ENCODERS

• An encoder is a device that converts a linear or angular displacement in to a

sequence of pulses
• By counting the pulses we can obtain the linear or angular displacement
• Encoder come in two basic forms
1. Incremental encoder
2. Absolute encoder
• Incremental encoder gives the rotation with respect to some reference position
where as absolute encoder give the actual position
Absolute encoder
• Absolute encoder are used for the measurement of angular displacement

Absolute encoder

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Fig shows the basic form of an absolute encoder for the measurement of angular
displacement This gives an output in the form of a binary number of several
digits, each such number representing a particular angular position. The rotating
disc has three concentric circles of slots and three sensors to detect the light
pulses. The slots are arranged in such a way that the sequential output from the
sensors is a number in the binary code. Typical encoders tend to have up to 10
or 12 tracks. The number of bits in the binary number will be equal to the
number of tracks. Thus with 10 tracks there will be 10 bits and so the number of
positions that can be detected is 2^10, i.e. 1024, a resolution of 360/1024 =
0.35°.
The normal form of binary code is generally not used because changing
from one binary number to the next can result in more than one bit changing
and if, through some misalignment, one of the bits changes fractionally before
the others then an intermediate binary number is momentarily indicated and so
can lead to false counting. To overcome this the gray code is generally used. Fig
shows the tracks with normal binary code and the Gray code. With this code
only one bit changes in moving from one number to the next. An absolute
encoder with 7 tracks on its code disc, each track will give one of bits in the
binary number and thus we have 2^7 position specified, i.e. 128

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Incremental encoder

It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of equally spaced holes.

Three light sensors are employed to detect the light passing thru the holes.
These sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of
the mechanical element e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted. The
inner track has just one hole which is used locate the ‘home’ position of the
disc. The holes on the middle track offset from the holes of the outer track by
one-half of the width of the hole. This arrangement provides the direction of
rotation to be determined. When the disc rotates in clockwise direction, the
pulses in the outer track lead those in the inner; in counter clockwise direction
they lag behind. The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on
disc. With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution would be,
3600/100 = 3.6°
Resolvers and Synchors

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Resolvers are used in accurate servo and robot systems to measure angular
displacement.Their signal can be differentiated to obtain the velocity.The
Rotor is connected with the rotating object and contains a primary coil
supplied by an alternating current from a source voltage Vref .The stator
consist of two windings separated by 90 with induced voltages.

Resolvers can perform very accurate analog conversion from polar to

rectangular coordinates.Shaft angle is the polar angle ,the excitation
voltage is the magnitude .The outputs are [X] and [Y]
components.Resolvers with four-leads rotors can rotate [X] and [Y]
coordinates, with the shaft position giving the desired rotation angle.
Types of resolvers are
1.Receiver resolvers
2.Differential resolvers.
Synchros

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In function ,the synchro is an electro mechanical transducer.A mechanical
input such as a shaft rotation is converted to a unique set of output
voltages or a set of input voltages is used to turn a synchro rotor to a
desired position.

Types of synchro
1. Synchro transmitter
2. Synchro receiver
3. Synchro control transformer
4. Synchro differential control transformer
• It is used as an error detector and as a rotary position sensor .The error
occurs in the system because of the misalignment of the shaft.In its
physical construction it is much like an electric motor.
• The relative magnitudes of secondary currents are measured and used to
determine the angle of the rotor relative to the stator.

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• The primary winding of the transmitter fixed to the rotor is excited by an
alternating current which by electro magnetic induction causes current
flow in three star connected secondary windings fixed at 120° to each
other on the stator.
• On practical level synchro resemble motors in that there is a rotor, stator
and a shaft. Ordinally slip rings and brushes connect the rotor to external
power.
• A synchro transmitters shaft is rotated by the mechanism that sends
information while the synchro receivers shaft rotates a dial or operates a
light mechanical load.

