What is surveying?

Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of distinctive features on the surface of
the earth or beneath the earth, by means of measurement of distance, directions and elevations.

What is levelling?
The branch of surveying that deals with the measurement of relative height of different points in
the surface of the earth is called levelling.

PRIMARY DIVISION OF SURVEYING

Plane Survey
The survey in which the earth surface is assumed as plain and the curvature of the earth
is ignored is known as Plain Surveying.
Geodetic Survey
The survey in which the curvature of the earth is taken into account and higher degree
of accuracy in linear as well as angular observation is achieved is known as Geodetic Surveying.
Plain Survey Geodetic Survey
Purpose To determine relative position and To determine the exact position and
elevation of points within a small area. elevation of points over a large area,
taking into account the curvature of the
Earth.
Area of Small areas like building plots, roads, Large areas like cities, states, and
Coverage and construction sites. countries.
Accuracy Less accurate due to the assumption of More accurate due to the consideration
a flat surface. of the Earth's curvature.
Instruments Simple instruments like measuring Sophisticated instruments like GPS
tapes, levels, and theodolites. receivers, laser scanners, and geodetic
telescopes.
Reference Flat surface assumption (e.g., plane Spheroidal or ellipsoidal reference
Surface table) surfaces (e.g., WGS84, NAD83).
Calculations Use simple trigonometry and geometry Use complex mathematical models and
to calculate distances, angles, and algorithms to account for the Earth's
elevations. curvature, gravitational field, and
rotation.
Applications Used for small-scale mapping, property Used for large-scale mapping, boundary
surveys, and civil engineering projects. demarcation, satellite positioning, and
global navigation.
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS
According to the use and purpose of the final maps, surveys may be classified, under the following
different heads:

Classification based upon the nature of the field

1. Land Surveys:
i. Topographical Survey
A topographical survey is a surveying method that collects data about the
physical features and characteristics of a piece of land, which is used to create a detailed
map or plan of the area.
ii. Cadastral Survey
Cadastral survey is the process of surveying and mapping land ownership
boundaries and determining the precise location, size, and value of real estate
properties and creating a detailed record of land including information about land
parcels, their boundaries, the ownership rights, and any associated rights and
restrictions.
iii. City Survey
A city survey is a type of survey that is used to collect data about the physical
features, infrastructure, and utilities of a city or urban area.
2. Hydrographic Survey
A hydrographic survey is a type of survey that is used to map and measure the physical features
of bodies of water, including oceans, lakes, rivers, and harbors.
3. Astronomical Survey
An astronomical survey is a type of survey that is used to observe and measure objects in the
sky, including stars, galaxies, and other celestial bodies.

Classification based on purpose of the survey

1. Engineering Survey
An engineering survey is a type of survey that is used to provide accurate and precise
measurements of physical features and characteristics of a site, which are used in the planning,
design, and construction of engineering projects.
2. Military or Defense Survey
3. Mine Survey
4. Geological Survey
5. Archaeological survey

Classification based on instrument used

1. Chain Survey
 2. Compass Surveys
3. Plane Table Survey
4. Theodolite Survey
5. Tacheometric Survey
6. Triangulation Survey
7. Aerial Survey
8. Photogrammetric Survey

PRINCIPLE OF SURVEYING
1. Working from the whole to the part
The main principle of surveying whether plane or geodetic is to work from the whole to the part.
To achieve this in actual practice, a sufficient number of primary control pints, are established with
higher precision in and around the area to be detail-surveyed.
2. Location of a point by measurement from two control points
The control points are selected in the area and the distance between them, is measured accurately.

