CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

Hand-out No. 4 CHEMICAL REACTIONS Time Frame: 18 hours

Learning Objectives
 Explain the concept of molecular and formula mass
 Demonstrate the procedure on how to balance a chemical equation given formulas or names of elements or
compounds involve in the
 Discuss the different types of reactions in predicting its product
 Solve problems which involves determining the amount of reactants and products
 Define the concept of limiting reactants and reaction yields
 Solve problems which involves limiting reactants and reaction yield

Content Outline
1. The Chemical Equation
a. Balancing Chemical Equations
2. Predicting the Products of Chemical Reactions
a. Combination Reactions
b. Decomposition Reactions
c. Single Substitution Reactions
d. Double Substitution Reactions
e. Combustion Reactions
3. Stoichiometry
a. Amounts of Reactants and Products
b. Limiting Reactants
c. Theoretical yield and Percent Yield

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
The process by which the atoms of one or more substances are rearranged to form different substances
is called a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction is another name for a chemical change.

THE CHEMICAL EQUATION

In a chemical reaction, the substances that react are called reactants, or sometimes, reagents. The
substances that are produced are called products.
We use formulas to represent the substances involved in a reaction when we write a chemical equation.
In an equation, the formulas for reactants are placed on the left side of the arrow and those for products are
placed on the right side. Either substance may be written first on each side of the equation.
A balanced equation shows the relative numbers of atoms of each of the elements involved. An
equation must have equal numbers of atoms of each element on each side.

Coefficients - numbers that are written before the formulas—tell the relative numbers of formula units of
reactants and products involved in a reaction and balance the number of atoms of each element involved.
The coefficients in a balanced equation give the ratio of moles of each substance in the reaction to moles of any
other substance. They also give the ratio of formula units of each substance to formula units of any other
substance.

NOTE: There are seven elements that occur as diatomic molecules (molecules with two atoms) when
they are not combined with other elements. These are hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, iodine,
bromine and chlorine and should be written as , respectively.

Balancing Equations
The first step in writing a complete and balanced equation for a chemical reaction is to write correct
formulas for the reactants and products. Then, we use coefficients to change the numbers of formula units to get
the same number of atoms of each element on the two sides of the equation.

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Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

EXAMPLE 4.1
Balance the equation for the reaction of barium hydroxide and hydrobromic acid to give barium bromide and water.

SOLUTION
The first step to solve this problem is to write the correct formula for the reactants and products.

Ba OH 2 + HBr → BaBr2 + H2 O
(Not Balanced)

Evaluate the chemical equation and place a 1 before the most complicated formula.

𝟏 Ba OH 2 + HBr → BaBr2 + H2O

To balance the barium on the reactants side, we must put a 1 on the barium on the product side.

1 Ba OH 2 + HBr → 𝟏 BaBr2 + H2 O
Observe that there are 2 oxygen on the reactant side so to balance the chemical equation, we must put a 2 on the
oxygen on the reactant side.
1 Ba OH 2 + HBr → 1 BaBr2 + 𝟐 H2O
By looking at the product side, barium has 2 atoms so we must also put a 2 on barium on the reactant side.
1 Ba OH 2 + 𝟐HBr → 1 BaBr2 + 2 H2O
To check if the chemical equation is balanced, we have

Reactants Side Products Side

Ba = 1 Ba = 1
O=2 O=2
H=4 H=4
Br = 2 Br = 2

Now, the chemical equation is balanced. Delete any coefficients equal to 1. The final balanced chemical equation is

𝐁𝐚 𝐎𝐇 𝟐 + 𝟐𝐇𝐁𝐫 → 𝐁𝐚𝐁𝐫𝟐 + 𝟐 𝐇𝟐 𝐎

EXAMPLE 4.2
Balance the equation for the reaction of CoCl 2 and Cl2 which produces CoCl 3.

SOLUTION
Balancing cobalt: ? CoCl2 +? Cl2 → 1CoCl3

Balancing cobalt: 𝟏CoCl2 +? Cl2 → 1CoCl3

𝟏
Balancing chlorine: 1CoCl2 + Cl → 1CoCl3
𝟐 2

Clearing the fraction: 2CoCl2 + 1Cl2 → 1CoCl3

Final equation ∶ 𝟐𝐂𝐨𝐂𝐥𝟐 + 𝐂𝐥𝟐 → 𝟐𝐂𝐨𝐂𝐥𝟑

Checking, we have

Reactants Side Products Side

Co = 2 Co = 2
Cl = 6 Cl = 6

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Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

When any element appears in more than one substance on the same side of the equation, we balance
that element last.

