Environment and Sustainable Development in

India – An Overview

By:
Vipin Kumar Singhal1

Introduction:

Environment is a broad concept encompassing the whole range of diverse

surroundings in which one perceives experience and react to events and

changes. It includes the land, water, vegetation, air and the whole gamut of the

social order. It also includes the physical and ecological environment. It concerns

people’s ability to adapt both physically and mentally to the continuing changes in

environment. In its natural condition, the environment of any region is in a state

of dynamic equilibrium. This is what is called the balance of nature. But when

people try to exploit and interfere with nature, this equilibrium is disturbed, in

many cases to the detriment of all forms of life. Ultimately, it is condition of land

and water resources and the quality of the air, which one breathes that determine

the health and wealth of a nation.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle used the spirit of sustainability in defining

the term “Oikonomia” the root of the current term economics and contrasting it

with an alternate form of development, ‘Chrematistics’. Oikonomia is defined by

Daly and Coob as “The Management of Household” so as to increase it value to

all members of the household over the long run. Much as in the case of

sustainable development, Oikonomia takes a long run perspective, considers the

1
Dr. Vipin Kumar Singhal, ICSSR, Post Doctoral Fellow.

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necessity of limited accumulation of suppliers if the needs of every one are to be

satisfied over the flong term. Unfortunately, most of the current economic

activities are far from being characterized by the oikonomia. Human kind seems

to be much more fascinated by chrematistics. The manipulation of property and

wealth so as to maximize short-term monetary exchange value to the owner

(taken from XIth Annual International Conference of National Environmental

Science Academy Proceeding 1996).

The United Nations (UN) Decade of Education for Sustainable

Development (DESD) 2005-2014 states that ‘Universities must function as places

of research and learning for sustainable development. The government of the

United Kingdom has answered in the affirmative. Its Department for Education

and Skills “shares responsibility for learning about sustainable development”.

Sustainable development has become an important issue on international,

regional and national agendas concerning, education policy over the past few

years, Articulating the goals of Higher Education Radhakrishan Commission on

University Education, 1948-49 put it in following words: “The most important and

urgent reform needs in education is to transform it, to endeavour to relate it to the

life, needs and aspirations of the people and thereby make it the powerful

instrument of social, economic and cultural transformation necessary for the

realization of the national goals. For this purpose, education should be developed

so as to increase productivity, achieve social and national integration, accelerate

the process of modernization and cultivate social, moral and spiritual values”.

Various Approaches:

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environment on sustainable development at global level and national level have

been reviewed after taking accounts various issues and dimensions at all levels.

Their main findings have been discussed in the following paragraph:

In order to produce effective indicators of sustainable development, one

must agree on what one is trying to indicate. The challenge in developing

indicators of sustainability is to find simple ways of presenting their concept

despite the complexity and uncertainty. To incorporate the sense of time, a new

kind of accounting, bringing in the temporal dimension is introduced which is

called 'chrono-economics'. Any measure of balance must look at measures

integrated over time to document processes and trends. Also, relative weights

should be assigned to different indicators. Indicator values can be ranged on a

non-linear scale, where more extreme problems or larger deviations from the

desirable level carry more weight than small deviations. (Dahl, 1995)

There are an additional properties of a good indicator like parsimony,

internal or external validity, understandability by various user groups, inter-

connectivity among different sub-systems, arid gender sensitivity. Many authors

have come up with very specific indicators. Some of these focus on rural

specificity (Gupta and Sinha, 1999). Some Indicators of sustainable rural

development which are protection and development of village commons, sale of

productive animals and percentage of underprivileged people involved in the

development program to monitor ecological, economic and social dimensions

(Rangekar, Soni and Kakade, 1999). Degree of livelihood support of rural people

and poor farmers and indicators are increased opportunity for wage employment,

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common land for poorest households and enhancement in food grain security

(Depinder Singh Kapur, 1999). An attempt has been made to measure of

sustainability of rural development termed as index of habitat security based on

farmers self analysis in Kelegama district of Sri Lanka. The author also studied in

the context of Sri Lanka thai literacy level and life expectancy have increased

and level of infant and maternal mortality has decreased (Wickram Singh, 1999).

