1 ABSTRACT`

The programmable logic controller represents a key factor in industrial Automation. Its use
permits flexible adaptation to varying processes as well as rapid fault finding and error
elimination. This report explains the design of a programmable logic controller and its
interaction with peripherals with the detail of programming function and programming language.
The major portion of the report deals with the practical of Relays, Programmable Logic
Controller, SCADA, HMI, Drives, Instrumentation, and Panel Designing.
Relay is an electromechanical switch which is used to isolate one electrical circuit from another.
It allows a low current control circuit to make or break an electrically isolated high current
circuit path. PLC is a multipurpose clock driven memory based electronic device which is also
known as specialized industrial computer which deals with different level of complexity and
control system. SCADA stands for supervisory control and data acquisition, a computer system
for gathering and analyzing real time data. SCADA systems are used to monitor and control a
plant or equipment in industries.

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 2. Introduction to SOFCON INDIA Pvt. Ltd.

SOFCON is professionally run by technocrats having decades of experience in training /

process / manufacturing industries. Our rich experience of over 02 decades in providing
automation solutions to Indian & overseas industries has made us a leading training Service
Provider. Our training program contains practical exposure of various Engineering Courses with
100% placement assistance.

DELHI

705, Pearls Omaxe, Netaji Subash Place

Delhi 110034

Landline:-01147506530
Email id: [email protected], [email protected]

Sofcon India Pvt. Ltd. – A nodal place for Industries corporate training needs
Sofcon has over 2 decades of industry experience; this positions us to meet all types of corporate
training needs. Be it PLC Training, SCADA Training, Motion controls, Drives systems,
Robotics, Embedded systems, AVR PIC ARM training, HVAC Training, Building Automation,
HVAC Design & Drafting, Hydraulics & Pneumatics training, Mat lab, VLSI, training for
technicians, Aptitude training for fresher’s/job seekers/college graduates.
Corporate clients
A few of our corporate clients include, Indraprastha Gas Ltd, NHPC, NTPC, Schenck Rotec,
Jaypee cement, Ultratech cement, JK Laxmi cement, Shree Cement, MaCains foods, Bajaj Auto,
SMC Pneumatics, Coca Cola, PepsiCo, GlaxoSmithKline, KS oils, Emersion Ltd., Case
Construction Ltd, Sergi India, EcocatPvt Ltd, PepsiCo, JHOC Yemen, Qatar Petroleum, NHPC,
Ingersoll Rand, Motherson Engineering Ltd, Drunkgreen Bhutan, Samsung, SubrosLtD, Gail
India Ltd, NHDC.

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They have PAN India Presence: Noida, Delhi, Gurgaon, Jaipur, Lucknow, Bhopal, Ahmadabad,
Baroda, Pune, Mohali, and Allahabad. We can customize /conduct training on diverse subjects as
per plant/maintenance/operational requirements at our training centers / your plants.

Branches
Noida, Delhi, Gurgaon, Lucknow, Allahabad, Jaipur, Mohali, Bhopal, Vadodara, Ahmedabad,
Pune

Courses Available
 Automation Training
 Embedded Training
 Building Automation
 Mechanical Training
 HVAC Design and Drafting
 VLSI Training
 MATLAB Training
 Autodesk Training Center
 Technician Course

Placements
100 % placement Assistance for Sofcon IAE (Industrial Automation Engineer), ESE (Embedded
Systems Engineer), IBMSE (Integrated Building Management systems Engineer), VLSIE (VLSI
Engineer) Training Program. They have teams of dedicated placement professionals throughout
India to systematically route our trained engineers to industries. They train them for soft-skills,
Interview preparation, communication skill, ethical values, stress management, which improves
selection rate and grows him/her into a successful professional.

Sofcon Group having projects/operations mainly throughout India, Asia, Middle East and many
other countries receives vacancies for trained manpower. They have placement tie up with many
process/manufacturing companies/Infrastructure segment/Industrial automation, embedded,
BMS service providers.