CONTROL SURVEYING
Control Surveying is the determination of the precise position of a series of stations distributed
over an area to serve as the origin or reference to be used for checking of subsequent surveys to be
used in engineering projects like property delineation, topographic and hydrographic mapping, and
construction planning and design.
[Delineation (the action of indicating the exact position of a border or boundary)]
Equipment used in Control Surveying
1. GPS (Global Positioning System)
2. Theodolite
3. Leveling equipment (Auto level, Dumpy level)
4. Total Station
5. Ranging Rod
6. Prism
7. Measuring Tape
8. Peg
9. Field Book
10. Tripod
11. Drawing Paper
Purpose of control survey
The purpose of control survey is to provide a uniform framework of reference for the coordination of all
surveying activities within a given area.
1. Establishing boundaries for construction projects
2. Providing accurate topographical information for site planning
3. Creating a reference system for future construction and development
4. Ensuring the accuracy of construction layouts and designs
5. Monitoring structural movements and deformations
6. Verifying compliance with design and construction standards
7. Facilitating coordination and collaboration between different stakeholders
8. Minimizing the risk of errors, delays, and cost overruns in construction projects
Control Point / Trigonometric Point
An accurately surveyed coordinate location for a physical feature that can be identified on the ground.
A control point is a point on the ground or any permanent structure whose horizontal and vertical
location/position is known.

Need and Importance of control survey

1. Control points are used to ensure accuracy and consistency in various processes and activities.
2. They provide a basis for measuring and monitoring progress towards achieving desired
outcomes.
3. Control points help in identifying and correcting deviations from the desired course of action.
4. They are critical in maintaining quality standards and preventing errors or defects.
5. Control points enable effective decision-making based on real-time information and data.
6. They support efficient resource allocation and utilization by identifying areas that require more
attention or resources.

Types of Control Survey

Horizontal control survey
Horizontal control survey is a type of survey that determines the precise position of points on the Earth's
surface in the horizontal plane, usually using a combination of ground-based measurements and
satellite-based global positioning system (GPS) technology. The primary purpose of a horizontal control
survey is to establish a network of accurately measured reference points or control points that can be
used to guide the mapping of larger areas, such as cities, regions, or countries.
It is written in coordinates like (x, y) or (E, N). Horizontal control survey cab be done using one of the
following methods:
1. Traversing
2. Triangulation
3. Trilateration
4. Resection
5. Intersection

Vertical control survey

Vertical control survey is a type of survey that determines the precise elevation or height of points on
the Earth's surface in the vertical plane. The primary purpose of a vertical control survey is to establish a
network of accurately measured reference points or benchmarks that can be used to guide the mapping
of larger areas, such as regions, countries, or even the entire Earth's surface.
This is done using various leveling instruments to find the elevation from Mean Sea Level (MSL). Vertical
control points can be found using different leveling methods.

1. Levelling
2. Differential Levelling
3. Trigonometric Levelling

Different methods of Control Surveying

1. Traverse
A traverse is a surveying method used to determine the position and location of points on the Earth's
surface by measuring the distance and direction between them. It involves setting up a series of
interconnected points and measuring the angles and distances between them using specialized
equipment. Traverse is commonly used in construction, mining, and engineering projects.
2. Triangulation
Triangulation is a surveying technique that involves using the angles between three or more known
points to determine the position of an unknown point on the Earth's surface. It is based on trigonometry
and is commonly used in various applications such as mapping, engineering, and navigation.
Triangulation has been used for centuries and is still widely used today, including in satellite positioning
and geodetic surveys.
3. Trilateration
Trilateration is a surveying technique used to determine the location of an unknown point by measuring
the distances between it and three or more known points. It involves setting up a series of
interconnected points and then measuring the distances between the unknown point and the known
reference points using specialized equipment. Trilateration is commonly used in satellite positioning and
geodetic surveys.
4. Resection
Resection is a surveying technique used to determine the location of an unknown point by measuring
angles and distances from the point to known reference points. It involves measuring the angles
between the unknown point and at least two known reference points, and then using trigonometric
calculations to determine the position of the unknown point. Resection is commonly used in mapping,
navigation, and geodetic surveys.
5. Intersection
Intersection is a surveying method used to determine the location of an unknown point by measuring
angles from the known points to the unknown point. It involves setting up a series of known points and
then measuring the angles between them and the unknown point using specialized equipment.
Intersection is commonly used in mapping, engineering, and construction projects.