EXAMPLE 4.3
Write a balanced equation for the following reaction:
KIO3 + KI + HCl → I2+H2O + KCl

SOLUTION
𝟏KIO3+? KI+? HCl →? I2 +? H2O+? KCl

Balancing oxygen: 1KIO3+? KI+? HCl →? I2+𝟑H2O+? KCl

Balancing hydrogen: KIO3+? KI + 𝟔HCl →? I2+3H2O+? KCl

Balancing chlorine: 1KIO3+? KI + 6HCl →? I2 +3H2O + 𝟔KCl

Balancing potassium: 1KIO3 + 𝟓KI + 6HCl →? I2+3H2O + 6KCl

Balancing iodine: 1KIO3 + 5KI + 6HCl → 𝟑I2+3H2O + 6KCl

Final equation ∶ 𝐊𝐈𝐎𝟑 + 𝟓𝐊𝐈 + 𝟔𝐇𝐂𝐥 → 𝟑𝐈𝟐 +𝟑𝐇𝟐 𝐎 + 𝟔𝐊𝐂𝐥

Checking, we have

Reactants Side Products Side

K=6 K=6
I=6 I=6
O=3 O=3
H=6 H=6
Cl = 6 Cl = 6

EXAMPLE 4.4
Write a balanced equation for the reaction of sodium hydroxide with phosphoric acid to produce sodium monohydrogen
phosphate and water.

SOLUTION
? NaOH+? H3PO4 → 1Na2HPO4 +? H2O

𝟐NaOH + 𝟏H3PO4 → 1Na2 HPO4 +? H2 O

2NaOH + 1H3PO4 → 1Na2HPO4 + 𝟐H2O

𝟐𝐍𝐚𝐎𝐇 + 𝐇𝟑 𝐏𝐎𝟒 → 𝐍𝐚𝟐 𝐇𝐏𝐎𝟒 + 𝟐𝐇𝟐 𝐎

To make balancing some equations a little easier, we can balance any polyatomic ion that maintains its
composition through an entire reaction as the entire ion, instead of balancing the individual atoms of the
elements.

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Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

EXAMPLE 4.5
Balance the following equation using the polyatomic ions rather than the individual atoms.
Ba NO3 2+Na2CO3 → BaCO3 +NaNO3

SOLUTION
𝟏 Ba NO3 2+? Na2 CO3 →? BaCO3 +? NaNO3

1 Ba NO3 2 +? Na2 CO3 → 𝟏BaCO3 + 𝟐NaNO3

1 Ba NO3 2 + 𝟏 Na2CO3 → 1BaCO3 + 2NaNO3

𝐁𝐚 𝐍𝐎𝟑 𝟐+ 𝐍𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐎𝟑 → 𝐁𝐚𝐂𝐎𝟑 + 𝟐𝐍𝐚𝐍𝐎𝟑

PREDICTING THE PRODUCTS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Simple chemical reactions can be divided into the following classes:
1. Combination reactions
2. Decomposition reactions
3. Single substitution (or single displacement) reactions
4. Double substitution (or double displacement) reactions
5. Combustion reactions

Combination Reactions
Combination reactions involve the reaction of two (or more) substances to form one compound. For
example, if we treat aluminum metal with chlorine gas, the elements can combine to form aluminum chloride:

2 l + 3 Cl2 → 2 lCl3

EXAMPLE 4.6
Complete and balance an equation for the reaction of zinc metal and oxygen gas.

SOLUTION
Identify first the product
Zn2+ and O2−

Zn2O2 or ZnO or zinc oxide

Write correct formulas for reactant(s) and product(s). Remember that oxygen is one of the seven elements that occur as
diatomic molecules when uncombined with other elements:

Zn + O2 → ZnO Not Balanced

𝟐 𝐙𝐧 + 𝐎𝟐 → 𝟐 𝐙𝐧𝐎 Balanced

In another type of combination reaction, a compound may be able to combine with a particular free
element to form another compound as the only product. This occurs most often when the free element is the
same as one of the elements in the original compound. An example of such a combination reaction is

2 CrCl2 +Cl2 → 2 CrCl3

In yet another type of combination reaction, two compounds containing the same element may be able
to combine to form a single, more complex compound. The element the reactants have in common is very often
oxygen:

MgO + CO2 → MgCO3

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Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

CaO + H2 O → Ca OH 2

Decomposition Reactions
Decomposition reactions have the opposite effect from combination reactions. In a decomposition
reaction, a single compound can decompose to two elements, to an element and a simpler compound, to two
simpler compounds, or (rarely) to another combination of products. Decomposition reactions are easy to identify
because there is only one reactant. Table 4.1 summarizes the most common types of decomposition reactions.

