Introduction

¾ What machining process is sued to create round shapes?

ƒ Turning on a lathe
ƒ The workpiece is rotated on the lathe while the tool is moved in linear
directions
Chapter 22 ¾ What can be manufactured using turning?
ƒ Miniature screws for eyeglass-frame hinges
Machining Processes Used to Produce ƒ Rolls for rolling mills
Round Shapes ¾ What are some cutting operations?
ƒ Turning: straight, curved, or grooved workpieces such as shafts, spindles,
and pins.
ƒ Facing: producing a flat surface at the end of the part or face grooving to
Alexandra Schönning, Ph.D. produce grooves fro O-ring seats
Mechanical Engineering ƒ Form tools: Used to produce various shapes
University of North Florida ƒ Boring: to enlarge a hole or cylindrical cavity made by a previous process
or to produce circular internal grooves
Figures by ƒ Drilling: to produce a hole
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Kalpakijan and Schmid ƒ Parting: cutting off
ƒ Knurling: regular shaped roughness on cylindrical surfaces
ƒ Others include milling (will discuss later)

Page 22-1 Page 22-2

General Characteristics of Machining

Cutting Operations
Processes
TABLE 22.1 General Characteristics of Machining Processes Described in Chapters 22 and 23
Process Characteristics Commercial tolerances(±mm)
Turning Turning and facing operations on all types of materials; uses single-point or form tools; requires skilled Fine: 0.05–0.13
labor; low production rate, but medium to high with turret lathes and automatic machines, requiring less- Rough: 0.13
skilled labor. Skiving: 0.025–0.05
Boring Internal surfaces or profiles, with characteristics similar to turning; stiffness of boring bar important to avoid 0.025
chatter.
Drilling Round holes of various sizes and depths; requires boring and reaming for improved accuracy; high 0.075
production rate; labor skill required depends on hole location and accuracy specified.
Milling Variety of shapes involving contours, flat surfaces, and slots; wide variety of tooling; versatile; low to 0.13–0.25
medium production rate; requires skilled labor.
Planing Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on large surfaces; suitable for low-quantity production; labor skill 0.08–0.13
required depends on part shape.
Shaping Flat surfaces and straight contour profiles on relatively small workpieces; suitable for low-quantity 0.05–0.13
production; labor skill required depends on part shape.
Broaching External and internal flat surfaces, slots, and contours with good surface finish; costly tooling; high 0.025–0.15
production rate; labor skill required depends on part shape.

Sawing Straight and contour cuts on flat or structural shapes; not suitable for hard materials unless saw has carbide 0.8
teeth or is coated with diamond; low production rate; requires only low labor skill.

Figure 22.1 Various

cutting operations that
can be performed on a
late. Not that all parts
have circular
symmetry.
Page 22-3 Page 22-4

Turning parameters Turning parameters (cont.)

¾ Rotational speeds of the ¾ Majority of turning ¾Material removal rate (MRR) is the volume of
workpiece operations involve a material removed per unit time (mm3/min)
¾ Depths of cut, d single-point cutting tool
¾Davg = (Do + Df)/2
¾ Feeds, f ƒ Do: diameter of the non-cut material
¾ Use of cutting fluids ƒ Df: diameter of the “final” or cut material
¾MRR = π*Davg*d*f*N
ƒ d*f = cross sectional area = depth of cut*feed
ƒ N: revolutions per minute
¾Cutting time: t = L/(f*N)
ƒ L: distance traveled
Figure 22.3 (a) Schematic illustration of a turning operation showing depth of cut, d, and feed, f. Cutting
speed is the surface speed of the workpiece at the Fc, is the cutting force, Ft is the thrust or feed force (in
the direction of feed, Fr is the radial force that tends to push the tool away from the workpiece being
machined. Compare this figure with Fig. 20.11 for a two-dimensional cutting operation.
Page 22-5 Page 22-6

1
 Example
( Do + Df)
Given L := 6 N := 400 v := 8 Df := 0.48 Do := 0.5 Davg :=
2

Forces in turning and other terms Maximum cutting speed V := π⋅ Do⋅ N V = 628.319  in 
 min
 