The author focused on indicators such as factor productivity, crop yields, level of

land degradation and deforestation. It was also found mention of ecological

indicators such as land use changes, biomass quality, water quality and quantity,

soil fertility and energy efficiency by Ramakrishnan, (1999) who has also noted

that the indicators quality of life, health and hygiene, nutrition and food security

and morbidity symptoms are useful for ascertaining the social status of society

(Katar Singh, 1999). Malhotra (1999) clarified the definition of social sustainability

and elaborated the concept. Mandavkar (1999) enumerated three criteria for

indicators that are economic viability, management of technology and

knowledge, equity for the sustainability and long-term productivity of a natural

resource management program. All these indicators can be classified under

social indicators. Mathew Sarvina (1999) tin iced historical background of the

development scenario in Seychelles islands. Zan U Thein Win (1999) of

Myanmar emphasized on strengthening of human resources and social

development. Criteria and indicators have been discussed for the development of

dry zones. Criteria for the dry zone are transportation, energy, and

communication while that for socio-economic development are health, education,

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poverty eradication, agriculture etc. Monfarad (1999) highlights role of rural and

pastoral women of Iranian republic in respect of rural development. She

suggested the need to adopt policies to train rural and pastoral women in

agricultural and environmental issues and develop policies to eliminate health

hazards.

Callens and Daniel (1999) state that firms should play an important role in

the attainment of sustainability goals due to their central role in human activities

and development. The paper contributes to the methodology of indicators that

allow for the assessment of business participation into sustainable development.

A fundamental standpoint is to view economic, social and environmental

efficiency as a necessary step towards sustainability Hanley, Mciffatt, Faichney,

and Wilson (1999) present results from a time series analysis of seven

alternative measures of sustainability for Scotland. The measures chosen are

Green net national product, Genuine savings, Ecological footprint, Environmental

space, Net primary productivity, Index of sustainable economic welfare and

Genuine progress indicator. These are all measures at the national or macro

level. It has been noted that no one single measure of sustainability is likely to be

sufficient.

Proops, Atkinson, Schlotheim, and Simon (1999), state a simple and

minimal criteria for sustainability, that is the value of natural capital plus

manufactured capital should not be decreasing. On the basis of any individual

country or region, the above simple comparison may be misleading, as it does

not take into account the production of goods for consumption in other countries

or region, via international trade. A method of calculating a weak sustainability

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criterion has been established for both the 'closed' economy approach and the

'open' economy approach.

TERI Project Report (2000) reviewed the indicators prepared by the

Commission of Sustainable Development (1992) from a developing country

perspective. The paper comments on the significance of the indicators as they

relate to India arid where required new modifications have been proposed. An

effort has been made to bring out any differences in the national definitions or

methodologies vis-à-vis the CSD (Commission of Sustainable Development).

The indicators presented in the article have been classified into social,

environmental, economic, and institutional as per the classification of the CSD

(1992).

The aim of the paper by Button (2002) is to focus on the local

environmental effects of urbanization and to consider ways in which they may be

effectively treated within the confines of an isolated city context and more

generally when urban areas are seen as part of a wider economic system.

Commission on Sustainable Development has adopted a work program on

indicators for use by countries in measuring their own progress towards

sustainable development. The OECD, one of the pioneers in indicator work has

adopted has adopted a new focus on sustainable development. The multiple

facets of complex environmental/developmental problems require many

indicators to assure experts that ail critical factors are being followed, it is not yet

clear what is important or measurable with indicators to address a particular

problem. Systems model would be required to understand and identify those

large-scale systems parameters for which indicators should be developed.

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 Prugh and Assadourian (2003) are of the opinion that carrying capacity for

humans are in large part self defined, because the limit on human population is

not the maximum carrying capacity, but the cultural carrying capacity, which is

lower. If everyone lives at a subsistence level, the earth will support more people

than if everyone lives at a more comfortable level that requires more resources.

The choices we are making now are placing a heavy load on the earth's capacity

to support us. By one measure, the Ecological Footprint, we are now exceeding

that capacity by about 20 percent. The margin will widen, probably at an

accelerating rate, as our numbers and consumption rise.

The study has shown how through appropriate policy prioritization the

states and union territories can mainstream environmental issues and follow, the

sustainable development pathway. However it is quite evident from the current

study that the areas of concert differ largely for the states and union territories.

Unsustainability can result not only from environmental issue but from social and

economic issues also. Hence a single policy for all of the states and union

territories would not be the solution. Environmentally biased policies may also not

be a solution towards achievement of attainable development. Rather, judicious

and different combinations of policies for different state; could help them in

moving closer to achieving sustainability by moving on or beyond the benchmark.