Tactile Sensors
A tactile sensor is a particular form of pressure sensor.Such a sensor is
used on the fingertips of robotics hands to determine when a hand has
come into contact with an object.they are also used for touch display
screens where a physical contact has to be sensed.One form of tactile
sensor uses piezoelectric polyvinylidene fluoride(PVDF) film.Two layers
of the film are are used and are separated by a soft film which transmits
vibrations.The lower PVDF film has an alternating voltage applied to it
and this results in mechanical oscillations of the film(the reverse
piezoelectric effect).The intermediate film transmits these vibrations to the

upper PVDF film.As a consequence of the piezoelectric effect, these

vibrations cause an alternating voltage to be produced across the upper

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film.When pressure is applied to the upper PVDF film its vibrations are
affected and the output alternating voltage is changed.

Force Sensors
A spring balance is an example of a force sensor in which a force, a
weight, is applied to the scale pan and cause a displacement ie the spring
stretches.The displacement is then a measure of the force.Forces are
commonly measured by the measurement of displacements
Strain Gauge Load Cell a very commonly used form of force measuring
sensor is based on the use electrical resistance strain gauges to monitor the
strain produced in some member when stretched, compressed or bent by
the application of the force.the arrangement is generally referred to as a
load cell.

This is cylindrical tube to which strain gauges have been attached.When

forces are applied to the cylinder to compress it, then the strain gauges
give a resistance change which is a measure of the strain and hence the
applied forces.
These load cell are used for forces up to about 10MN.

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Vibration Sensors
• The instruments which are used to measure the displacement, velocity or
acceleration of a vibrating body are called vibration measuring
instruments.
• The term vibration relates with the displacement, velocity and
acceleration. So vibrations can be measured by using the transducers
which are sensitive to displacement, velocity and acceleration.
• A vibration is measured by its frequency and amplitude.
• Every vibrating body/element has mass and frequency of vibration is a
function of this mass.
• The amplitude of vibration is a function of this mass.
An accelerometer is a vibration measuring device which uses a piezo
resistive or capacitive effect for measurement.
Strain Gauge Accelerometer
Basic Principle of Strain Gauge Accelerometer When a cantilever beam
attached with a mass at its free end is subjected to vibration, vibrational
displacement of the mass takes place. Depending on the displacement of
the mass, the beam deflects and hence the beam is strained. The resulting

Type to enter a caption.

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strain is proportional to the vibration displacement of the mass and hence
the vibration/acceleration being measured when calibrated.
Operation of Strain Gauge Accelerometer
• The accelerometer is fitted on to the structure whose acceleration is to be
measured.
• Due to the vibration, vibrational displacement of the mass occurs,
causing the cantilever beam to be strained.
• Hence the strain gauges mounted on the cantilever beam are also
strained and due to this their resistance change.
• Hence a measure of this change in resistance of the strain gauge
becomes a measure of the extent to which the cantilever beam is
strained.
• But the resulting strain of the cantilever beam is proportional to the
vibration/acceleration and hence a measure of the change in resistance of
the strain gauges becomes a measure of vibration/acceleration.
• The leads of the strain gauges are connected to a wheat stone bridge
whose output is calibrated in terms of vibration/acceleration.

Acoustic Emission Sensors

Acoustic emission (AE) is the phenomenon of radiation of acoustic
(elastic) waves in solids that occurs when a material undergoes irreversible
changes in its internal structure, for example as a result of crack formation
or plastic deformation due to aging, temperature gradients or external
mechanical forces. In particular, AE is occurring during the processes of
mechanical loading of materials and structures accompanied by structural
changes that generate local sources of elastic waves. The AE method is
used to detect frequencies in the ultrasonic range (several tens of kHz to
several MHz). Applications: product testing, tool monitoring, safety
monitoring
The AE method offers the following advantages.

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• Can observe the progress of plastic deformation and microscopic
collapse in real time.
• Can locate a flaw by using several AE sensors.

Ultrasonic Sensor:
It is a type of acoustic sensor which is divided in to 3 broad categories.
A. Transmitters
B. Receivers
C. Transceivers
• Transmitters convert electrical signal into ultrasound
• Receivers convert ultrasound into electrical signal
• Transceivers can both transmit and receive ultrasound.
• In a similar way to radar and sonar ultrasonic sensors are used in system
which evaluate targets by interpreting the reflected signals.For example
by measuring the time between sending a signal and receiving an echo
the distance of an object can be calculated.

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• Passive ultrasonic sensors are basically micro phones that detect
ultrasonic noise that is present under certain conditions.

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