Do − Df
Depth of cut d := d = 0.01
2
¾ Forces in cutting ¾ Example of material v  in 
ƒ Cutting force (Fc): acts removal rate and
Feed f :=
N
f = 0.02  rev
 
downward on the tooling tip
ƒ Thrust force (Ft): in the cutting force in Material Removal Rate MRR := π⋅ Davg ⋅ d ⋅ f ⋅ N MRR = 0.123
longitudinal direction Turning L
time to cut:
• Also called the feed force t :=
f⋅ N
t = 0.75
( min)
ƒ Radial force (Fr): radial ƒ A 6-in-long, ½-in- Power:
direction diameter 304 stainless The power required is found using table 20.2
• Pushes the tool away from the steel rod is being The table indicates that the specific energy is 3.0-5.2 W*s/mm^3
workpiece Using an average value from the table gives

¾ Roughing and finishing cuts reduced in diameter to Specific energy = 4 (W*s/mm^3) 4

ƒ Typically a roughing cut is 0.480 in by turning on Specific_energy :=

2.73 unit conversion to hp*min/in^3

performed at high feed rates and a lathe. The spindle Specific_energy = 1.465
large depths rotates at N=400 rpm,
ƒ A finishing cut follows at a and the tool is
lower feed rate and depth of cut Power := Specific_energy ⋅ MRR Power = 0.18 ( Hp) 1hp = 396,000 in-lb/min

for a good surface finish traveling at an axial

¾ Cutting fluids speed of 8 in/min. Power2 := Power⋅ 396000 Power2 = 7.145 × 10
4
( "in-lb/min" )

ƒ Often used to improve the Calculate the cutting Torque

operation speed, material Torque :=

Power2
N⋅ 2⋅ π
Torque = 28.431

ƒ If not used: dry machining removal rate, cutting

time, power dissipated Cutting force:
Fc :=
Torque
Fc = 116.044
and the cutting force.  Davg 
 2
 
Page 22-7 Page 22-8

Lathes and its

components Lathe specifications
¾ Bed
ƒ Supports all major components
¾ Carriage assembly ¾ Lathe is specified by its
ƒ Slides along the ways ƒ Swing (maximum diameter of the workpiece that can be machined)
ƒ Includes ƒ Maximum distance between the headstock and tailstock centers
• Cross-slide: moves radially in ƒ Length of the bed
and out, controlling the radial
position of the cutting tool. ¾ Types of lathes
• Tool post: mounts the cutting ƒ Bench lathes: placed on a workbench, low power, for precision machining
tool of small parts
• Apron: equipped with
mechanism for both manual and ƒ Special purpose lathes: used in making railroad wheels, gun barrels, and
mechanized movement of the rolling-mill rolls
carriage and cross-slide
ƒ Engine lathe: original type (powered with overhead pulleys and belts) –
¾ Headstock ƒ It is equipped with a center that today equipped with electrical motors.
ƒ Fixed to the bed may be fixed (dead center) or • Used for numerous types of operations
ƒ Equipped with pulleys, motors, free to rotate with the
V-belts that power the spindle workpiece (live center) ƒ Toolroom lathes: high precisions
at various rotational speeds ƒ Drills and reamers can be ƒ Gap bed lathes: a section of the headstock can be removed to accommodate
ƒ Have a hollow spindle to which mounted to the tailstock large diameter workpieces
workholding devices such as ¾ Feed Rod and Lead screw ¾ Spindle speeds:
chucks and collets are attached. ƒ Rotates during operation of the
¾ Tailstock lathe and provides movement to ƒ 2000 rpm (typical), 200 rpm (large lathes – rollers for steel mill), up to
the carriage and the cross-slide 40,000 rpm (special applications)
ƒ Can slide along the ways and be
clamped at any position,
supports the other end of the
workpiece.
Page 22-9 Page 22-10