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Introduction of Training under taking

SOFCON is now affiliated and funded by NSDC. NSDC is first of its type Public Private
Partnership (PPP) in India. It has been set up by Ministry of Skill Development &
Entrepreneurship. It is a nonprofit company setup to provide Skill Development training for up
skilling India; it is managed by a team of experienced professionals for Decision Making. A
complete structure of Board, Sub Committee’s and executive councils are there within the
Group.
Sofcon is affiliated and funded by NSDC to provide Technical training with a mission to
provide 100000 placements to technical students till the year 2020, Sofcon provides technical
training in the field of Industrial Automation, Embedded System and Building
Automation which covers Electronics Skill Sector of India.

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 3. INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION

Industrial automation is the use of control systems, such as computers or robots, and
information technologies for handling different processes and machineries in an industry to
replace a human being. Automation has been achieved by various means including mechanical,
hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, electronic devices and computers, usually in combination.
Complicated systems, such as modern factories, airplanes and ships typically use all these
combined techniques

Or

Industrial automation is the process by which electrical machine and devices using
programmable electronic devices such as PLC, PAC, DCS, CNC, through the inputs from the
field and through the program built in it.

3.1 Advantages of Industrial Automation

 High Productivity
 High flexibility
 High Safety of labors
 Reduce Human Efforts
 Improved quality or increased predictability of quality.
 Increased consistency of output.
 Frees up workers to take on other roles.

3.2 Disadvantage of Industrial Automation

 Security Threats/Vulnerability: An automated system may have a limited level of
intelligence, and is therefore more susceptible to committing errors outside of its
immediate scope of knowledge
 Unpredictable/excessive development costs: The research and development cost of
automating a process may exceed the cost saved by the automation itself.
 High initial cost: The automation of a new product or plant typically requires a very large
initial investment in comparison with the unit cost of the product, although the cost of
automation may be spread among many products and over time.
 Some tasks are more expensive to automate

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 4. PLC

Fig. 4.1 Micrologix 1000

PLC stands for Programmable logic controller. It is basically an electronic Programmable device
which takes the input from the field and controls the output field through the program built in it.

It was originally developed to replace mechanical relays, Timers, Counters. Its purpose is to
monitor process, parameters and adjust operations accordingly. A sequence of instructions is
programmed by the user to PLC memory and when the program is executed, the controller
operates a system to the correct operating specifications.

The PLC is also designed to operate in the industrial environment with wide ranges of ambient
temperature, vibration, and humidity and is not usually affected by the electric noise that is
inherent in most industrial locations. Troubleshooting is simplified in most PLCs because they
include fault indicators, blown-fuse indicators, input and output status indicators, and written
fault information that can be displayed in the programmer. PCs often used for programming and
monitoring the PLC, However the PLC Manufacturer offers Hand-held programming channels
and dedicated programmers.

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4.1 PLC ARCHITECTURE

CPU

INPUT Control Processing Unit OUTPUT

MODULE MODULE

Programming Operator interface

devices

Fig.4.2 PLC Architecture

INPUT/OUTPUT MODULES

Input module senses the presence or absence of an input signal at each of its input terminals.
The input signal tells what switch, sensor or other signal is ON or OFF in the process being
controlled.

It converts the input signal for high or on to DC level usable by module’s electronic circuits. For
a low input signal is converted, indicating OFF.

The Output module operates the opposite manner from the input module.

Control processing unit is designed to perform arithmetic and logic operations. CPU is the
brains of every computer. The CPU used to processes the input and gives the output according to
the instruction given by the user. Microprocessor is a part of PLC CPU that receives, analyzes,
processes, and sends data. The data sent or received is in the form of digital pulse.

Programming devices the electronic equipment that configures programmable non-volatile

integrated circuits (called programmable devices) such as EPROMs, EEPROMs, MRAM, PALs,
FPGAs or programmable logic circuits.

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4.2 PLC SCAN CYLCE

PLC has 4 steps in scan cycle

1. Input scan Table

In the input scan table the plc scans the input table given from the user.

2. Program scan/ Execute

In this step the PLC scans the logic program and executes it but it doesn’t update the output.

3. Communication diagnostics

Communication diagnostics checks whether any program is downloading or not. If yes, then it
stops current running program. If not it continues current program.

4. Output update

In this step the output is updated accordingly to the logic program after all above steps are
executed.

Fig. 4.3 PLC scan cycle

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4.3 HARDWARE OVERVIEW

Fig. 4.4 Hardware overview

The Micrologix 1000 programmable controller is a packaged controller containing a power
supply, input circuits, output circuits, and a processor. The controller is available in 10 I/O,
16I/O, & 32 I/O configurations. The I/O pins is decided by 3:2 of the total pins.