Table 4.1 Common Types of Decomposition Reactions

Reactant Products Example
Binary compound → Two elements 2H2O → 2H2 + O2
Binary compound → Compound + element 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
Ternary compound → Compound + element 2KClO3 → 2KCl + 3O2
Ternary compound → Two compounds CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

Decomposition reactions are often used to prepare elements. Joseph Priestley (1733–1804), the
discoverer of oxygen, used the decomposition of mercury (II) oxide, HgO, to prepare elemental oxygen (and free
mercury):

2 HgO → 2Hg + O2

Single Substitution Reactions

The reaction of a free element with a compound of two (or more) other elements may result in the free
element displacing one of the elements originally in the compound. A free metal can generally displace a less
active metal in a compound; a free nonmetal can generally displace a less active nonmetal in a compound:

Cu + 2 gNO3 → Cu NO3 3 +2 g

Cl2 +CaI2 → CaCl2 +I2

In this class of reaction, called a single displacement reaction, or single substitution reaction,
elements that are inherently more reactive can displace less reactive elements from their compounds.

Double Substitution Reactions

The reaction of two compounds may yield two new compounds. Many reactions that occur in aqueous
solution involve two ionic compounds trading anions. This class of reactions is called double substitution
reactions, double displacement reactions, or metathesis reactions.

NOTE: In aqueous solution, neither (carbonic acid) nor (ammonium hydroxide) is

stable; they decompose to yield water and or respectively. If either or is
expected to be a product of a double substitution reaction, plus , or plus , will be
produced instead.

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Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

EXAMPLE 4.7
Predict the products of the following reactions:
Li2CO3 +HClO3 →
NH4 Cl + NaOH →

SOLUTION
Ordinarily, we would predict that the ions will trade partners to yield Li2 ClO3 and H2CO3 . However, water and carbon
dioxide are produced instead of H2CO3 :

𝐋𝐢𝟐 𝐂𝐎𝟑+𝟐 𝐇𝐂𝐥𝐎𝟑 → 𝟐 𝐋𝐢𝟐 𝐂𝐥𝐎𝟑 + 𝐇𝟐 𝐎 + 𝐂𝐎𝟐

Ordinarily, we would predict that the ions will trade partners to yield NaCl and NH4 OH. However, instead of
ammonium hydroxide, water and ammonia are produced:

𝐍𝐇𝟒 𝐂𝐥 + 𝐍𝐚𝐎𝐇 → 𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥 + 𝐇𝟐 𝐎 + 𝐍𝐇𝟑

Combustion Reactions
Burning, also called combustion, is the rapid reaction of a wide variety of materials with oxygen gas.
Combustion reactions of elements can also be classified as combination reactions; the type of reaction is not as
important as the products. For example, we can refer to the following reactions as combination reactions or
combustion reactions:
C + O2 → CO2
+ O2 → O2

The combustion reactions of hydrocarbons—compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen only—are

especially important as sources of useful energy. We burn methane, CH 4, called natural gas, in our homes to
provide heat, and we combust octane, C8H18, in our cars to provide mechanical energy:

CH4 +2 O2 → CO2 +2 H2 O
2C8H 8 +17O2 → 16CO + 18H2O

If sufficient oxygen is present, carbon dioxide is produced. If the supply of oxygen is limited, as in a car
engine, carbon monoxide is the product. (With very limited oxygen, soot—a form of carbon—and water are
produced.) In any case, water is a product.

EXAMPLE 4.8
Which of the following reactions was carried out in a limited supply of oxygen?
2 C6H 4 +19O2 → 12 CO2+14 H2O
2 C6H 0+11O2 → 12 CO+10 H2O

SOLUTION
The reaction of C6H 0 produced CO, so that reaction was run in limited oxygen. If the combustion reaction of 2 C6H 0
is carried out in excess oxygen, the equation is written as follows:

𝟐 𝐂𝟔 𝐇𝟏𝟎+𝟏𝟕𝐎𝟐 → 𝟏𝟐 𝐂𝐎𝟐+𝟏𝟎 𝐇𝟐 𝐎

EXAMPLE 4.9
Write a balanced equation for the reaction of butyne, C 4H6, in a limited oxygen supply.

SOLUTION
𝟐 𝐂𝟒𝐇𝟔 +𝟕𝐎𝟐 → 𝟖 𝐂𝐎+𝟔 𝐇𝟐 𝐎

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The combustion reactions of compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (which include the
carbohydrates we use for food) also produce either carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide, depending on the
relative quantity of oxygen available.

