AN INTRODUCTION TO SIGNAL AND COMMUNICATION II

Edited by Ndegwa
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• Data vs. Signal

• Analog vs. Digital
• Analog Signals
▪ Simple Analog Signals
▪ Composite Analog Signals

• Digital Signals
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Data vs. Signal
Data – information formatted in human/machine readable form
examples: voice, music, image, file

Signal – electric or electromagnetic representation of data

transmission media work by conducting energy along a physical
path; thus, to be transmitted, data must be turned into energy in
the form of electro-magnetic signals

Transmission – communication of data through propagation and

processing of signals
Idea, Feeling, Knowledge

Coding
Data Signal Signal Data
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Signal Representation (cont.)
Signal Representation – typically in 2D space, as a function of
time, space or frequency
when horizontal axis is time, graph displays
the value of a signal at one particular point
in space as a function of time
when horizontal axis is space, graph displays
the value of a signal at one particular point in
time as a function of space

time space

The time- and space- representation of a signal often resemble each other,
though the signal envelope in the space-representation is different (signal attenuates over distance).
• Data vs. Signal
• Analog vs. Digital
• Analog Signals
▪ Simple Analog Signals
▪ Composite Analog Signals

• Digital Signals
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Analog vs. Digital
Analog vs. Digital Data analog data – representation variable takes
on continuous values in some interval, e.g.
voice, temperature, etc.
digital data – representation variable takes
on discrete (a finite & countable number of)
values in a given interval, e.g. text, digitized
images, etc.

Analog vs. Digital Signal analog signal – signal that is continuous

in time and can assume an infinite number
of values in a given range (continuous in
time and value)
discrete (digital) signal – signal that is
continuous in time and assumes only a
limited number of values (maintains a
constant level and then changes to another
constant level)
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Analog vs. Digital (cont.)

Both analog and digital data can be transmitted

using either analog or digital signals.

example: analog signaling of analog and digital data

… will talk more about this later …

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Analog vs. Digital (cont.)
Periodic vs. Aperiodic periodic signal – completes a pattern within
Signals some measurable time frame, called a period
(T), and then repeats that pattern over sub-
sequent identical periods

∃T ∈R s. t. s(t + T) = s(t), ∀t ∈ - ∞,+∞

T - smallest value that satisfies the equation

T is (typically) expressed in seconds

aperiodic signal – changes without exhibiting

a pattern that repeats over time

t t+T t+2T

periodic analog signal periodic digital signal

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• Data vs. Signal

• Analog vs. Digital
• A n a l o g Si g n a l s
▪ Simple Analog Signals
▪ Composite Analog Signals
• Digital Signals
 10
Analog Signals
Classification of (1) Simple Analog Signal – cannot be decomposed
Analog Signals into simpler signals
sinewave – most fundamental form of periodic analog
signal – mathematically described with 3 parameters
s(t) = A ⋅sin(2πft + ϕ )
(1.1) peak amplitude (A) – absolute value of signal’s
highest intensity – unit: volts [V]
(1.2) frequency (f) – number of periods in one second
– unit: hertz [Hz] = [1/s] – inverse of period (T)!
(1.3) phase (φ) – absolute position of the waveform
The origin is usually
taken as the last previous
relative to an arbitrary origin – unit: degrees [º]
passage through zero or radians [rad]
from the negative to the
positive direction.

T = 1/f
0[s] 1[s]

(2) Composite Analog Signal – composed of

multiple sinewaves
 11
Simple Analog Signals
Phase in Simple – measured in degrees or radians
Analog Signals 360º = 2 rad
1º = 2 /360 rad
1 rad = (360/2 )º = 57.29578°
phase shift of 360º = shift of 1 complete period
phase shift of 180º = shift of 1/2 period
phase shift of 90º = shift of 1/4 period

5V
1s

φ = 0º or 360º φ = 90º φ = 180º

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Analog Signals

Example [ period and frequency ]

Unit Equivalent Unit Equivalent

seconds (s) 1s hertz (Hz) 1 Hz
milliseconds (ms) 10–3 s kilohertz (KHz) 103 Hz
microseconds ( s) 10–6 s megahertz (MHz) 106 Hz
nanoseconds (ns) 10–9 s gigahertz (GHz) 109 Hz
picoseconds (ps) 10–12 s terahertz (THz) 1012 Hz

units of period and respective frequency

(a) Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.