The PLC features is described by his catalog no.

For e.g. 1761-L10BWA

1761 is the bulletin number.

L is base unit.

10 is the I/O count it may be 16 or 32 or 64 or so on.

I/O supply

1. A= 120 V ac
2. B= 24 V dc

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Output Switching Device

1. W= Relay
2. A= TRIAC
3. B= MOSFET
4. X= FET + Relay

4.4 Data files in Micrologix 1000

The data files contain the status information associated with I/O and all other with instructions
used in the program.

 Output (file 0) - This file stores the state of the output terminals for the controller. The
output file is addressed as O:0/0
 Input (file 1) - This file stores the status of the input terminals for the controller. The
input file is addressed as I:0/0
 Status (file 2) - This file stores controller operation information. This file is useful for
troubleshooting controller and program operation. The status file is addressed as S2:0/0
 Bit (file 3) - This file is used for internal relay logic storage. The bit file is addressed as
B3:0/0.
 Timer (file 4) - This file stores the timer accumulator and preset values and status bits.
The timer file is addressed as T4:0. There are 40 timers.
 Counter (file 5) - This file stores the counter accumulator and preset values and the
status bits. The counter file is addressed as C5:0
 Control (file 6) - This file stores the length, pointer position, and status bits for specific
instructions such as shift registers and sequencers.
 Integer (file 7) - This file is used to store numeric values or bit information.

4.5 Instructions in Micrologix 1000

Table 4.1

Instruction Mnemonic name Symbol

Output energized OTE

Output latch OTL

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Output unlatch OUT

Examine if closed XIC

Examine if open XIO

Timer on-delay TON

Timer off-delay TOF

Retentive timer RTO

Counter up CTU

Counter down CTD

Reset RES -(RES)-

One shot rise OSR -(OSR)-
One shot fall OSF -(OSF)-

4.6 Choosing criteria for a PLC

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 Application requirements.
 How many I/Os capacity is required?
 What type of I/Os are required?
 What size of memory is required?
 Electrical requirements.
 Speed of operation.
 Communication requirements.
 Which Software?
 Operator interface.

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4.7 Problem

Switch on all 3 motors with a start momentary push button and stop all 3 motor with same
momentary push button.

Sol.

Fig. 4.5 solution

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 5. SCADA

Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a control system architecture that uses
computers, networked data communications and graphical user interfaces for high-level process
supervisory management, but uses other peripheral devices such as programmable logic
controllers and discrete PID controllers to interface to the process plant or machinery. The
operator interfaces which enable monitoring and the issuing of process commands, such as
controller set point changes, are handled through the SCADA supervisory computer system.
However, the real-time control logic or controller calculations are performed by networked
modules which connect to the field sensors and actuators.

OR simply we say that, SCADA is software which is used for monitoring, control, and data
collection of real and historical time of whole plant. The data can be received in the form of
spreadsheet.

In our training module we are using INTOUCH software which is made by WONDERWARE
Company.

Fig. 5.1 SCADA

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5.1 COMPONENTS of SCADA

A SCADA system usually consists of the following main elements:

5.1.1 Supervisory computers

This is the core of the SCADA system, gathering data on the process and sending control
commands to the field connected devices. It refers to the computer and software responsible for
communicating with the field connection controllers, which are RTUs and PLCs, and includes
the HMI software running on operator workstations. In smaller SCADA systems, the supervisory
computer may be composed of a single PC, in which case the HMI is a part of this computer. In
larger SCADA systems, the master station may include several HMIs hosted on client
computers, multiple servers for data acquisition, distributed software applications, and disaster
recovery sites. To increase the integrity of the system the multiple servers will often be
configured in a dual-redundant or hot-standby formation providing continuous control and
monitoring in the event of a server malfunction or breakdown.

5.1.2 Remote terminal units

Remote terminal units, also known as (RTUs), connect to sensors and actuators in the process,
and are networked to the supervisory computer system. RTUs are "intelligent I/O" and often
have embedded control capabilities such as ladder logic in order to accomplish Boolean logic
operations.

