PHYS1000A/32A

● Mahlaga Molepo
∘ Physics Building 2nd Floor, P220
∘ [email protected]
∘ Tel: 011 717 6827
2. Motion in one dimension

2.1 From reality to model

2.2 Position and displacement
2.3 Representing Motion
2.4 Average speed and average velocity
2.5 Scalars and vectors
2.6 Position and displacement vectors
Section 2.1: From reality to model
● What is a model?
= simplified representation of
something in the real world
● We’ll make a model of some one
dimensional motion
Section 2.1: From reality to model
● To analyse the motion of
an object
∘ need to keep track of the
object’s position at
different instants:
● If the position does not
change the object is at rest.
● If the position changes the
object is moving.
A man walks in front of his garage
A riveting story in 3 chapters
Determining position

● Set a line to measure along

∘ called a reference axis
∘ I choose a straight line along ground where the man walked
● Chose a reference point (or origin) from which to measure
● Measure position in each frame from origin to centre of body
∘ example for frame 5 shown above
Position vs frame in the film

The results of
measuring the
position in each
frame:
Plot of position vs frame in the film
Models

● The table and plot are models

∘ ie. simplified representation of the world
● Making models is a critical skill in physics
● To make our models useful we need the
data in terms of real world distances and times
∘ called calibration
Calibrating the data
Take a reasonable guess at the man’s height. I have measured the
man’s height to be 4.5 mm in the photos.
Estimate what real-world distance 1.0 mm in the frame corresponds to
A) 0.20 m
B) 0.81 m
5 mm
C) 2.5 m
D) 0.40 m ✓
E) 0.60 m
0 mm
F) 2.0 m
I guess the man’s height to be about 6 ft which is about 1.8 m, so
Calibrating the data
● 1.0 mm → 0.40 m
● in frame 2, the man is 3.8 mm
from the left edge of the
picture
● what was his distance from
the left edge of the frame in
the real world?

● real distance in frame 3?

Calibrating the data

● There are 3 frames /second

∘ how much time passes between each
frame?
∘ 1.0 s / 3 = 0.33 s
● How much time has passed from
frame 1 to frame 7?
∘ 6×0.33 s = 2.0 s
Result of calibration
● 1.0 mm → 0.40 m
∘ lets give the reference axis a
name. Suggestions?
● x axis
∘ position represented by x
coordinate on x axis
● x coordinate can be positive
or negative
● x axis like a number line in
space
∘ but has units

● 1 frame = 1/3s
∘ clock readings represented by t
∘ let frame 1 be at t = 0.0 s
∘ frame 2 is at t = ?
Plot of the calibrated data
● called a position-versus-time graph.
∘ vertical axis is position (x)
∘ horizontal axis is time (t)
Plot of the calibrated data
● Origin is arbitrary
∘ what do you think I mean by that?
● we can measure position relative to any point on the
reference axis
● we can take any moment as t = 0.0 s
Another plot of the calibrated data
● In the last plot: origin = left edge of frame
● we could take another origin:
∘ how is the origin chosen below?
● x = 0 is the man’s position in frame 1
● clock reading at frame 1 taken to be t = 0.33 s
A tale of two plots...
● What is different & the
same in the two plots?
∘ positions are different
● eg: final position

∘ plot 1: 3.4 m
plot 2: 2.4 m
∘ difference between
positions is the same
● eg: first & final point

∘ plot 1: 3.4 m – 1.0 m =

2.4 m
∘ plot 2: 2.4 m – 0.0 m =
2.4 m
A tale of two plots...
● Take home message:
∘ The choice of origin does not affect the relative
positions of any points
∘ relative positions are clearly important
● leads to definition of displacement
Displacement

● We can represent motion by an arrow from the

initial to the final point
● called displacement
∘ the arrow does not depend on choice of origin or axis
Displacement

● The x component of an object’s displacement

= the change in its x coordinate.
∘ value = final x coordinate – initial x coordinate
● eg. 3.5 m – 1.0 m = 2.5 m
∘ is independent of the choice of origin
∘ can be negative or positive
● when is it negative?
∘ if you’ve moved in a negative direction
on the reference axis
Distance

● Suppose I take 2 steps forward and 3 steps

backward on the x-axis
& 1 step = 1 m
∘ what is the x component of my displacement for the
trip?
2m – 3m = – 1 m
∘ what distance did I travel during my trip?
2m + 3m = 5m 1m 2m

3m
Distance

● The distance travelled

= the distance covered by a moving object along the
path of its motion.
● distance travelled is always positive.
Section 2.2
Clicker Question 1
An object goes from one point in space to another.
After it arrives at its destination, its displacement is

A) either greater than or equal to

B) always greater than
C) always equal to
D) either smaller than or equal to
E) always smaller than
F) either smaller than or larger than

the distance it travelled.