Future urban forms for cities may include polycentric urban forms, closely

linked to good public transportation systems; development that is directly related

to transport; culturally appropriate increases in the density of development, that is

responsive to the urban context; urban forms and buildings that take advantage

of solar energy, and that take account of the life cycle o f the development; forms

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that interact with new technology: developments which enable accessibility and

sustainable behaviour and involve the people who live there. (Dempsey and

Jenks, 2005)

It should also be noted that sustainable buildings are important elements

for dense cities. Buildings should be planned in such a way that sunlight

penetrates the buildings. However, the right sustainable urban form and buildings

are necessary but not sufficient conditions for sustainable city form. It is

"behaviour, lifestyles and people's aspirations" that make an environment

sustainable. (Dempsey and Jenks, 2005)

Initial hidings indicate that from 1990 to 2002 India failed to achieve any

noteworthy progress in the management and development of energy sector

especially in the areas of cleaner and renewable energy. The absence of a

holistic energy policy and the increasingly reliance on road transportation are

further worsening the situation. More funds need to be allocated towards rapid

upgrading and expanding India's railway infrastructure. The application of

improved road taxes for transport vehicles is necessary.

In order to promote the effective use of renewable energy sources, which

has tremendous potential in a vast country like India, strong, committed

leadership is' urgently required. The public sector oil-distributing companies such

as the Indian Oil Corporation Ltd., and the Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Ltd.,

which have huge distribution network all over India including in the remotest

villages, should be asked to distribute different renewable energy items such as

solar lanterns, solar panels etc. The existing retail sump outlets and kerosene/

lubricant depots can be used as sales and service centers for such items. Basic

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engineering skill pertaining to the servicing of solar panels and small windmills

can be taught to local students through workshops and training. The public sector

oil companies with their massive, nation-wide infrastructure could organize this

educational component on a regular basis in different locations. The training and

promotional expenses towards this would be less compared to the amount of

subsidy the companies pay each year to sell kerosene to the underprivileged

section of the rural and urban India. (Dipankar Dey, 2006)

Climate chants: is one of the most important global environmental

challenges, with implications for food production, water supply, health, energy,

etc. Addressing climate change requires a good scientific understanding as well

as coordinated action at national and global level. This paper addresses these

challenges. Historically, the responsibility for greenhouse gas emissions'

increase lies largely with the industrialized world, though the developing

countries are likely to be the source of an increasing proportion of future

emissions. The projected climate change under various scenarios is likely to

have implications on food production, water supply, coastal settlements, forest

ecosystems, health, energy security, etc. The adaptive capacity of communities

likely to be impacted by climate change is low in developing countries. The

efforts made by the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol provisions are clearly

inadequate to address the climate change challenge. The most effective way to

address climate change is to adopt a sustainable development pathway by

shifting to environmentally sustainable technologies and promotion of energy

efficiency, renewable energy, forest conservation, reforestation, water

conservation, etc. The issue of highest importance to developing countries is

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reducing the vulnerability of their natural and socio-economic systems to the

projected climate change. India and other developing countries will fact; the

challenge of promoting mitigation and adaptation strategies, bearing the cost of

such an effort, and it implications for economic development. (Jayant Sathaye,

P.R. Shukla and N.H. Ravindranath, 2006)

Lethargic approach to economic imperatives may seriously undermine the

groundwork for sustainable development/Institutions of higher learning ought to

be a major force in society not only for producing leaders in science and

technology, but also for downstream channeling of progressive social, moral, and

political values while keeping: in perspective temporal realities, and spatial

constraints. That said, five major interests universally considered to be at stake in

national higher education systems include social justice, competence, academic

freedom, autonomy vs. accountability, and decentralization vs. centralization.

Higher education reform efforts aim at independent, strong, and objective

analysis of ground reality. A clear sense of direction and pace will help in

optimally balancing out the apparent tradeoffs in favour of sustainable

development. The central objective of the 11th plan is now focused on Expansion

of enrolment in higher education with inclusiveness, quality and relevant

education and supported by necessary Academic Reforms in the University and

college system in India. There are necessary that individual state and central

government also take similar initiative in their respective state plan and develop

policies to address the issue of increasing the enrolment rate, equal access to

groups with lower access to higher education, issue of quality, relevant education

and various academic reforms. (Nidhi Sharma, Priti Verma, Pravin Kumar, 2008)