5.1.3 Programmable logic controllers

Also known as PLCs, these are connected to sensors and actuators in the process, and are
networked to the supervisory system in the same way as RTUs. PLCs have more sophisticated
embedded control capabilities than RTUs, and are programmed in one or more IEC 61131-3
programming languages. PLCs are often used in place of RTUs as field devices because they are
more economical, versatile, flexible and configurable.

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5.1.4 Communication infrastructure

This connects the supervisory computer system to the remote terminal units (RTUs) and PLCs,
and may use industry standard or manufacturer proprietary protocols. Both RTUs and PLCs
operate autonomously on the near-real time control of the process, using the last command given
from the supervisory system. Failure of the communications network does not necessarily stop
the plant process controls, and on resumption of communications, the operator can continue with
monitoring and control. Some critical systems will have dual redundant data highways, often
cabled via diverse routes.

5.1.5 Human-machine interface

The human-machine interface (HMI) is the operator window of the supervisory system. It
presents plant information to the operating personnel graphically in the form of mimic diagrams,
which are a schematic representation of the plant being controlled, and alarm and event logging
pages. The HMI is linked to the SCADA supervisory computer to provide live data to drive the
mimic diagrams, alarm displays and trending graphs. In many installations the HMI is the
graphical user interface for the operator, collects all data from external devices, creates reports,
performs alarming, sends notifications, etc.

5.2 Properties of SCADA

 Movement
1. Horizontal movement
2. Vertical movement
 Object size
 Percent filling
1. Horizontal filling
2. Vertical filling
 Blinking
 Visibility
 Orientation
 Fill color

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5.3 Features of SCADA

 Alarm
 Trend
 Data connectivity with MS Excel sheet
 Recipe manager
 Security

5.4 Windows in SCADA

5.4.1 Window name

1. Window maker(development time)

2. Window viewer(Run-time)

5.4.2 Window type

1. Replace – only one window can run at Run time

2. Overlay – 10 windows can run at Run time
3. Pop-up – more than 10 windows can run at Run time.

5.5 TAG

Tag database is the record of data which is used to make link between two or more objects.

Types of TAG

1. Digital TAG – stores simple on/off information.

2. Analog TAG – stores numerical values.
3. String TAG – stores alphanumerical values.

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5.6 Advantage of SCADA

There are a number of advantages to having a SCADA system installed such as:

 Ability to significantly reduce operating costs, while improving system performance and
reliability
 Costly after-hours alarm call-outs can often be avoided since a SCADA system will
indicate the nature and degree of a problem
 Since data is continuously recorded, operators do not have to manually read and record
meter readings on a daily basis.
 Operators do not have to keep track of hundreds of log sheets as any data recorded on the
SCADA system can be downloaded and accessed at their convenience.
 SCADA systems can often be accessed remotely through an internet connect on your
office computer or laptop, and even your cell phone or tablet.

5.7 Disadvantage of SCADA

 High initial cost

 Unemployment
 Chance of hacking
 Skilled operator required.

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5.8 SCADA DEVEPLOMENT WINDOW

Fig. 5.2 Development window

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5.9 SCADA RUNTIME WINDOW

Fig. 5.3 Runtime window

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 6 HMI (Human Machine Interface)

(Human Machine Interface) The user interface in a

manufacturing or process control system. It provides a
graphics-based visualization of an industrial control
and monitoring system. Previously called an "MMI"
(man machine interface), an HMI typically resides in
an office-based Windows computer that
communicates with a specialized computer in the
Fig 6.1 HMI
plant such as a programmable automation controller
(PAC), programmable logic controller (PLC) or distributed control system (DCS). Contrast with
OI. See PAC, PLC, DCS, GUI and user interface.

A HMI is basically an electronic device that consists of graphical objects for both controlling &
monitoring purpose.

6.1 Steps to configure HMI to PLC

Step1. Connect PLC and PC using PM-02 cable.

Step2. Configure the PLC driver with Pc.

Fig 6.2 PM-02 cable
Step3. Make program for PLC with the recommended software of the PLC.

Step4. Download it to the plc.

Step5. Disconnect PM-02 cable from PLC and connect to the PV 300 micro.

Step6. Open the Panel builder software.

Step7. Create a new application.

Step8. Make the screens according to your PLC program.

Step9. Down load the application into the HMI. (Don’t disconnect the cable while downloading.)