Representing motion
● Plot from last lecture
∘ only has position at a few instants
∘ faster camera would take more
pictures in a second
→ more dots
∘ super-fast camera
→ so many dots
● looks like a solid curve
∘ on the other hand, assuming
smooth motion between frames
● we can guess motion between shots
Interpolating motion
● assuming smooth motion between frames
∘ can guess motion between shots
● called interpolation
∘ a curve on a position-vs-time graph
● called an x(t) curve
= a mathematical function
∘ x(t) means “x at time t”
∘ not the same as x(m)
● which tells us: x is measured
in m
Interpolating motion
● eg how long did it take to go from x=+1.0 m to
x=+4.0 m ?
∘ discuss

x = 4.0 m
t = 1.7s

x = 1.0 m 1.7 s
t = 0.0s
Different representations
● Connecting the images in the sequence of frames
also gives a curve representing the motion
● How does it compare it with the position-vs-time
graph?
Different representations
● Turn the film sequence on its side
∘ and squishing it → the same curve
Section 2.3
Clicker Question 2
A person initially at point P in the illustration stays there a
moment and then moves along the axis to Q and stays there a
moment. She then runs quickly to R, stays there a moment, and
then strolls slowly back to P. Which of the position-versus-time
graphs below correctly represents this motion?

(A) (B) (C)

(D) (E) (F)

Example 2.1 Graphical representation

The curve is a graphical representation of the motion of a certain object.

(b) At what instant(s) did the object reach x = +0.80 m?

x = 0.80m

t = 0.20 s
or
0.80 s
Example 2.1 Graphical representation

The curve is a graphical representation of the motion of a certain object.

(c) how far did the object go between t = 0.80 s and t = 1.2 s?

t = 0.80s

distance = 0.80 m
t = 1.20s
Section 2.3
Clicker Question 3
A marathon runner runs at a steady 15 km/hr. When the runner is
7.5 km from the finish, a bird begins flying from the runner to
the finish at 30 km/hr. When the bird reaches the finish line, it
turns around and flies back to the runner, and then turns around
again, repeating the back-and-forth trips until the runner reaches
the finish line. How many kilometers does the bird travel?

A) 10 km
B) 15 km
C) 20 km
D) 30 km
Velocity and speed

● Now that we know how to represent motion in

terms of position and time, we can look at
average velocity and average speed
Average speed

● The slower I
go, the longer it
takes to get
where I’m
going
● Normal speed
takes: 2.33s
2.33 s 4.66s
● Half speed
takes
4.66 s
Speed & slope

If the slope of the curve is steeper, my speed is

✔ A) faster
B) slower
C) it depends...
What is average speed?
● Average speed = distance travelled / time taken
∘ “normal” speed:
● distance travelled = 4.8 m – 1.0 m = 3.8 m

● time take = 2.3 s

● average speed =

3.8 m /2.33 s =1.6 m/s

∘ half speed
● distance = 3.8 m

● time = 4.66 s
2.33s
● average speed = 4.66s
3.8 m / 4.66 s = 0.81 m/s
Velocity
● Average speed only tells us how fast something is
going
● average velocity
∘ gives both speed and direction of travel
● the x component of an object’s average velocity
= (x component of an object’s displacement)
÷ (time taken for that displacement)
∘ can be positive or negative (see next example)
Average velocity example
● Curve 1: walking slowly forward
∘ displacement in x direction:
xf – xi = 3.4 m – 1.0 m = 2.4 m
∘ x component of average velocity
= +2.4 m / 6.0 s = 0.40 m/s
● Curve 2: original path
walking forward
∘ displacement in x direction:
xp– xi = 4.8 m – 1.0 m = 3.8 m
∘ time taken : 2.3 s – 0.0 s = 2.3 s
∘ x component of average velocity
= 3.8 m / 2.3 s = 1.7 m/s 2.3 3.6
Average velocity example
Curve 2: original path
walking forward
∘ displacement in x direction:
xp– xi = 4.8 m – 1.0 m = 3.8 m
∘ time taken : 2.3 s – 0.0 s = 2.3 s
∘ x component of average velocity
= 3.8 m / 2.3 s = 1.7 m/s