Description Card (D - Card)

A description card in surveying is a tool used to record information about a survey point or
station. It is a small card or piece of paper that contains key information about a specific point or station,
including its location, elevation, and any other relevant details.
The information on the description card is used to identify and locate the survey point or station in the
field and to reference it in the survey data. The description card is also used to document the
characteristics of the point, such as its surface type, vegetation, and any other notable features.
In surveying, the description card is an important tool for ensuring accuracy and consistency in the
survey data. The information on the card is used to cross-check and verify the survey measurements and
to ensure that the correct location and details are recorded for each point or station.
Overall, the description card is a simple but essential tool in surveying that helps to ensure the accuracy
and completeness of the survey data.

Completion (Component) of D card for Trig. point should include the following details:
Details on the front page of the description card such as: district, municipality/village development
committee, ward number, reference point number, 1-inch sheet number, station name and number.
Complete information including the sample monument symbol.
Written statement.
Type of land.
Name of the person searching for the station and the monument and the name of the person who
wants to mark the monument.
Name and signature of the municipality or city representative.
Name of the landowner.

Description Written in D-card

How many meters away is the control point from the nearby village or road?
The nature of the simple and easy road to reach that place
Possible location for camping
Condition of the land below the control point or benchmark.

Linear measurement:
Linear measurement is a method of measuring the distance between two points in a straight line. It is
the most basic and fundamental type of measurement used in surveying, engineering, construction, and
other related fields. Linear measurements can be made using various tools and instruments, such as
tape measures, rulers, distance meters, total stations, or GPS receivers, depending on the required
accuracy, precision, and range of the measurement. Linear measurements are expressed in units of
length, such as meters, feet, or miles, and are essential for determining the location, size, and shape of
objects, as well as for calculating areas and volumes.
1. Direct Method
In surveying, the direct method is a technique of linear measurement used to measure the distance
between two points by physically placing a measuring instrument, such as a tape measure or a chain,
along the straight line between the points. This method is also known as chaining. The direct method is
relatively simple and can be used for measuring short distances with reasonable accuracy. However, it is
limited by the terrain and obstacles that may be encountered between the two points being measured.
a. Pacing and stepping:
Pacing and stepping are methods of measuring distances by counting steps. Pacing involves measuring
distances by counting the number of steps taken along a known path or route, while stepping involves
measuring distances by taking steps of a known length. These methods are commonly used in situations
where other measuring instruments are not available or not practical, such as in rough terrain or dense
forests.
b. Pedometer and passometer:
Pedometer and passometer are electronic devices used for counting steps and measuring distances
traveled by walking or running. A pedometer typically measures the number of steps taken, while a
passometer, also known as an accelerometer, measures both steps and distance by detecting and
analyzing the motion of the body. These devices are commonly used for fitness tracking, health
monitoring, and sports training.
c. Odometer and speedometer:
An odometer is an instrument used to measure the distance traveled by a vehicle, such as a car or a
bicycle. It typically works by counting the number of wheel rotations and then converting them into
distance units, such as kilometers or miles. A speedometer, on the other hand, measures the speed at
which a vehicle is traveling, usually in units of kilometers or miles per hour. Speedometers often work in
conjunction with odometers and are essential for safe driving and navigation.
d. Measuring wheel:
A measuring wheel is a tool used for measuring distance in a straight line by rolling the wheel along the
ground. The wheel is typically connected to a counter or a digital display that records the number of
revolutions of the wheel, which can then be converted into distance units, such as meters or feet.
Measuring wheels are commonly used in construction, engineering, and landscaping projects for
measuring long distances on flat surfaces.
e. Chain and tape:
Chain and tape are instruments used for linear measurement in surveying and engineering. A chain is a
series of linked metal bars or wire used for measuring long distances, while a tape is a flexible strip of
material, usually made of cloth or metal, used for measuring shorter distances. Both tools are marked
with distance units, such as feet or meters, and are commonly used for measuring distances on land or
in buildings.
2. Indirect Method
The indirect method of linear measurement involves determining distances by measuring other
quantities that are related to the distance, such as time, frequency, or angle. This method is commonly
used in surveying and geodesy, where it can be challenging or impossible to measure distances directly.
For example, a surveyor may use a theodolite to measure the angle between two distant points and
then use trigonometry to calculate the distance between them.
a. Stadia System (ODM):
The stadia system, also known as the optical distance measurement (ODM) system, is a method of
measuring distances using a surveying instrument called a transit or theodolite. The instrument has
stadia hairs or lines, which are viewed through the telescope by the surveyor. By observing the apparent
size of an object in the field of view, the distance between the surveyor and the object can be calculated
using a mathematical formula. The stadia system is commonly used in land surveying, construction, and
engineering projects.
H.D. = K(T-B) sin²z + C cos z
H.D. =k(T-B) cos²θ + C cos θ
H.D. = (I×100 - I×Hscale)