EXAMPLE 4.10
Write a complete and balanced equation for the reaction of sucrose, table sugar, C 12H22O 11, in a limited supply of
oxygen.

SOLUTION
𝐂𝟏𝟐𝐇𝟐𝟐 𝐎𝟏𝟏+𝟔𝐎𝟐 → 𝟖𝟏𝟐𝐂𝐎+𝟏𝟏 𝐇𝟐𝐎

STOICHIOMETRY

Stoichiometry involves the calculation of quantities of any substances involved in a chemical reaction from the
quantities of the other substances. The balanced equation gives the ratios of formula units of all the substances
in a chemical reaction. It also gives the corresponding ratios of moles of the substances.
For example, one reaction of phosphorus with chlorine gas is governed by the equation

2 P + 3Cl2 → 2 PCl3

Ratios of coefficients from balanced chemical equations can be used as conversion factors for solving problems.

EXAMPLE 4.11
Calculate the number of moles of aluminum atoms that will react with 3.18 mol of oxygen molecules to form aluminum
oxide. The balanced equation is
4 l + 3 O2 → 2 l2O3

SOLUTION
Given 3.18 moles of oxygen, we can use the balanced equation to get the number of moles of aluminum atoms.

4 moles l
3.18 mol O2 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟒 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐀𝐥
3 moles O2

EXAMPLE 4.12
Calculate the number of moles of hydrogen gas that can be produced by reaction of 0.750 mol of hydrochloric acid,
HCl, with calcium metal.

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

Ca + 2 HCl → CaCl2 + H2

Given 0.750 moles of hydrochloric acid, we can use the balanced equation to get the number of moles of hydrogen gas
to be produced.

1 mole H2
0.750 mol HCl = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐇𝟐
2 moles HCl

Remember that the quantities involved in mole calculations are the quantities that react, not necessarily
the quantities that are present.

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Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

EXAMPLE 4.13
A sample of 0.1712 mol of solid KClO3 is heated gently for a time, and 0.1146 mol of the compound decomposes.
Calculate the number of moles of oxygen gas produced.

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

2 KClO3 → 2 KCl + 3 O2

Given 0.1146 moles of KClO3, we can use the balanced equation to get the number of moles of oxygen gas to be
produced.

3 mole O2
0.1146 mol KClO3 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟏𝟗 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐎𝟐
2 moles KClO3

EXAMPLE 4.14
Calculate the mass of chlorine gas that will react with 2.88 g of phosphorus to form phosphorus pentachloride.

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

2 P + 5 Cl2 → 2 PCl5

Given 2.88 g of phosphorus, we can use the balanced equation to get the mass of chlorine gas that will react.

1 mole P 5 moles Cl2 70.9 g Cl2

2.88 g P = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟒𝟕 𝐠 𝐂𝐥𝟐
31.0 g P 2 moles P 1 mole Cl2

EXAMPLE 4.15
Electrolysis of concentrated aqueous sodium chloride solution (called brine) yields aqueous sodium hydroxide,
hydrogen gas, and chlorine gas—three important industrial chemicals. Calculate the mass of chlorine that can be
produced by electrolysis of 50.0 kg of sodium chloride in concentrated aqueous solution.

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

2 NaCl + 2 H2O → 2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2

Given 50.0 kg of sodium chloride, we can use the balanced equation to get the mass of chlorine gas that will be
produced.

1 mole NaCl 1 mole Cl2 70.9 kg Cl2

50.0 kg NaCl = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟑 𝐤𝐠 𝐂𝐥𝟐
58.5 kg NaCl 2 moles NaCl 1 mole Cl2

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Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

EXAMPLE 4.16
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is the chemical produced in the greatest tonnage worldwide. Calculate the number of metric tons
of SO2 gas required to prepare 50.0 metric tons of liquid H 2SO 4. The balanced equation for the overall reaction is
2 O2+O2+2H2O → 2H2 O4

SOLUTION
To produce 50.0 metric tons of liquid sulfuric acid, we will use the balanced equation to get the required number of
metric tons of sulfur dioxide.

1 × 106 g H2 O4 1 mole H2 O4 2 moles O2 64.1 g O2 1 ton O2

50.0 tons H2 O4
1 ton H2 O4 98.1 g H2 O4 2 moles H2 O4 1 mole O2 1 × 106 g O2

= 𝟑𝟐. 𝟔𝟕 𝐭𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐒𝐎𝟐

EXAMPLE 4.17
The industrial processing of copper (I) sulfide to produce copper metal involves roasting (heating) the solid ore in the
presence of oxygen gas to produce the metal and sulfur dioxide gas. (The sulfur dioxide is used to make sulfuric acid.)
Calculate the mass of copper (I) sulfide needed to produce 70.0 metric tons of copper by roasting.