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Step10. Disconnect the HMI with PC by PM-02 cable.

Step11. Connect the HMI and PLC by using the HM-02 cable.

Step12. Run your PLC outputs by HMI function keys.

Fig 6.3 HM-02 cable
Note. While making your PLC program use binary bits instead
of input bits.

6.2 Panel builder 32

Fig. 6.4 panel builder 32

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7 Panel types
7.1 Power control centre

Power Control Centre is used for distribution and control of

various power source used in industry. Normally Power
Control Centers is installed near power source hence fault
level is high. It is designed to suit fault level of 50KA or 65
KA for 1 sec. Bus bar system in Power Control Centers are
designed to suit the fault level as well as temperature rise to
40°c above ambient. Ample space is provided for cable
termination. Various protections via short circuit, overload, Fig. 7.1
earth fault, under voltage etc are provided to protect source and equipment. In Power control
centre, we have

 Incomers(RYB & N)
 Main Circuit Breaker(ACB,VCB,MCCB,ELCB)
 Out comer Bus bar
 Current Transformer
 Core wires and energy meters

7.2 Motor control center (MCC)

A motor control center (MCC) is an assembly of one or more enclosed sections having a
common power bus and principally containing motor control units. Motor control centers are in
modern practice a factory assembly of several motor starters. It consists of

 Incomer (RYB&N)
 MCCB
 MCBs TPN Type(Triple Pole Network)
 Contactor
 Control Relays
 Terminal Blocks.

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  Control Terminal Blocks
 Power Terminal Blocks
 Variable frequency drive (VFD)
 Soft starter
 Line choke
 Motor protection circuit breaker (MPCB)

7.3 PLC Control Panel

PLC stands for Programmable logic controller. It is basically an electronic programmable device
which takes input from field and control field output through programs build in it. PLC control
panel consists of

 2-phase step down transformer (440 to 220)

 Switch mode power supply (SMPS)
 MCBs
 Fuse unit
 Terminal block
 Noise filter
 Ethernet switch or communication module
 Communication cable
 Control relays

7.4 Local Control Station

It is basically a station on the control panel meant for local operator. This panel consists of
following components

 Alarm annunciator
 Local switch and push button for local operator
 Meters (flow meter, temperature meter, pressure meter, level indicator)
 Hootor and mimic

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  Control relay

7.5 Instrumentation Control Panel

It has got interlocking of relay logic for different kinds of environment condition. It has got
meters for different section of plants. It has got signal repeaters, signal conditioner, interlock for
emergency.

7.6 LT and HT panel

LT (Low Tension) Panel is an electrical distribution board that receives power from generator or
transformer and distributes the same to various electronic devices and distribution boards. Such
panels are used in industries both for internal and external use and, therefore, they are quite
rugged to withstand different climatic conditions. Our LT panels are designed to work with low
electricity consumption that makes them cost effective. It has 3-phase to 3-phase transformer for
conversion of high voltage into 440V. It has CT for measurement of whole plant current rating. It
has energy meter and bus bars.

HT (High Tension) Panel is like LT Panel except that it is used for high tension cables. It has
33KVA incomer and 11-11KVA outgoer. It has got electrical power control section.

7.7 Starter Panel

Starter panel has control of power to be given to different section of industry. It has got

 Power startup
 Power shutdown
 Emergency switch for each section of plant

7.8 Power Factor Improvement Panel

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These panels are used in commercial buildings and industries where there is fluctuation in
voltage and power supply. The electrical load required by a unit depends upon the type of
machineries, cooling plants and other devices installed. There is always a possibility of damage
of these equipments if power fluctuates. In case of fixed loads they can be safeguarded using
capacitors, but in case of varied loads, a mechanism to switch in and switch out the capacitors is
required which is basically handled using these panels. This section comprises of capacitor bank
meter analysis for improvement in current & voltage along with battery bank.

7.9 Hydro pneumatic Panel

This panel consists of

 Compressor
 Piston
 Vacuum tight pipes
 Valves
 Hand handle valve
 Butterfly valve
 Solenoid valve
 Non-returning valve
 Direction control valve
 Control relays
 Pressure meters

7.10 Junction Boxes

Junction boxes have terminal for gathering the signal. It has signal duplicators, repeaters, MCBs,
fuse unit & cable alleys.