V.D. (Δh) = K(T-B) Sinz. cos z + Ccos z

V.D. (Δh) = K(T-B) cosθ . Sinθ + Ccos θ
V.D. (Ah) = D tan θ
V.D. = I×Vscale

Where,
H.D. =Horizontal Difference
ΔH = Difference in elevation
V.D. = Vertical distance
K= Multiplying Constant of the instrument = 100
C = Additive Constant of the instrument = 0
z = Zenithal Angle
θ = Vertical Angle

T = Top wire reading

B = Bottom wire reading
I= (T-B) = Stadia intercept
H-scale = Horizontal Scale
V-scale = Vertical scale
b. EDM:
EDM full from is Electronic Distance Measurement. Geodimeter, Tellurometer, Distomat, etc. are
examples of this. Its Accuracy is in part per million. The following formula is used to find the horizontal
distance.
H.D. Slope distance × sin z
c. Substense Bar:
A ranging rod of a certain length of either 2 meters or 3 meters is placed horizontally at a station and
kept perpendicular to the survey line. The end (edge) of the rod is used to determine the angle made at
another station and calculate the distance. In this way, the distance obtained from the substense bar
will also be a horizontal distance, even if the terrain is uneven. If the length of the bar is S and the
subtended distance is θ, then the horizontal distance (H.D.)= (S/2) cot (θ/2)

AB = length of substense bar (s)

s/2 = 1/2 length of substense bar
θ/2 = 1/2 angle between target A and B
H.D. = s/2 cot θ/2
Angular Measurement:
Angular measurement is a method of measuring the angle between two lines or planes. In surveying and
engineering, angular measurements are commonly used for determining the direction of a line or the
location of a point relative to a reference line or plane. The most common units of angular measurement
are degrees, minutes, and seconds, although radians and gradians are also used in some applications.
Angles can be measured using a variety of instruments, such as a theodolite, compass, or protractor.
The system of units in angular measurement are:
i) Sexagesimal System of Angular Measurement(D,M,S)=( ° ' " )
In this system the circumference of a circle, is divided into 360 equal parts, each part is known as one
degree. 1/60th part of a degree is called a minute and 1/60th part of a minute is called a second. i.e.
1 circumference = 360 degrees of arc
1° = 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds
ii) Centesimal System of Angular Measurement (c,cg, ccg)
In this system the circumference of a circle, is divided into 400 equal parts, each part is known as one
grad. One hundredth part of a grad is called a centigrad and one hundredth part of a centigrad is called a
centi-centigrad. i.e.
1 circumference = 400 grads
1 grad = 100 centigrads
1 centigrads = 100 centi-centigrads
iii) Hour System (1hr, 2hr, 3hr, 30 minutes)
iv) Mills System (Rolling, Rounding)
A. Horizontal Angle
A horizontal angle is an angle measured in a horizontal plane, usually relative to a reference line or
direction. In surveying and engineering, horizontal angles are commonly used for measuring the
direction of a line or the location of a point relative to a known reference direction, such as true north or
magnetic north. Horizontal angles are typically measured using a theodolite or a total station, which can
provide accurate angular measurements with a high degree of precision. The most common unit of
measurement for horizontal angles is degrees, although radians and other units may also be used in
some applications. The value of H.A is from 0° or 0g to 360° or 400g.
B. Vertical angles
The angle made by a line or plane with horizontal plane in vertical plane is called vertical angle. In other
words, line of sight refers to any other point from the point of observation. Refers to the angle at which
the base is tilted down or up. The angle made by the sight taken from the horizontal plane upwards is
called the angle of elevation and it is Positive (+ve) while the downward angle is called the angle of
depression and it is Negative (-ve). The value of this vertical angle is horizontal from 0° to Zenith +90°
and below to Zenith -90°.