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

Cu2 + O2 → 2 Cu + O2

We can use the balanced chemical equation to solve for the mass of copper (I) sulfide needed to produce 70.0 metric
tons of copper.

1 × 106 g Cu 1 mole Cu 1 mole Cu2 159.06 g Cu2 1 ton Cu2

70.0 tons Cu
1 ton Cu 63.5 g Cu 2 moles Cu 1 mole Cu2 1 × 106 g Cu2

= 𝟖𝟕. 𝟔𝟕 𝐭𝐨𝐧𝐬 𝐂𝐮𝟐 𝐒

EXAMPLE 4.18
Excess hydrochloric acid was added to an aqueous solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate, and the resulting solution
was evaporated to dryness, which produced 2.29 g of solid product. Calculate the mass of calcium hydrogen carbonate
in the original solution.

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

2HCl + Ca HCO3 2 → CaCl2 + 2H2 CO3

Note that when H2CO3 occurs in the chemical equation as a product of a reaction, it will decompose into CO2 + H2O.
Therefore, the final balanced chemical equation is

2HCl + Ca HCO3 2 → CaCl2 + 2CO2 + 2H2O

We then use the balanced chemical equation to solve for the mass calcium hydrogen carbonate in the original solution
needed to produce 2.29 g CaCl2.

1 mole CaCl2 1 mole Ca HCO3 2 162.12 g Ca HCO3 2

2.29 g CaCl2 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟓 𝐠 𝐂𝐚 𝐇𝐂𝐎𝟑 𝟐
110.98 g CaCl2 1 mole CaCl2 1 mole Ca HCO3 2

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Calculations Involving Other Quantities

The number of moles of individual atoms or ions of a given element within a compound may also be
used to determine the number of moles of reactant or product. The density of a substance may be used to
determine the mass of a given volume of it and the mass may be used to determine the number of moles
present.

EXAMPLE 4.19
Calculate the number of moles of solid mercury(I) oxide that can be produced by the reaction of oxygen gas with 25.0
mL of liquid mercury (ρ=13.6 g/mL). Also, calculate the number of molecules of oxygen required.

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

4 Hg + O2 → 2 Hg2O

To solve this problem, we need to determine first the mass of mercury that reacts with oxygen gas. By using the formula
of density and rearranging, we have

g
mHg = 𝜌Hg VHg = 13.6 25.0 mL = 340 g Hg
mL

We can now solve for the number of moles of mercury (I) oxide that reacts with 340 g of Hg using the balanced
chemical equation.

1 mole Hg 2 moles Hg2O

340 g Hg = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟒𝟕 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐇𝐠𝟐 𝐎
200.59 g Hg 4 moles Hg

EXAMPLE 4.20
Calculate the number of molecules of CO 2 that can be produced by complete combustion of 12.5 g of gaseous butane,
C4H10.

SOLUTION
In writing for the balanced chemical equation, we must remember that in the complete combustion of hydrocarbons, the
products are CO2 + H2O. The balanced chemical equation is

2 C4H 0 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

Given 12.5 g of butane and by using the balanced chemical equation, we can solve for the number of molecules of CO2
that can be produced.

1 mole C4H 0 8 moles CO2 6.022 × 1023molecules CO2

12.5 g C4H 0
58.14 g C4H 0 2 moles C4H 0 1 mole CO2

= 𝟓. 𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐂𝐎𝟐

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EXAMPLE 4.21
Calculate the mass of H2O that can be prepared by the reaction of 4.51 × 1022 O2 molecules with hydrogen gas.

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O

We can use the balanced chemical equation to solve for the mass of water produced from
4.51 × 1022 molecules O2.

1 mole O2 2 moles H2O 18.02 g H2O

4.51 × 1022 molecules O2 = 𝟐. 𝟕 𝐠 𝐇𝟐 𝐎
6.022 × 1023 molecules O2 1 mole O2 1 mole H2O

The number of moles of an element in a mole of compound can also be used to calculate the number of
moles of the compound involved in a reaction. The ratio of the number of moles of an element within a compound
to the number of moles of the compound is determined by the compound’s chemical formula. Thus, the
subscripts of the formula may be used to form conversion factors.

EXAMPLE 4.22
The quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in a fertilizer are critical to the fertilizer’s function in helping crops
grow. Calculate the number of moles of nitrogen atoms in the ammonium phosphate, (NH 4)3PO4, produced by the
reaction of excess aqueous ammonia with 227 mol of phosphoric acid.