100 ms = 100 10-3 s = 100 10-3 106 μs = 105 μs

(b) Express the corresponding frequency in kilohertz.

100 ms = 100 10-3 s = 10-1 s
f = 1/10-1 Hz = 10 10-3 KHz = 10-2 KHz
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Simple Analog Signals
Frequency in Simple – rate of signal change with respect to time
Analog Signals change in a short span of time high freq.
change over a long span of time low freq.
signal does not change at all zero freq.
signal never completes a??cycle T= f=0, DC sig.
signal changes instantaneously freq.
signal completes a cycle??
in T=0 f=

Time Domain Plot – specifies signal amplitude at each instant of time

does NOT express explicitly signal’s phase and frequency

Frequency Domain Plot – specifies peak amplitude with respect to freq.

phase CANNOT be shown in the frequency domain
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Simple Analog Signals

One ‘spike’ in frequency domain

shows two characteristics
of the signal:
spike position = signal frequency,
spike height = peak amplitude.

Analog
Analogsignals
signalsare
arebest
best represented
representedin
in the
the frequency
frequency domain.
domain.
 16
Composite Analog Signals
Fourier Analysis – any composite signal can be represented as a
combination of simple sine waves with different
frequencies, phases and amplitudes

s(t) = A1sin(2πf1t + ϕ1) + A2sin(2πf2t + ϕ2 ) +...

periodic composite signal (period=T, freq. = f0=1/T)

can be represented as a sum of simple sines and/or
cosines known as Fourier series:
A0 ∞
s(t) = + ∑ [A n cos(2πnf0 t) +Bn sin(2πnf0 t)]
2 n=1

T
2
An =
With the aid of good table of integrals,
it is easy to determine the T ∫ s(t)cos(2πnf0t)dt,
0
n = 0,1,2, …
frequency-domain nature of many signals.
T
2
Bn = n = 1,2,3, …
T ∫ s(t)sin(2πnf0t)dt,
0

f0 is referred to as ‘fundamental frequency’

integer multiples of f0 are referred to as harmonics
 Composite Analog Signals (cont.)
Angular Frequency – aka radian frequency – number of 2 revolutions
during a single period of a given signal

2π
ω= = 2π⋅ f
T

simple multiple of ordinary frequency

A0 ∞

+ ∑ [A ncos(nω0 t) + Bn sin(nω0 t)]

s(t) =
2 n=1

T
2
An = n = 0,1,2,...
T ∫ s(t)cos(nω0t)dt,
0

T
2
Bn = n = 1,2,...
T ∫ s(t)sin(nω0t)dt,
0
 Composite Analog Signals (cont.)
Example [ periodic square wave ]

No DC component!!!

4A 4A 4A
s(t) = sin(2πft) + sin(2π(3f)t) + sin(2π(5f)t) +...
π 3π 5π

three harmonics adding three harmonics

With
With three
three harmonics
harmonics we
we get
get an
an approximation
approximation of
of aa square
square wave.
wave.
To
To get
get the
the actual
actualsquare,
square, all
all harmonics
harmonics up
up to
to should
should be
be added.
added.
 Composite Analog Signals (cont.)

Frequency Spectrum – range (set) of frequencies that signal contains

of Analog Signal

Absolute Bandwidth – width of signal spectrum: B = fhighest - flowest

of Analog Signal

Effective Bandwidth – range of frequencies where signal contains most

of Analog Signal of its power/energy

square wave

3-harmonic representation
 Composite Analog Signals (cont.)