C. Zenithal angles
The angle measured from Zenith to any point in the vertical plane in clockwise direction is called
Zenithal angle. This zenithal angel has 90° or 100g on the horizon while the zenith is 0°. Its value is from
0° to 360° or θg to 400g, since it is a whole circle, as in the vertical angle, there is no need to give (±)
sign. V.A. Z.A is the angle relative to both vertical planes.

Relation between Zenithal and Vertical angle

Zenithal Angle = 90°- vertical angle

Vertical Angle = 90°- Zenithal angle

The zenithal/vertical angles read on the left face of a theodolite are complementary, meaning the sum
of the zenithal angle and the vertical angle is 90° or 100g.
The zenithal angle is measured in a clockwise direction from the zenithal line, with values ranging from
0° to 360°, while the vertical angle is measured upward from the horizon as +90° and downward as -90°.

The slope angle is the angle formed between the slope ground and the horizontal plane. The slope angle
can also be expressed as the ratio between the vertical and horizontal distances. For example, in the
diagram, if the angle CBA formed by the slope ground AB' and the horizontal plane CB is θ, and CB and
AB' are parallel, then ∠CBA = BAB'. The slope angle can be calculated using the given ratio.

tanθ = p/b

Theodolite:
A theodolite is a precision optical instrument used in surveying and engineering to measure angles in the
horizontal and vertical planes. It consists of a telescope mounted on a base that can rotate horizontally
and vertically, allowing the user to precisely measure the angles between different points. Theodolites
are commonly used in construction, road building, and other applications where accurate
measurements of angles and distances are required. They are often equipped with electronic distance
measurement capabilities, allowing them to measure both angles and distances with a high degree of
accuracy.

Direct Linear Measurement Indirect Linear Measurement

Measured directly using a measuring device such Measured indirectly by comparing an unknown
as a tape measure, ruler or measuring wheel distance to a known distance
Requires physical contact with the object being Does not require physical contact with the object
measured being measured
Usually provides a more accurate measurement Can be less accurate due to errors in comparison
or calculation
Can be faster and more efficient for shorter Can be more time-consuming and complex for
distances longer distances or when indirect measurements
must be taken at multiple points
Often used for measuring shorter distances, such Often used for measuring longer distances, such
as in construction or carpentry as in land surveying or geodesy
Examples include tape measures, rulers, Examples include triangulation, trilateration, and
measuring wheels, and odometers stadia measurement

Horizontal Control Survey Vertical Control Survey

Establishes horizontal positions of points on the Establishes vertical positions of points on the
ground ground
Used to create a horizontal network of control Used to create a vertical network of control
points for surveying or engineering projects points for surveying or engineering projects
Typically involves measuring horizontal angles Typically involves measuring vertical angles and
and distances between points distances between points
Usually performed using a theodolite or total Usually performed using a leveling instrument or
station automatic level
Aims to minimize horizontal errors in the Aims to minimize vertical errors in the positioning
positioning of points of points
Used for applications such as road and pipeline Used for applications such as drainage design,
design, boundary surveys, and topographic foundation design, and construction surveys
mapping

Mean Sea Level (MSL) Datum

The average height of the sea surface over a A reference point or surface used for measuring
period of time heights or depths
Measured relative to a specified reference point, Can be either a vertical or horizontal reference
such as a geodetic datum or tidal station plane
Can vary due to factors such as tides, Can be fixed or mobile, and may change over
atmospheric pressure, and ocean currents time
Used as a reference for measuring elevations or Used as a basis for establishing a coordinate
depths of points on land or water system and measuring positions of points
May be specified in relation to different geodetic May be established using a variety of methods,
datums, such as WGS84 or NAD83 including triangulation and GPS surveys
Important in applications such as coastal Important in applications such as land surveying,
engineering, hydrography, and navigation mapping, and geodesy