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

3 NH3 + H3PO4 → NH4 3PO4

We can use the balanced chemical equation and the chemical formula of ammonium phosphate to solve for the number
of moles of nitrogen atoms produced from 227 moles of phosphoric acid.

1 mole NH4 3PO4 3 moles N

227 mol H3PO4 = 𝟔𝟖𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐍
1 mol H3PO4 1 mole NH4 3PO4
from the chemical formula
of ammonium phosphate

Problems Involving Limiting Quantities

Problems involving limiting quantities have the quantities of at least two reactants given. The reactant
used up first limits the quantities of the products and is referred to as being present in limiting quantity. Any
other reactant may be present in an amount that represents a number of moles equal to or greater than is
required for the reaction and is said to be present in sufficient or excess quantity. The reaction is said to have
gone to completion when the limiting quantity has been used up.

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EXAMPLE 4.23
Calculate the number of moles of each of the products and of the excess reactant when 0.250 mol of PCl 5 and 1.50 mol
of H2O are allowed to react, yielding H3PO4 and HCl.

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

PCl5 + 4 H2O → H3 PO4 + 5 HCl

We need to determine which reactant is limiting by solving the amount of products each reactant produces using the
balanced chemical equation. Whichever yields less amount of product is the limiting reactant.

1 mole H3PO4
0.250 mol PCl5 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐇𝟑 𝐏𝐎𝟒
1 mole PCl5

1 mole H3PO4
1.5 mol H2O = 0.375 mol H3PO4
4 moles H2O

Therefore, PCl5 is the limiting reactant and the calculations on the amount of products produced should be based on
PCl5.

5 moles HCl
0.250 mol PCl5 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐬 𝐇𝐂𝐥
1 mole PCl5

Solving for the amount of excess reactant after the reaction, we have

4 moles H2O this is the amount that will

0.250 mol PCl5 = 1.0 mole H2O react with 0.259 mole PCl5
1 mole PCl5

excess reactant H2O = 1.5 mol − 1.0 mol = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐇𝟐 𝐎

EXAMPLE 4.24
If 0.600 mol of chlorine gas is treated with 0.500 mol of aluminum metal to produce solid aluminum chloride, which
reactant is in excess? How many moles of aluminum chloride can be produced?

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

2 l + 3 Cl2 → 2 lCl3

Determine first which reactant is in excess by following the procedure in Example 4.23.

2 moles lCl3
0.6 mol Cl2 = 𝟎. 𝟒 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐀𝐥𝐂𝐥𝟑
3 moles Cl2

2 moles lCl3
0.5 mol l = 0.5 mol lCl3
2 moles l

Therefore, chlorine gas is the limiting reactant. Solving for the amount of excess reactant, we have

2 moles l
0.6 mol Cl2 = 0.4 mol l
3 moles Cl2

excess reactant Cl2 = 0.5 − 0.4 mol = 𝟎. 𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐥 𝐀𝐥

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Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

EXAMPLE 4.25
Calculate the number of moles of BaCl2 that will be produced by the reaction of 1.95 mol of Ba(OH) 2 and 4.25 mol of
HCl.

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

Ba OH 2 + 2 HCl → BaCl2 + 2 H2O

Determine first which reactant is in excess by following the procedure in Example 4.23.

1 mole BaCl2
1.95 mol Ba OH 2 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟓 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞 𝐁𝐚𝐂𝐥𝟐
1 mole Ba OH 2

1 mole BaCl2
4.25 mole HCl = 2.125 moles BaCl2
2 moles HCl

Therefore, Ba OH 2 is the limiting reactant and the amount of product produced is 1.95 mole BaCl2.

If the number of moles present for each reactant is exactly the number required, then both reactants are
in limiting quantity. Either quantity of reactant may be used to calculate the quantity of product. Problems
involving limiting quantities may be stated in terms of masses, rather than moles, and a mass of product might be
required.

EXAMPLE 4.26
What mass of Na2SO 4 will be formed by addition of 14.4 g of NaHCO 3 in aqueous solution to an aqueous solution
containing 4.90 g of H2 SO4?

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

NaHCO3 + H2 O4 → Na2 O4 + 𝐻2𝐶𝑂3

2 NaHCO3 + H2 O4 → Na2 O4 + 2 CO2 + 2 H2O

Determine first which reactant is in excess.

1 mole NaHCO3 1 mole Na2 O4

14.4 g NaHCO3 = 0.086 mole Na2 O4
84.01 g NaHCO3 2 moles NaHCO3

1 mole H2 O4 1 mole Na2 O4

4.9 g H2 O4 = 0.05 mole Na2 O4
98.08 g H2 O4 1 mole H2 O4

Since H2 O4 produces less number of mole of Na2 O4 , H2 O4 is the limiting reactant.