Workholding Devices and Accessories

Workholding Devices and Accessories
¾ Collet: a longitudinally-
split tapered bushing
¾One end of the workpiece is clamped to the ƒ The workpiece is placed
spindle by a chuck, collet, face plate, or mandrel inside the collet
ƒ the collet is pulled into the
¾Chuck spindle mechanically
ƒ the tapered surfaces shrink
ƒ Equipped with 3 or 4 jaws the segments of the collet
• 3 jaws are self adjusting radially, tightening the
workpiece
• 4 jaws are used for square and other non-circular cross ƒ Used for round and other
sections, used for heavy workpiece shaped workpieces
ƒ Some jaws can be used to clamp the outside or the ¾ Face plates
inside of the workpiece ƒ Have several slots and
holes through which the
ƒ Jaws may be power or manually actuated workpiece is bolted or
clamped
ƒ Spindle speed may reduce the jaw force due to
centrifugal forces ¾ Mandrels
ƒ Placed inside hollow or (a) and (b) Schematic illustrations of a
ƒ Power chucks: actuated pneumatically or tubular workpieces and are draw-in type collet. The workpiece is
hydraulically. Used for automated equipment with used to hold workpieces placed in the collet hole, and the conical
that require machining on surfaces of the collet are forced inward
high production rates. both ends or on their by pulling it with a draw bar into the
cylindrical surfaces sleeve. (c) A push-out type collet. (d)
Page 22-11 Workholding of a part on a face plate. Page 22-12

2
 Mandrels Lathe Operations and Tools
¾ Form tools: used to produce various shapes
ƒ Tool moves radially inward
ƒ Rules
• Formed length should not be greater than 2.5 times the diameter of the
part
• Cutting speed should be reduced from regular turning settings
• Cutting fluids should be used
¾ Boring
ƒ Performed inside hollow workpieces or in a hole mad
previously by another process
Figure 22.7 Various types of mandrels to hold workpieces for turning. These mandrels are ¾ Drilling
usually mounted between centers on a lathe. Note that in (a), both the cylindrical and the end ƒ Drill bit is mounted in a drill chuck into the tailstock quill
faces of the workpiece can be machined, whereas in (b) and (c), only the cylindrical surfaces can
be machined. ƒ Improves concentricity of the hole
¾ Reaming
ƒ Similar to drilling but the drill bit is exchanged for a reamer.
Its purpose is to improve dimensional accuracy.
¾ Other operations and tools
ƒ Parting, grooving, thread cutting, knurling
Page 22-13 Page 22-14

Turret Lathe
Swiss-Type Automatic Screw Machine Figure 22.9 Schematic illustration of the
components of a turret lathe. Note the
two turrets: square and hexagonal (main).
Source: American Machinist and
¾ Designed for high Automated Manufacturing.
production rates Figure 22.11 (a) A turret with six different
tools for inside-diameter and outside-
diameter cutting and threading operations.
(b) A turret with eight different cutting
tools. Source: Monarch Machine Tool
Company.
(b)

¾ Can perform multiple

cutting operations on
the same workpiece
ƒ Turning, boring,
drilling, facing, thread
cutting
ƒ The hexagonal main
turret is rotated for each
specific cutting
Figure 22.8 Schematic illustration of a
Swiss-type automatic screw machine. operation
Source: George Gorton Machine Company.
Page 22-15 Page 22-16

Examples of Parts Made on CNC Turning

Computer Numerical Control Lathe
Machine Tools
¾ Typically includes a
variety of tools Figure 22.10 A computer numerical control lathe. Note the two turrets
¾ Highly automated on this machine. Source: Jones & Lamson, Textron, Inc.

¾ Performs repetitive
operations

Figure 22.12

Page 22-17 Page 22-18

3
 Examples of Machining Complex Shapes Design Considerations for Turning Operations
¾ Machining takes long time, ƒ Cutting tool should be able to
wastes material, is not as travel across the workpiece
economical as forming and without obstruction
shaping parts ƒ Commercially available cutting
ƒ Avoid machining when you can tools, inserts, and tool holders
¾ Design considerations should be used
ƒ Parts should be able to easily be ¾ Guidelines for turning
fixed to the workholding ƒ Minimize tool overhang
devices
ƒ Support workpiece rigidly
ƒ Dimensional accuracy should
be as wide as permissible ƒ Tools should have high stiffness
ƒ Sharp corners, tapers (manual), and damping capacity
and major dimensional ƒ When vibration occurs: modify
variations should be avoided one of the parameters
(minimize machine time and
material waste)
Figure 22.13
ƒ Blanks to be machined should
be as close to final dimension as
possible