7.11 Server Rack Panel

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We have Ethernet switch, Hub, router, Along with it has signal conditioner and signal analysis
for we can strong signal in different area.

7.12 Fire Alarm Control Panel (FACP)

A Fire Alarm Control Panel (FACP), or Fire Alarm Control Unit (FACU), is the controlling
component of a Fire Alarm System. The panel receives information from environmental sensors
designed to detect changes associated with fire, monitors their operational integrity and provides
for automatic control of equipment, and transmission of information necessary to prepare the
facility for fire based on a predetermined sequence. The panel may also supply electrical energy
to operate any associated sensor, control, transmitter, or relay. There are four basic types of
panels: coded panels, conventional panels, addressable panels, and multiplex systems.

7.12.1 Types of Fire

1. Electric arc fire

2. Fire due to ingnitious lubricants/gases.
3. Fire due to flammable solids.
4. Fire due to friction
5. Fire due to chemical reaction.
6. Fire due to natural disaster.

Fig 7.2 growth of fire

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 8 Mountings

Mounting is the way of placing a component inside a panel or outside the panel in some specific
location along with its design consideration for proper utilization of space & its protection &
adaptability.

Types

1. DIN rail mount - A DIN rail is a metal rail of a standard type widely used for mounting
PLCs and industrial control equipment inside equipment racks.
2. Wall mount – it is a simple mounting where the equipment is mounted on the wall.
3. Flange mount – A flange is an external or internal ridge, or rim (lip), for strength, as the
flange of an iron beam such as an I-beam or a T-beam; or for attachment to another
object, as the flange on the end of a pipe, steam cylinder, etc., or on the lens mount of a
camera; or for a flange of a rail car or tram wheel.
4. Rack mount - The term rack mount is used to describe electronic equipment and devices
designed to fit industry-standard-sized computer racks and cabinets (19" wide). Rack
mount devices are also standard 1.75 inch units.

9 Panel Protection

1. Electrical protection
2. Mechanical protection(ingress protection)

9.1 Electrical protection

1. Short circuit protection

2. Overload protection
3. Earthing

9.1.1 Short circuit protection

1. Fuse – A safety device consisting of a strip of wire that melts and breaks an electric
circuit if the current exceeds a safe level.

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2. M.C.B. – An MCB or miniature circuit breaker is an electromagnetic device that
embodies complete enclosure in a molded insulating material. The main function of an
MCB is to switch the circuit, i.e., to open the circuit (which has been connected to it)
automatically when the current passing through it (MCB) exceeds the value for which it
is set. It can be manually switched ON and OFF as similar to normal switch if necessary.
3. M.C.C.B. – A molded case circuit breaker, abbreviated MCCB, is a type of electrical
protection device that can be used for a wide range of voltages, and frequencies of both
50 Hz and 60 Hz. The main distinctions between molded-case and miniature circuit
breaker are that the MCCB can have current ratings of up to 2,500 amperes, and its trip
settings are normally adjustable. An additional difference is that MCCBs tend to be much
larger than MCBs.
4. A.C.B. – Air Circuit Breaker is a device used to provide over current and Short Circuit
Protection for circuits ranging from 800 Amps to 10000 Amps.
5. V.C.B. – In vacuum circuit breakers, vacuum is used as the arc quenching medium.
Vacuum offers the highest insulating strength. So it has far superior arc quenching
properties than any other medium.
6. O.L.C.B. – Oil circuit breaker is such type of circuit breaker which used oil as a dielectric
or insulating medium for arc extinction. In oil circuit breaker the contacts of the breaker
are made to separate within an insulating oil. When the fault occurs in the system the
contacts of the circuit breaker are open under the insulating oil, and an arc is developed
between them and the heat of the arc is evaporated in the surrounding oil.
7. E.L.C.B. – An Earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used in electrical
installations with high Earth impedance to prevent shock. It detects small stray voltages
on the metal enclosures of electrical equipment, and interrupts the circuit if a dangerous
voltage is detected.
8. R.C.C.B – RCCB means Residual Current Circuit Breaker -- A residual. Current device
(RCD) or residual current. Circuit breaker (RCCB), is an electrical wiring device that.
Disconnects a circuit whenever it detects that the electric. Current is not balanced
between the phase ("hot") conductors.
9. SF6 C.B. – The sulphur hexafluoride gas (SF6) is an electronegative gas and has a strong
tendency to absorb free electrons. The contacts of the breaker are opened in a high

29
 pressure flow of sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) gas and an arc is struck between them. The
gas captures the conducting free electrons in the arc to form relatively immobile negative
ions. This loss of conducting electrons in the arc quickly builds up enough insulation
strength to extinguish the arc.