142.04 g Na2 O4
0.05 mole Na2 O4 = 𝟕. 𝟏 𝐠 𝐍𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐎𝟒
1 mole Na2 O4

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Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

EXAMPLE 4.27
What mass of sodium chlorate will result from the reaction of 15.5 g of aqueous sodium carbonate with 42.3 g of
aqueous chloric acid? What mass of excess reagent will remain unreacted?

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

Na2 CO3 + 2 HClO3 → 2 NaClO3 + 𝐻2𝐶𝑂3

Na2 CO3 + 2 HClO3 → 2 NaClO3 + CO2 + H2O

Determine first which reactant is limiting.

1 mole Na2CO3 2 moles NaClO3

15.5 g Na2CO3 = 0.292 mole NaClO3
105.99 g Na2CO3 1 mole Na2CO3

1 mole HClO3 2 moles NaClO3

42.3 g HClO3 = 0.5 mole NaClO3
84.46 g HClO3 2 moles HClO3

Since Na2 CO3 produces less number of mole of NaClO3 , Na2 CO3 is the limiting reactant and should be the basis for
the computation of the amount of product produced.

106.44 g NaClO3
0.292 mole NaClO3 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟏 𝐠 𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥𝐎𝟑
1 mole NaClO3

To determine the amount of excess reagent, we need to find out first the amount of chloric acid used up during the
reaction.

1 mole Na2CO3 2 moles HClO3 84.46 g HClO3

15.5 g Na2CO3 = 24.7 g HClO3
105.99 g Na2CO3 1 mole Na2CO3 1 mole HClO3

excess HClO3 = 42.3 g − 24.7 g = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟔 𝐠 𝐇𝐂𝐥𝐎𝟑

EXAMPLE 4.28
Calculate the quantity of H2O present after the reaction of 0.425 mol HCl and 0.100 mol Al(OH) 3 in 12.00 mol of water.

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

3 HCl + l OH 3 → lCl3 + 3H2O

3 moles H2O
0.425 mol HCl = 0.425 moles H2O
3 moles HCl

3 moles H2O
0.10 mol l OH 3 = 0.3 moles H2O
1 mole l OH 3

Although initially there was some water present, this does not affect the reaction process. The amount of water
produced after the reaction will be added to the initial amount of water present.

final amount of water = 12.0 + 0.3 mole H2O = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟑 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐞 𝐇𝟐𝐎

Theoretical Yield and Percent Yield

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Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

When a quantity of product is calculated from a quantity or quantities of reactants, that quantity of
product is called the theoretical yield. When a reaction is run, however, less product than the calculated amount
is often obtained. The actual yield is less than the theoretical yield. No reaction can produce more than the
theoretical yield. The percent yield is defined as 100% times the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield:

ctual ield
Percent ield = × 100
heoritical ield

EXAMPLE 4.29
Calculate the percent yield of a reaction if calculations indicated that 7.44 g of product could be obtained, but only 7.02
g of product was actually obtained.

SOLUTION
Using the formula for percent yield, we have

ctual ield 7.02 g

Percent ield = × 100 = × 100 = 𝟗𝟒. 𝟑𝟓
heoritical ield 7.44 g

EXAMPLE 4.30
Calculate the percent yield if 14.1 g of solid PCl5 is obtained in a certain experiment in which 10.0 g of liquid PCl3 is
treated with excess gaseous Cl2.

SOLUTION
Write first the balanced chemical equation

PCl3 + Cl2 → PCl5

Since the problem has already stated that the chlorine gas is in excess, there is no need to solve for the limiting
reactant. The limiting reactant is PCl3 and this will be used to solve for the theoretical amount of PCl5 produced.

1 mole PCl3 1 mole PCl5 208.22 g PCl5

10.0 g PCl3 = 15.16 g PCl5
137.32 g PCl3 1 mole PCl3 1 mole PCl5

Using the formula for percent yield, we have

ctual ield 14.1 g

Percent ield = × 100 = × 100 = 𝟗𝟐. 𝟗𝟗
heoritical ield 15.16 g

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Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

EXAMPLE 4.31
Ozone, O3, is produced when O2, molecules are subjected to electrical discharge or the action of cosmic rays in the
upper atmosphere.
a. Calculate the mass of ozone that could theoretically be produced by conversion of 1.47 g of O 2.
b. If 0.111 g of O3 is actually produced, what is the percent yield?