Page 22-19 Page 22-20

Chip Collection Systems Cutting Screw Threads

¾Chips must be collected and disposed of properly ¾A ridge of uniform cross section following a
ƒ 1in3 of metal removed Æ 40 in3 – 800 in3 chip helical path on the inside or outside diameter
volume ¾Found on machine screws, bolts, and nuts
¾Chips are collected by ¾Produced by
ƒ Letting gravity drop them onto a conveyor belt ƒ Forming (thread rolling) – most common
ƒ Magnetic conveyors ƒ Cutting
ƒ Vacuum methods • Turning operations on round stock called threading or
thread cutting on the lathe
• Tapping: internal threads cut with a special tool (will show
later)
ƒ Casing (poor dimensional accuracy)

Page 22-21 Page 22-22

Screw Thread Nomenclature

Types of Screw Threads
¾ Standards
¾ Square:
ƒ Unified screw- ƒ lead screws, high axial loads
thread forms ¾ Acme:
• UNC: unified ƒ lead screws, high axial loads
coarse
• UNF: unified fine
¾ National buttress thread:
ƒ Plastic applications
ƒ ISO general • minimizes the radial forces
purpose screw- • Toothpaste cap
thread form ¾ National Pipe Thread
ƒ Tapered
ƒ The higher torque, the tighter
the seal

Figure 22.16 (a) Standard

nomenclature for screw
threads. (b) Unified
National thread and
identification of threads.
(c) ISO metric thread and Figure 22.17 Various types of screw threads.
identification of threads.

Page 22-23 Page 22-24

4
 Cutting Screw Threads Design Considerations for Screw-Thread Cutting

¾ Designs should allow for the termination of the threads

before they reach a shoulder. Internal threads in a blind
hole should have an unthreaded length at the bottom.
¾ Minimize shallow, blind tapped holes.
¾ Chamfers should be specified at the ends of threaded
sections to minimize finlike threads with burrs.
¾ Threaded sections should not be interrupted with slots,
holes, or other discontinuities.
¾ Standard threading tooling and inserts should be used as
much as possible
¾ Thin-walled parts should have sufficient thickness and
strength to resist clamping and cutting forces.
Figure 22.18 (a) Cutting screw threads on a lathe with a single-point cutting tool. (b) Cutting screw threads ¾ Minimum engagement length of a fastener should be 1.5
with a single-point tool in several passes, normally utilized for large threads. The small arrows in the figures times the diameter.
show the direction of feed, and the broken lines show the position of the cutting tool as time progresses. Note
that in radial cutting, the tool is fed directly into the workpiece. In flank cutting, the tool is fed into the piece ¾ Parts should be designed such that all cutting operations
along the right face of the thread. In incremental cutting, the tool is first fed directly into the piece at the center
of the thread, then at its sides, and finally into the root. (c) A typical carbide insert and toolholder for cutting
can be completed in one step.
screw threads. (d) Cutting internal screw threads with a carbide insert. (See also Figs. 21.2 and 21.3.)

Page 22-25 Page 22-26

Threading Die Boring and boring machines

¾Produces circular internal profiles in hollow
workpieces or on a hole made by another
process.
¾On small workpieces
ƒ Carried out on a lathe
¾Larger workpieces
ƒ Boring mills
Figure 22.19 (a) Straight chasers for cutting threads on a lathe. (b) Circular chasers. (c) A
solid threading die.

Page 22-27 Page 22-28

Boring Drilling and drills

Figure 22.20 (a) Schematic illustration of a steel boring bar with a carbide insert. Note the passageway
¾Holes are used either for assembly with fasteners
in the bar for cutting fluid application. (b) Schematic illustration of a boring bar with tungsten-alloy
“inertia disks” sealed in the bar to counteract vibration and chatter during boring. This system is
or to provide access to the inside of a part
effective for boring bar length-to-diameter ratios of up to 6. (c) Schematic illustration of the
components of a vertical boring mill. Source: Kennametal Inc. ¾Holemaking: common and important
manufacturing operation
ƒ Drilling
ƒ Punching
¾Drills can make deep holes since they have a
high length to diameter ratio
ƒ Problem with
• flexibility and breakage
• Chips must move in the direction opposite to the axial
movement