walking backward:
∘ displacement in x direction:
● xf – xp = 3.4 m – 4.8 m = – 1.40 m
∘ time taken : 6.0 s – 3.6 s = 2.4 s
∘ x component of average velocity
= – 1.40 m/2.4 s = – 0.58 m/s
2.3 3.6
Average velocity example
● for both curves
from t = 0.0s to t = 6.0 s
∘ x component of average
velocity
= +2.4 m / 6.0 s = 0.40 m/s
Average velocity between each frame
Displacement Displacement
between frames time interval
(m) (m/s)

+0.52 +1.6
+0.68 +2.1
+0.60 +1.8
+0.60 +1.8
+0.40 +1.2
+0.60 +1.8
+0.40 +1.2
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
-0.24 -0.73
-0.16 -0.48
-0.16 -0.48
-0.24 -0.73
-0.20 -0.61
-0.24 -0.73
Velocity vs time graph
● using last table, we can plot a velocity-vs-time graph
● x component of velocity is called: vx
Velocity vs time graph
● using last table, we can plot a velocity-vs-time graph
● x component of velocity is called: vx
Velocity vs time graph
st
●
from 1 graph
→ simplified & interpolated velocity-vs-time graph
2.5 Vectors and scalars
2 types of physical quantities in this course: vectors &
scalars
● scalars
∘ consists of a number (+ve or –ve)
∘ & possibly units
∘ obey ordinary laws of arithmetic
2.5 Vectors and scalars
2 types of physical quantities in this course: vectors &
scalars
● vectors
∘ have a magnitude
● non-negative number (⩾0) & possibly units
∘ also has a direction in space
● eg displacement:
∘ points from initial → final position
∘ obey special laws of: +, – , × , ·

3.8 m
Are the following Vectors or
scalars?
a) the average velocity of an athlete running the 100 m
∘ vector: we need a direction to specify it

b) the time it took me to get from Alberton to Benoni

∘ scalar: we do not need a direction to specify it

c) the position of Alberton relative to Benoni

∘ vector: we need a direction to specify it

d) the distance from Alberton to Benoni

∘ scalar: we do not need a direction to specify it
2.5 Vectors and scalars

Vectors & scalars are clearly different

● especially in 2D or 3D
● write them in different ways
∘ b scalar
● use italics

∘ a⃗ vector
● put an arrow directly on top

3.8 m
Vector’s magnitude

● magnitude of a vector
∘ tells us its size (how big it is)
● 2 ways to write down the size of a vector a⃗
∘ a
● same letter without an arrow
● eg. a = 3.8 m
∘ |a⃗|
● put it inside two lines ⃗a
● eg. |a⃗| = 3.8 m
3.8 m
Vector’s direction

● How can we write down a vector’s direction?

∘ in words – but that's too sloooooooow

⃗a

3.8 m
Vector’s direction

● We define special vectors called unit vectors

whose only job is to specify a particular direction

● the unit vector î points along the x-axis

Unit vector notation

● Any vector along the x-axis can be written as the

product of a scalar and a unit vector
b⃗ = bx î
∘ bx is a scalar
● called the x-component of b⃗
● the subscript x tells us that bx relates to the x-axis
∘ the unit vector i tells us that b⃗ is parallel to the x-
axis
Unit vector notation

● draw b⃗ = bxî = +2.0 m î on the x-axis

Unit vector notation

● draw c⃗ = cx î = –1.5 m î on the x-axis

Unit vectors – summary

● the only job of a unit vector is to tell us a

direction in space
● no units
● magnitude is 1
● special symbol
∘ a “hat” (^)
● eg. unit vector in x-direction: î
|î|=1
Unit vector notation