SOLUTION
a. Write first the balanced chemical equation

3 O2 → 2O3

Solving for the amount of O3 produced

1 mole O2 2 moles O3 48.0 g O3

1.47 g O2 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕 𝐠 𝐎𝟑
32.0 g O2 3 moles O2 1 mole O3

b. Using the formula for percent yield, we have

ctual ield 0.111 g

Percent ield = × 100 = × 100 = 𝟕. 𝟓𝟓
heoritical ield 1.47 g

EXERCISES:

1. Write a balanced equation for each chemical statement:

a. A characteristic reaction of Group l A( l ) elements: chunks of sodium react violently with water to
form hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide solution.
b. The destruction of marble statuary by acid rain: aqueous nitric acid reacts with calcium carbonate to
form carbon dioxide, water, and aqueous calcium nitrate.
c. Halogen compounds exchanging bonding partners: phosphorus trifluoride is prepared by the
reaction of phosphorus trichloride and hydrogen fluoride; hydrogen chloride is the other product.
The reaction involves gases only.
d. Explosive decomposition of dynamite: liquid nitroglycerine (C 3H5N309) explodes to produce a
mixture of gases-carbon dioxide, water vapor, nitrogen, and oxygen.

2. Balance the equation for each of the following reactions:

a. Cu2 + O2 → Cu + O2
b. CO2 + H2 → CO + H2 O
c. Zn + O2 → ZnO + O2
d. H2 O + Cl4 → HCl + H2 O3
e. O2 + MnO → Mn3 O4
f. C7 H 4 + O2 → CO2 + H2 O

3. Complete and balance each of the following equations:

a. l + FeCl2 →
b. Cl2 + lI3 →
c. Ba C2 H3O2 2 + Na 2CO3 →

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Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

d. BaCl2 + NH4 2 O4 →
e. Ba ClO4 2 + Na 2 O4 →
f. NH3 + HCl →

4. How many moles of oxygen gas are required for the incomplete combustion of 7.80 mol of octane,
C8 H 8, yielding CO and H2 O?

5. Butane, C4 H 0, burns in excess oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. Write a balanced
equation for the reaction. Calculate the number of moles of carbon dioxide in 14.9 g of carbon dioxide.
Calculate the number of moles of butane required to produce that number of moles of carbon dioxide.

6. The compound NH4 3PO4 is used as a fertilizer. Calculate the mass of NH4 3PO4 that can be
produced by the reaction of 2.00 metric tons of NH3 with sufficient H3 PO4.
3 NH3 + H3 PO4 → NH4 3PO4

7. Calculate the number of moles of fluorine atoms in 61.7 mL of CHClF2 (density 1.49 g/mL).

8. Calculate the number of oxygen atoms in the chromium (III) oxide prepared by treating chromium (II)
oxide with 1.72 g of oxygen gas.

9. Calculate the number of moles of H2 O produced and the number of moles of excess reactant when
0.444 mol of Mg OH 2 is treated with 6.66 × 1023 molecules of HNO3.

10. Calculate the number of moles of unreacted starting material that will be present when 41.2 g of HCl is
treated with 25.0 g of solid Mg HCO3 2 .

11. Calculate the percent yield for an experiment in which 29.8 g of PCl5 was obtained by treatment of 4.50
g of P with sufficient Cl2.

12. Calculate the percent yield of a reaction which produced 36.0 g of C4 H8Br2 from 10.0 g of C4 H8 and
excess Br2.
C4 H8 + Br2 → C4 H8Br2

NOTE: All Examples and Exercise Problems used in this module is taken from
the textbook Fundamentals of Chemistry by David E. Goldberg.

References:
Silberberg, Martin S. (2007). Principles of General Chemistry. 1st Edition
Goldberg, David E. (2007). Fundamentals of Chemistry. 5th Edition
The Periodic Table of Elements

Rubric No. 1 Assessing and Grading of Ability to Perform Mathematical Computations

Level 100% 70% 40% 0%
Criteria* Does not meet
Exceeds expectations Meets expectations Needs improvement
expectations
The task is worked out The task is worked out The task is worked An insignificant
Mathematical
to completion, the steps to completion and out partially and the amount of the task is
Content
shown are steps shown are steps shown are done, and/or the
(70%)
mathematically error- mathematically error- correct and could steps shown are

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Hand-out No. 4: Chemical Reactions

free, and the result is free; the result is potentially lead to a mathematically
correct and expressed correct but still correct result if wrong, unrelated or
in its required form. requires one or two worked through. inappropriate.
steps to bring it to its
required form.
The output is submitted The output is The output is The output is
Timeliness on time. submitted a day after submitted two days submitted eight days
(30%) the set deadline. to a week after the after the set deadline.
set deadline.

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