x axis, the rela-
tive velocity of Sally with respect to Sam being v:. Figure 37-4a shows the ships with
the two observer stations momentarily aligned opposite each other.
Sally detects event Blue Two large meteorites strike the ships, one setting off a red flare (event Red)
v
and the other a blue flare (event Blue), not necessarily simultaneously. Each
event leaves a permanent mark on each ship, at positions RR# and BB#.
B R Let us suppose that the expanding wavefronts from the two events happen to
reach Sam at the same time, as Fig. 37-4b shows. Let us further suppose that, after
(d) the episode, Sam finds, by measuring the marks on his spaceship, that he was
indeed stationed exactly halfway between the markers B and R on his ship when
Figure 37-4 The spaceships of Sally and Sam
and the occurrences of events from Sam’s
the two events occurred. He will say:
view. Sally’s ship moves rightward with Sam Light from event Red and light from event Blue reached me at the same time.
velocity v:. (a) Event Red occurs at posi- From the marks on my spaceship, I find that I was standing halfway between the
tions RR# and event Blue occurs at posi- two sources.Therefore, event Red and event Blue were simultaneous events.
tions BB#; each event sends out a wave of
light. (b) Sam simultaneously detects the As study of Fig. 37-4 shows, Sally and the expanding wavefront from event Red
waves from event Red and event Blue. are moving toward each other, while she and the expanding wavefront from
(c) Sally detects the wave from event Red. event Blue are moving in the same direction. Thus, the wavefront from event Red
(d) Sally detects the wave from event Blue. will reach Sally before the wavefront from event Blue does. She will say:
 37-1 SI M U LTAN E ITY AN D TI M E DI L ATION 1121

Sally Light from event Red reached me before light from event Blue did. From
the marks on my spaceship, I found that I too was standing halfway between
the two sources. Therefore, the events were not simultaneous; event Red
occurred first, followed by event Blue.
These reports do not agree. Nevertheless, both observers are correct.
Note carefully that there is only one wavefront expanding from the site of
each event and that this wavefront travels with the same speed c in both reference
frames, exactly as the speed of light postulate requires.
It might have happened that the meteorites struck the ships in such a way
that the two hits appeared to Sally to be simultaneous. If that had been the case,
then Sam would have declared them not to be simultaneous.

The Relativity of Time

If observers who move relative to each other measure the time interval (or tem-
poral separation) between two events, they generally will find different results.
Why? Because the spatial separation of the events can affect the time intervals
measured by the observers.

The time interval between two events depends on how far apart they occur in
both space and time; that is, their spatial and temporal separations are entangled.

In this module we discuss this entanglement by means of an example; however, the

example is restricted in a crucial way: To one of two observers, the two events occur at
the same location. We shall not get to more general examples until Module 37-3.
Figure 37-5a shows the basics of an experiment Sally conducts while she and
her equipment — a light source, a mirror, and a clock — ride in a train moving
with constant velocity v: relative to a station. A pulse of light leaves the light
source B (event 1), travels vertically upward, is reflected vertically downward by
the mirror, and then is detected back at the source (event 2). Sally measures a
certain time interval (t0 between the two events, related to the distance D from

Mirror The measure of that time interval

M
Event 1 is the emission of light. on Sally’s clock differs from that
Event 2 is the return of the light. on Sam’s clock due to the relative
We want the time between them. motion.
D
Mirror

Event 1 Event 2

B MOTION
L D L
Figure 37-5 (a) Sally, on the train,
measures the time interval (t0
Event 1 Event 2
between events 1 and 2 using a
single clock C on the train. That C
B B
clock is shown twice: first for v ∆t
event 1 and then for event 2. ∆ t0 ∆t
(b) Sam, watching from the
station as the events occur,
requires two synchronized C
C1 C2
clocks, C1 at event 1 and C2 at
event 2, to measure the time
interval between the two events; Sally Sam
his measured time interval is (t. (a) (b)

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