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 It was found that CSI as a measure of sustainability status is sensitive to

the components of the index. So as a future research agenda it will be useful to

take up the issue of the possibility of identifying by some means the most

important components as standard components across time and space to arrive

at CSI. This report could have been more informative if we could have/got all the

data required to carry out such an exercise. But from a practical point of view,

non-availability of data-for different states for a large number of indicators acted

as a major constraint. Given these limitations, this exercise can be regarded as a

first and modest attempt to assess the positions of the states and union territories

of India on the development pathway through construction and comparison of

one single index of sustainability. (Joyashree Roy, 2009)

It emerges that India has a plethora of laws, which deal with the three

pillars of sustainable development – environment, social and economic (including

trade and IPR legislation). Most of these show a high degree of integration or

interrelationship between the different pillars of sustainable development, an

important feature of sustainable development law. To cite an example, the

Biological Diversity Act seeks to conserve bio-resources as well as provide legal

entitlements to the communities who have maintained them over countries as

well as enables them to benefit economically torn the resource. In a similar

fashion, the Forest Rights Act recognizes social and economic rights of forest

dwellers and forest dependent communities and reconciles with the necessity of

creating protected areas for wildlife. Similarly, MNREGA sets out to achieve

sustainable development in a comprehensive manner – providing a legal right to

livelihood to rural people. While eradicating rural poverty and ensuring food

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security, it also seeks to protect the environment with employment being

suggested to deal with environmental issues like drought, deforestation and soil

erosion. In fact, this trend to integrate two or more pillars is more discernible in

post-Rio legislation than the earlier ones. For instance, the Wildlife Protection Act

in its original form did not recognize the rights of forest dependent communities,

but an attempt to have a more participatory and inclusive approach is seen in the

later amendments.

While there has been remarkable progress in Indian legal provisioning on

sustainable development, a few challenges continue to exist particularly with

respect to implementation. It is well recognized that key to improved

implementation is the capacity building and improved financial and technical

resourcing of executing agencies. (Sustainable Development in India:

Stocktaking in the run up to Rio+ 420, Ministry of Environment and Forests

Environment of India, 2011)

Though India has made significant progress in terms of achievements

across the pillars of sustainable development many problems continue to persist.

New threats are also posing new challenges to the country, though there has

been reduction in poverty levels in the country, there is a need to stop further

poverty eradication and inclusive development. The depletion of natural resource

and development in environmental quality needs to be addressed on an urgent

basis. (Sustainable Development in India: Stocktaking in the run up to Rio+ 420,

Ministry of Environment and Forests Environment of India, 2011)

As the global economy has grown and developed, issues related a

sustainable development are receiving increased importance at the international

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level. One of the ways in which India has shown its increased commitment

towards sustainable development is through its growing participation in various

international agreements. India was one of the initial signatories to the GATT that

was created with the key objective of promoting global free trade. With

liberalization of India's foreign investment policy India has entered into several

bilateral investment promotion and protection agreements (BlPAs). India has also

strengthened its global position towards social development and is a charter

member of the United Nations and participates in all its specialised agencies.

Further, India has been active in all international forums relating to environmental

protection and has acceded to almost all major multilateral environmental

agreements and has established domestic policies and legislations

complimenting these international obligations and pledge. (Sustainable

Development in India: Stocktaking in the run up to Rio+ 420, Ministry of

Environment and Forests Environment of India, 2011)

Financial inclusion is encouraged mainly by the introduction of Self Help

Groups and Kisan Credit Card for providing credit to farmers. From 2005

onwards, "Financial inclusion" was explicitly made as policy objective and thrust

was on providing safe facility of savings through "No Frills" accounts. However,

the high operating costs in remote areas and the small size of the transactions

act as a constraint towards extending these services further. Extending credit to

the underprivileged section in the rural and urban areas will enable us to attain

the twin objectives of growth and poverty alleviation. But to achieve this, the

government should provide a less perspective environment in which banks are

tree to pursue the innovations necessary to reach low income consumers.

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 Needless to say, at least initially no private financial entities will venture

into this territory and government has to share the burden of becoming initiator of

such financial inclusion. Financial service providers should learn more about the

consumers and new business models to reach them. Inclusive Growth seems to

depend, to a considerable extent, on the success of the credit delivery system

which is supposed to extend its support to this process of generating

employment, and in effect correct the prevailing income distribution in the

country. All the measures mentioned are necessary, and merely making

"Inclusive Growth" as one of the main objectives, in the 11th Five Year Plan is

probably not sufficient. (Abhijit Mukhopadhyay, 2011)

With the passage of time it has become hard to avoid a general sense of

deep environmental vulnerability and insecurity. The direct fallout of this

environmental decline will be borne by the poor and the already deprived.