● a⃗ = a x î
∘ what is ax for the vector shown?
● ax= 3.8m

a⃗

3.8 m
Unit vector notation

● recap
Adding v⃗ectors
● I start at the origin O & walk 2m forward to a point P, then I
walk 1 m forward to R. What is my total displacement from
O to R?
∘ 3m forward.
● In symbols
∘ if we let a⃗ = 2 m î and b⃗ = 1 m î
then a⃗ + b⃗ =
(+2 m) î + (+1 m) î = (2 m + 1m) î = 3m î
● In pictures (graphically)
+ = =
2m 1m 2m 1m 3m
Adding v⃗ectors
● General rule: To add vectors,
∘ place the tail of the second vector at the tip of the first
vector
∘ the sum of the two vectors goes from the tail of the
first vector to the tip of the second
+ = =
2m 1m 2m 1m 3m
Adding v⃗ectors
● Suppose I start at the origin O & walk 2m forward to a point
P, them I walk 1 m backward to S. What is my total
displacement from O to S?
∘ 1 m forward.
● In symbols (algebraically)
∘ let a⃗ = +2 m î and b⃗ = –1m î
∘ a⃗ +b⃗ =
(+2 m) î + (–1 m) î = (2 m – 1 m) î = 1 m î
● In pictures (graphically)
1m
+ = =
2m 1m 2m 1m
Adding v⃗ectors
● To subtract a vector
∘ reverse the direction of the vector being subtracted
∘ add the reversed vector

– = + =
2m 1m 2m 1m 1m

● symbolically reversing the vector (1 m î) can be written

– 1 m î = + (– 1 m) î
∘ or graphically:
– = +
Interlude: Δ Notation
● “Δ” is short hand for “change”
∘ eg. your height, h, increases from 1.75 m to 1.78
m
● Δh = 1.78 m – 1.75 m = +0.03 m

∘ number n of sweets in a jar goes down from 45 to

32
● Δn = 32 sweets – 45 sweets = – 13 sweets
2.6 Position & displacement vectors
● displacement is most basic vector
∘ eg displacement between frame 3 and frame 10
∘ we’ll represent displacement by Δr⃗
● “Δ” is short hand for “change”
● r⃗ will be the vector we will use for position
so
● “Δr⃗ ” is short hand for:
∘ “change in position”
Δ Notation
● suppose we start at an initial position xi & we
end at an final position xf
Δx =
xf – xi
● notice that Δx is the
x-component of the
displacement Δr⃗
Δr
∘ ie Δx = Δrx
xi ⃗
xf
∘ and Δr⃗ = Δx î
Distance
● what is the distance,
d, travelled?
d = |xf – xi|
∘ distance always
positive
→ use absolute
value d=|Δx|
xi xf
Example: vector unit notation

● write down the displacement Δr⃗ in the picture

in unit vector notation
∘ Δr⃗ = (4.8 m – 2.2 m) i = (+2.6 m) i
Example: vector unit notation
● draw the displacement
between
∘ frames 11 and 19

● write down Δr⃗ and |Δr⃗ |

∘ Δr⃗ = (3.4 – 4.8 )m î
= – 1.4 m î
∘ |Δr⃗ | = 1.4 m
Zero Vector

● when a vector has zero magnitude

∘ we say it is equal to the zero vector, 0⃗
∘ in diagrams we show the zero vector as a dot
Position vector
● Displacement vectors which start at the origin are
given a special name: position vectors
∘ we write positions vectors just as r⃗ (without the
“Δ”)
∘ eg. position vector for the point x:

r⃗ = (x – 0) î = x î
∘ eg. position vector for the point xi:

r⃗i = xi î
Distance
● write Δx = xf – xi in
terms of xf
xf = xi + Δx
● how would you describe
that formula in words?
∘ you can find an object’s xf
final position by adding xi
the x coordinate of the
initial position and the
x component of its
displacement
Position vector
● Δr⃗ = (Δx ) î
= ( xf – xi ) î
= (xf î ) – (xi î )
= r⃗f – r⃗i
∘ eg of vector subtraction
● also r⃗f = xf î
= ( xi +Δx ) î
= xi î + Δx î
= r⃗i + Δr⃗
∘ eg of vector addition
Multiplying a v⃗ector by a scalar