9.1.2 Overload protection

1. Overload thermal relay – Thermal Overload is widely used for Motor Protection.
Basically Thermal Overload Relay is an over current protection of the simplest type. The
working principle of Thermal Overload Relay is quite simple but interesting. Figure
below shows a typical Thermal Overload Relay. An adjustment dial located on the unit
allows the ampere trip setting. A manual test button is provided to test the operation of
the overload relay control contacts
2. M.P.C.B. – Motor protection circuit breakers are a specialized type of electrical
protection device that is designed specifically for electric motors, like their name implies.
Electric motors have plenty of applications and are used to drive mechanical devices of
all types, so it is very important to protect them adequately with MPCBs.
3. R.C.C.B.O. – RCBOs are commonly used in applications where there is the need to
combine protection against over currents (overload and short-circuit) and protection
against earth leakage currents. RCBOs help in sensing this kind of faults and trip the
circuit ensuring complete protection of the people and connected equipments.

9.1.3 Earthing

1. Power earthing – The power earthing is used protect human

2. Instrument earthing – This earthing is used to protect the instrument against leakage

9.2 Mechanical protection (ingress protection)

The IP Code, International Protection Marking, IEC standard 60529, sometimes interpreted as
Ingress Protection Marking, classifies and rates the degree of protection provided against
intrusion (body parts such as hands and fingers), dust, accidental contact, and water by
mechanical casings and electrical enclosures. It is published by the International Electro
technical Commission (IEC).

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For e.g. IP 32CH

First numerical digit - protection from solid foreign object

Table 9.1.

0 No protection
1 > 50mm
2 >25mm
3 >12.5mm
4 Tools
5 Pin protection
6 Dust tight
7 Air tight

Second numerical digit – protection from foreign liquids

Table 9.2

0 Not protected
1 Vertically falling water
2 15˚ slant falling water
3 Above 15˚ slant falling water
4 Water splash
5 Water jet
6 Strong water jet
7 Temporarily emerged in water
8 Permanently emerged in water

First alphabet character – shows the access method of the panel

It has4 standards

1st- it can’t be using hand.

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2nd-it can’t be used by fingers.

3rd-it can’t be used by tools.

4th- it can’t be used by wires.

Second alphabet character – shows the electrical or mechanical noise safety.

1st- charges will accumulate on the external surface not internal.

2nd- it is totally painted with RAL paint.

3rd- Electromagnet protection by acrylic sheet or gasket.

10 Variable frequency drive

A variable-frequency drive (VFD; also termed adjustable-frequency drive, variable speed drive,
AC drive, micro drive or inverter drive) is a type of adjustable-speed
drive used in electro-mechanical drive systems to control AC motor
speed and torque by varying motor input frequency and voltage.

VFDs are used in applications ranging from small appliances to the

largest of mine mill drives and compressors. About 25% of the world's
electrical energy is consumed by electric motors in industrial
applications, which are especially conducive for energy savings using
Fig 10.1 VFD
VFDs in centrifugal load service; however, VFDs' global market
penetration for all applications is still relatively small. That lack of
penetration highlights significant energy efficiency improvement opportunities for retrofitted and
new VFD installations.

Over the last four decades, power electronics technology has reduced VFD cost and size and has
improved performance through advances in semiconductor switching devices, drive topologies,
simulation and control techniques, and control hardware and software.

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 Fig 10.2 power conversion

10.1 Drive operation

Referring to the accompanying chart, drive applications can be

categorized as single-quadrant, two-quadrant, or four-quadrant;
the chart's four quadrants are defined as follows:

Quadrant I - Driving or motoring, forward accelerating quadrant

with positive speed and torque

Quadrant II - Generating or braking, forward braking-

Fig. 10.3 Multi quadrant operation
decelerating quadrant with positive speed and negative torque

Quadrant III - Driving or motoring, reverse accelerating quadrant with negative speed and torque

Quadrant IV - Generating or braking, reverse braking-decelerating quadrant with negative speed

and positive torque.