Therefore, each action in this context must be seen from the perspective of the

most underprivileged. The entire global community has to work towards this

issue. More than a question of an agreed or a binding commitment it is more

importantly a question of the division of fair responsibilities among nations

considering historical responsibilities, development processes, the objective of

poverty eradication, and capacities to provide resources of different countries.

(Economic Survey, 2011-2012)

The study conducted by Planning Commission, Govt. of India, identified

the following issues. Firstly, although mining has brought about economic

benefits, avoidable environmental and social damages continue to occur in the

mining areas. A major reason is the ineffective implementation of the existing

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mining and environmental laws and regulations providing for corrective and

mitigation measures (such as compensatory afforestation, land reclamation and

prevention of illegal mining). In some areas mining operations have been taken

up and expanded without taking into account the "carrying capacity" of the local

environment and available infrastructure facility. This has caused avoidable

discomfort and inconvenience to the local population. Sustainable development

is interpreted primarily in terms of environment protection and management. Site-

specific environmental measures are the main focus of action and other

dimensions of sustainability such as local stakeholder engagement and

consultation, benefit-sharing with local communities, creating infrastructure,

human and social capital in mining project areas and transparency in

communication and accountability do not receive much attention from mining

enterprises.

Further, there is a large variation in the environmental behavior of mining

enterprises. While larger mining companies have concerns for scientific mining,

environmental protection and limited socio-economic development (through CSR

activities), smaller enterprises are focused on maximum extraction of mineral

resources from their lease areas. (Planning Commission, May, 2012)

Possibilities to improve the efficiency in domestic water supply,

transportation and agricultural activities to reduce women's energy use and

increase their efficiency should be explored. Research aimed at alleviating the

drudgery and improving the health and safety levels of women should include

development of specific tools and machines. Care should be taken that such

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tools and machines do not displace women from their employment opportunities

or convert female jobs into male jobs.

Policies in the ease of large and small scale electricity production

programmes should help women to have equal access because such

programmes provide benefits to both men and women in a community.

Decentralised production of energy using renewable resources should aim at

creating employment opportunities for local women. The role of and benefits to

women in JFM and integrated land use planning should be addressed if the

development has to be sustainable and equitable. Also, the scope to increase the

employment opportunities for women in JFM and integrated land-use planning

like nursery-raising and dairy farming should be explored. Women should have

access to information on any new invention.

The majority of rural women live close to the biological subsistence

margin. Access to fuel, fodder, small timber and other NTFP is vital for their

survival. Understanding the gender roles, the struggle of women for access to

and control over energy resources, their involvement in biomass management

from various perspectives is necessary to integrate the needs of women in

energy development programmes. The entire process should ultimately aim at

solving the most critical problem of women and energy, leading to sustainable

development. (R. Shailja, 2012)

Environment has emerged as a dominant force influencing development-

planning efforts. Sustainable development is the process of judicious use and

conservation of natural resources for the overall improvement in the quality of life

for the present and future generation on long term basis. It should be based on

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principles like Development for all which must be within the limits of environment,

having respect for quality of life, taking into account the socio-cultural and

traditional knowledge base which promote collectiveness global diversity,

people's participation in natural resources management and need for future

generations. It should be placed at the top priority while formulating plans for

development. (Dipakala and Jasavaprabhu Jirli, 2012)

There are many city forms that have been suggested in the literature to

solve the problem and make sustainable cities. This paper discusses two o f

them, the first one being that of the idea of compact city and the second one is

that of multi-modal urban region. It explains the pros and cons of the compact

city form and applicability in different countries with different densities. The two

main benefits of compact city are reduced dependency on private cars and

preservation of greenery while the main costs are more air pollution, noise and

crime and overcrowding. It also refers to the recommendations of National

Commission of Urbanisation of India, which makes a case for low-rise high

density built form for Indian cities. The two important issues about high-density

cities are (1) the costs and benefits of the form, and (2) how dense should it be

and "higher than what"? Then the study discusses the concept of multi-modal

urban region. The idea here is to create an environment friendly transport system

and create activity places reachable within reasonable time. In order for this to

happen, activity locations need to be created which can be reached (1) without

moving, by walking, by cycling, (2) by public transport, (3) by energy efficient

cars. There are important implications of this on transport and land-use policies.

(Basudha Chattopadhyay. 2012)

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 Thus, there are number of issues and dimensions related to population,

environment and sustainable development in India which have been discussed

by the various social scientists at different levels. However, there is still need to

conduct the research studies on these aspects due to socio economic

transformation in the economy.

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