● Simple rule for multiplying a vector by a scalar

c a⃗ = c (ax î) = (c ax î)
∘ ie. we multiply the component of a⃗ by c
∘ if c is positive the product vector points in the same
direction as a⃗
∘ if c is negative the product vector points in the
opposite direction to a⃗
Scalar Multiplication
● An example of a physics equation with scalar
multiplication of a vector?
∘ Newton's 2nd Law : F⃗=ma⃗

m=5.01 Mg

F⃗=ma⃗
a⃗ = 9.81m⋅s-2 down =49.1kN down
Attempt problem 2.49
Outline

2.7 Velocity as a vector

2.8 Motion at constant velocity
2.9 Instantaneous velocity
V⃗ectors

● Vectors have a magnitude and a direction

Representation of forces on the Nelson Mandela cable-stay bridge

Velocity as a vector

● average velocity, v⃗av , is a vector

◦ its x component is
= x component of displacement
time taken for the displacement
◦ displacement : Δx = (xf – xi)
◦ time taken: Δt = (tf – ti)

◦ so we can write

image source: http://maxpixel.freegreatpicture.com/Illumination-Lights-Night-Street-Speed-Motion-692157

Velocity as a vector
● the x-component of v⃗av

● multiplying vx,av by î gives

● using Δr⃗ = Δx î gives

Velocity as a vector

● Δt is positive so v⃗av always points in the same

direction as Δr⃗

Δr
⃗
v⃗a
v
Constant velocity
● velocity constant → the average velocity is the
velocity
◦ we can drop the word average

● = vx (drop the av)

Constant velocity

● constant velocity:
vx = Δx / Δt
→ Δx = vx Δt
→ (xf – xi) = vx Δt
→ xf = xi + vx Δt
Constant velocity

● Δx = vx Δt
● eg. For a car moving at +10 m/s in the x direction
◦ a position-vs-time graph is a straight line
◦ each second Δx is 10 m
Constant velocity
● We can learn something useful
from a constant velocity-vs-time
graph
● area under the graph during time
Δt:
= vx Δt
◦ does this look familiar?
Δx = vx Δt is the displacement
● will see this it true for all vx(t)
◦ ie. the area under the velocity vs
time curve is equal to the
displacement
Position-vs-time graph
● What is the x component of
the object’s velocity?
A) 3.6 m/s
B) 0.6 m/s
C) 0.9 m/s
D) 5.2 m/s
vx = Δx/Δt
= (5.2 m – 1.6 m)/(6 s-0 s)
= +0.6 m/s
Instantaneous velocity
● pictures of a ball falling at 30.0 ms intervals
● what is its velocity at any instant?
● start with average velocity between position 9 and
position 2

● can we do better ?
◦ yes, take Δt smaller & smaller
◦ you will get a better approximation of velocity at
an instant
Instantaneous velocity
● Δt is small → average velocity approximates the
velocity at an instant
◦ what happens when make Δt smaller & smaller?
◦ we approach the tangent to the curve
Instantaneous velocity
● we define the instantaneous velocity in the limit
as Δt → 0
◦ this gives us the tangent to the curve

● in symbols

= definition of the derivative of x with respect to t

● will see later in Maths
Instantaneous velocity vector

● the velocity vector is

Instantaneous velocity vector

● the velocity vector is

● & using the fact that î is constant

◦ using Δx î = Δr⃗
Instantaneous velocity vector

= definition of the derivative of the position

vector

● the instantaneous speed is the magnitude,

v = |v⃗|
Instantaneous velocity vector

● From now on we will drop the adjective

instantaneous
◦ if we say speed or velocity its implied we mean
instantaneous speed or instantaneous velocity
◦ we will still say average speed or average velocity if
that’s what we want to talk about
See Example 2.11 in the Principles
book
● Suppose the x coordinate of the position of an
object moving along the x-axis varies in time
according to the expression:
x(t) = ct³
where c is a constant.
● Derive an expression for the x component of the
velocity as a function of time using:
Section 2.9
Clicker Question 4
The slope of the curve, at a point, in the position vs. time
graph for a particle’s motion gives

A) the particle’s speed.

B) the particle’s acceleration.
C) the particle’s average velocity.
D) the particle’s instantaneous velocity.
Section 2.9
Clicker Question 5
A train car moves along a long straight track. The graph
shows the position as a function of time for this train. The
graph shows that the train

A) speeds up all the time.

B) slows down all the time.
C) speeds up part of the time and slows down part of the
time.
D) moves at a constant velocity.
Section 2.9
Clicker Question 6
The graph shows position as a function of time for two trains
running on parallel tracks. Which is true?

A) At time tB, both trains have

the same velocity.
B) Both trains speed up all the time.
C) Both trains have the same velocity at some time before tB.
D) Somewhere on the graph, both trains have the same
acceleration.