Example [ frequency spectrum and bandwidth of analog signal ]

A periodic signal is composed of five sinewaves with frequencies of 100,
300, 500, 700 and 900 Hz.
What is the bandwidth of this signal?
Draw the frequency spectrum, assuming all components have a max
amplitude of 10V.
Solution:

B = fhighest - flowest = 900 - 100 = 800 Hz

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900.
 Composite Analog Signals (cont.)
Example [ frequency spectrum of a data pulse ]

⋅
(
2Aτ sin πnτ
T ≈
)
sin(π⋅ f ⋅τ )
or
sin(x)
T πn τ π⋅ f ⋅τ x
T
envelope of frequency spectrum

periodic signal ⇒ discrete freq. spectrum

aperiodic signal ⇒ continuous freq. spectrum

What happens if →0 ???

 Composite Analog Signals (cont.)

Composite Signals and – no transmission medium is perfect – each

Transmission Medium medium passes some frequencies and
blocks or weakens others
composite signal sent at one end of transmiss.
medium (comm. channel), may not be received
in the same form at the other end
passing a square wave through any medium
will always deform the signal !!!

communication channel

Channel Bandwidth – range of frequencies passed by the channel –

difference between highest and lowest frequency
that channel can satisfactorily pass
• Data vs. Signal
• Analog vs. Digital
• Analog Signals
▪ Simple Analog Signals
▪ Composite Analog Signals

• Digital Signals
 Digital Signals

Digital Signals Sequence of voltage pulses (DC levels) – each pulse

represents asignal element.
binary data are transmitted using only 2 types of
signal elements ( 1 = positive voltage, 0 = negative
voltage )

key digital-signals terms:

bit interval – time required to send a single bit, unit: [sec]
bit rate – number of bit intervals per second – unit: [bps]

Most digital signals are aperiodic,

so it is not appropriate
Most digital /signals
correctare
to talk about their period.
aperiodic,
so it is not appropriate / correct to talk about their period.
 Digital Signals (cont.)

Digital Signal as a – digital signal, with all its sudden changes,

Composite Analog Signal is actually a composite signal having an
infinite number of frequencies

a digital signal is a composite signal

with an infinite bandwidth

if a medium has a wide bandwidth, a

digital signal can be sent through it
some frequencies will be weakened or
blocked; still, enough frequencies will be
passed to preserve a decent signal shape

what is the minimum required bandwidth

B [Hz] of a band-limited medium if we
want to send n [bps]?
 Digital Signals (cont.)
Example [ approximation of digital signal’s spectrum using 1st harmonic ]
Assume our computer generates 6 bps.
Possibilities (periodic combinations) : 000000, 111111, 110011, 101010 etc.

1. Best case: min # of changes min freq. of substitute analog signal

2. Worst case – max # of changes max freq. of substitute analog signal

bit rate: n = 6 [bps]

frequency: B = 3 [Hz]
n
B≈
2
 Exercise
1. Before data can be transmitted, they must be transformed to .
(a) periodic signals
(b) electromagnetic signals
(c) aperiodic signals
(d) low-frequency sinewaves
2. In a frequency-domain plot, the vertical axis measures the .
(a) peak amplitude
(b) frequency
(c) phase
(d) slope
3. In a time-domain plot, the vertical axis measures the .
(a) peak amplitude
(b) amplitude
(c) frequency
(d) time
4. If the bandwidth of a signal is 5 KHz and the lowest frequency is 52 KHz, what
is the highest frequency .
(a) 5 KHz
(b) 10 KHz
(c) 47 KHz
(d) 57 KHz
 Exercise
5. If one of the components of a signal has a frequency of zero, the average
amplitude of the signal .
(a) is greater than zero
(b) is less than zero
(c) is zero
(d) (a) or (b)
6. Give two sinewaves A and B, if the frequency of A is twice that of B, then the
period of B is that of A.
(a) one-half
(b) twice
(c) the same as
(d) indeterminate from
7. A device is sending out data at the rate of 1000 bps.
(a) How long does it take to send out 10 bits?
(b) How long does it take to send out a single character (8 bits)?
(c) How long does it take to send a file of 100,000 characters?