Page 22-29 Page 22-30

5
 Types of drills Drill Point Geometries
¾ Twist drills
ƒ Most common
ƒ Point angle, lip-relief angle (determines your feed rate), chisel angle (from chisel edge line to
cutting edge) , and helix angle
ƒ Typically two spiral grooves: flutes

Figure 22.23 (a) Standard chisel-point drill indicating various features. The function of the pair of margins is to
provide a bearing surface for the drill against walls of the hole as it penetrates into the workpiece; drills with
four margins (double-margin) are available for improved drill guidance and accuracy. Drills with chip-breaker
features are also available. (b) Crankshaft-point drill. (c) Various drill points and their manufacturers: 1. Four-
facet split point, by Komet of America. 2. SE point, by Hertel. 3. New point, by Mitsubishi Materials. 4. Hosoi
point, by OSG Tap and Die. 5. Helical point.
Figure 22.2 Various types of drills

Page 22-31 Page 22-32

General Recommendations for Drill Geometry Drilling and Reaming Operations

¾ Core drilling: makes and existing
TABLE 22.10 General Recommendations for Drill Geometry for High-Speed Twist Drills hole larger
Workpiece Point Lip-relief Chisel-edge Helix ¾ Step drilling: produces holes with
material angle angle angle angle Point two or more diameters
Aluminum alloys 90–118 12–15 125–135 24–48 Standard ¾ Counterboring and countersinking:
Magnesium alloys 70–118 12–15 120–135 30–45 Standard depressions on the surface to
Copper alloys 118 12–15 125–135 10–30 Standard accommodate heads of screws and
Steels 118 10–15 125–135 24–32 Standard bolts
High-strength steels 118–135 7–10 125–135 24–32 Crankshaft
Stainless steels, 118 10–12 125–135 24–32 Standard
¾ Center drills: used to produce a hole
low strength
at the end of a piece of stock so that
Stainless steels, 118–135 7–10 120–130 24–32 Crankshaft
it may be mounted between centers
high strength
in a lathe
High-temp. alloys 118–135 9–12 125–135 15–30 Crankshaft ¾ Spot drill: used to start hole Figure 22.24 Various types
Refractory alloys 118 7–10 125–135 24–32 Standard of drilling and reaming
Titanium alloys 118–135 7–10 125–135 15–32 Crankshaft operations.
Cast irons 118 8–12 125–135 24–32 Standard
Plastics 60–90 7 120–135 29 Standard

Page 22-33 Page 22-34

Trepanning Drilling Machines

(a)

Figure 22.26 (a) Trepanning tool. (b) Trepanning with a drill-mounted single cutter.

Figure 22.28 Schematic illustration of components of (a) a vertical drill press and (b) a radial drilling
machine.
Page 22-35 Page 22-36

6
 CNC Drilling Machine Reaming and Reamers
¾What is a reamer?
ƒ Multiple-cutting-edge tool with straight or helically
fluted edges that removes very little material
¾Used to making an existing hole dimensionally
more accurate
¾Improve the surface finish
¾Most accurate holes are produced using the
process:
Figure 22.29 A three-axis
computer numerical control
ƒ Centering
drilling machine. The turret
holds as much as eight different
ƒ Drilling
tools, such as drills, taps, and
reamers.
ƒ Boring and reaming
ƒ (followed by roll burnishing for even better surface
finish)

Page 22-37 Page 22-38

Reamers Tapping and Taps

Figure 22.30 (a)
Terminology for a helical ¾Internal threads in workpieces can be produced
reamer. (b) Inserted-blade
adjustable reamer.
by tapping
¾What is a tap?
ƒ A chip-producing threading tool with multiple cutting
teeth.
ƒ It has 2, 3, or 4 flutes
ƒ It is often tapered for through holes
¾Tapping can be performed
ƒ Manually
ƒ On drilling machines
ƒ On lathes
ƒ Automatic screw machines (Swiss machining)
ƒ CNC milling machines
Page 22-39 Page 22-40

Tapping and Taps

Figure 22.31 (a) Terminology for a tap. (b) Tapping of steel nuts in production.

Page 22-41