Trilateration Triangulation
A method of determining positions of points by A method of determining positions of points by
measuring distances measuring angles
Involves the use of at least three known Involves the use of at least two known reference
reference points, or "control points" points, or "observing stations"
Positions are calculated by intersecting circles or Positions are calculated by intersecting lines of
spheres centered on the control points sight or angles between the observing stations
Generally more accurate than triangulation, but Can be less accurate than trilateration, especially
requires precise distance measurements over long distances or in areas with obstacles
Used in applications such as GPS positioning, Used in applications such as land surveying,
surveying, and geodesy astronomy, and navigation
Can be used in combination with triangulation to May be used in areas where trilateration is not
improve accuracy possible, such as in mountainous terrain or over
bodies of water
Order Number and Used Angle set R.O Setting Permissible
Distance Instrument Misclosure
Basic First Name only Wild T-3 Special - -
Order Distance: 30 to Measurement
65km
First Order 1 to 9 Wild T-3 12 set 0g, 17g, 33g,
distance: 20 to 50g, 67g,
30km
Open Traverse Close Traverse
Starts from an arbitrary point and ends at Starts and ends at the same point
another arbitrary point
Does not form a closed polygon Forms a closed polygon
Used for exploring new areas or conducting Used for accurately measuring the perimeter or
preliminary surveys area of a surveyed region
Prone to errors due to lack of closure and More accurate due to closure and ability to check
accumulation of errors for errors
Requires external control points for orientation Internal errors can be detected and corrected
and accuracy during surveying
Can be performed quickly and is suitable for Requires more time and effort but yields more
rough surveys accurate results

Traverse Triangulation
Used for small areas and linear projects Used for large areas and complex projects
Angles and distances are measured between Angles are measured between distant points
adjacent points
Control points are established along the traverse Control points are established on high points or
triangulation stations
The accuracy is affected by the length of the The accuracy is affected by the number of
traverse and instrument errors stations and the length of the sides of the
triangles
Suitable for areas with obstacles and irregular Suitable for areas with good visibility and regular
terrain terrain
Suitable for detailed surveys and topographic Suitable for mapping of large areas and
mapping establishing control networks

Zenithal Angle Vertical Angle

The angle between the line passing through the The angle between the line passing through the
observer's zenith and the celestial object observer's position and the object on the horizon
Measured using a zenith telescope Measured using a theodolite
Used in astronomical observations and geodetic Used in topographic surveys and engineering
surveys projects
Provides information on the position of a celestial Provides information on the elevation of an
object relative to the observer's position object above the horizon
Measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds Measured in degrees and minutes
Affected by atmospheric refraction and other Affected by curvature and refraction of the
environmental factors Earth's surface

Horizontal Angle Vertical Angle

Measured in the horizontal plane Measured in the vertical plane
Used for determining the direction of a line Used for determining the elevation of a point
Measured using a theodolite or total station Measured using a clinometer or an altimeter
Measured in degrees, minutes and seconds Measured in degrees or percent slope
Can be converted to azimuth or bearing Can be converted to vertical distance or slope
distance
Used for establishing control points and traverses Used for determining heights and slopes in
topographic surveys

Theodolite Total Station

Measures angles in both horizontal and vertical Measures angles and distances electronically
planes using optical plummets using EDM
Requires manual recording of angle and distance Can automatically record angle and distance
measurements measurements with built-in data collection
software
Typically has a lower accuracy and precision than Can provide high accuracy and precision
a total station measurements
Requires the operator to manually level the Has an automatic compensator to ensure the
instrument instrument is level
Often used for smaller projects and shorter Can be used for larger and more complex
distances projects with longer distances
Typically less expensive than a total station Can be more expensive than a theodolite due to
its advanced technology