10.2 Selection criteria of VFD

 Harmonics- All VFDs generate harmonics. Care should be taken to select a VFD which
has built-in harmonic filters. These filters are commonly known as”DC Link Chokes”.
They reduce the harmonics generated by the VFD to acceptable standards.
 Peak voltages generated by VFDs- A VFD subjects the motor to a higher peak voltage
than when it is operating on mains. Therefore the design peak voltage of a motor has to
be taken into account. For example, we come across 650V grade motors in some
countries which have an input voltage of 380-440V. A motor like that has a design peak
voltage of 1100 Volts. The VFD selected should not generate higher voltages than that,
with full length cable between the VFD and motor.
 Standard motor capability- Some VFD manufacturers recommend inverter duty grade
motors. These motors are expensive and need to be specially ordered. Instead ask for a
VFD which accepts standard motors. These VFDs do not cause additional heating in the
motor, provide a full output voltage that is nearly sinusoidal and have lower peak
voltages.
 Auto–manual operation- Look for a VFD which supports auto and manual operation.
This way you can be sure that if the control system or sensors / transmitters connected to

33
 the VFD malfunction, you still have the possibility to control the VFD in manual mode
and continue the operation of the plant.
 Motor cable length- It is normal practice to install VFDs in a control room. As a result
the distance between the VFDs and the motors they control can be quite long. It such a
case it is essential that the VFDs support long cable lengths. Look for a VFD which
allows for a motor cable length of at least 100 meter.
 Cascade control- When operating multiple compressor packs, it is advisable to speed
control one compressor and cascade the other compressors as per the load requirement.
Look for a VFD with a cascade controller for compressor applications that supports this
type of operation. This will be very economical and improve the system reliability at the
same time, as you need to install only one VFD per compressor pack with an on-board
cascade controller that eliminates the need for external controllers.
 Refrigerant charts- Look for VFDs that have built-in refrigerant pressure – temperature
charts. This allows operators to easily program temperature set points in deg C or deg F
in the VFD after selecting the refrigerant that is used in the system. This simplifies the
commissioning process and minimizes human errors.
 PID control- VFDs should have built-in PID controllers to control the speed in such a
way that the set point for temperature or pressure is accurately maintained.
 Sleep mode operation- Sometimes condenser fans are naturally efficient. If ambient
temperatures are low (night time & winter) the load is low. During such conditions there
is no need for the fan to run. The VFD should be able to detect such conditions and
automatically switch off to save energy and reduce wear and tear.
 Programmable minimum and maximum speeds- The VFD should allow setting of
minimum and maximum speeds. In screw compressor applications for example, it may be
necessary to program a minimum speed of 50% if the compressor does not allow lower
speeds.
 Overload capacity- VFDs for reciprocating compressors should have at least 160% over
load capacity, whereas VFDs for screw compressors should have at least 110% overload
capacity. These VFDs should be of constant torque type. VFDs for condenser and
evaporator fans should have at least 110% overload capacity and have to be of variable
torque type.
 IP protection rating- If VFDs are to be installed outside, these VFDs should have at
least IP 66 protection and should be able to operate in temperatures up to 45-50 deg C.
VFDs with IP 54 protection shall be preferred for other applications, as these can be
installed without the need of an additional enclosure and are generally resistant to dust
and moisture – which are common issues in most refrigeration plants.
 Display of parameters- Select a VFD which is able to display information in English or
in your local language. This saves your operators from the trouble of referring to
manuals, each time a message is displayed on the VFD.

34
  Meters- Look for a VFD which can display the most essential variables like kW, kWh,
running hours, voltage, amperes and most importantly the parameters that are being
monitored by the VFD like temperature or pressure. This information is vital to your
installation and when connected to a computer, can provide log details of the data being
monitored.
 Energy optimization- VFDs for evaporator and condenser fans should have an energy
optimization function. With such a function, you typically get an additional 5-10%
energy savings.
 Real time clock- Always look for a VFD with the possibility of a built-in real-time clock.
This enables you to program your on/off times, defrost schedules, maintenance schedules,
night set back times etc.

10.3 Types of parameters in VFD

1. Basic group parameter- P031 to P043

2. Display parameter- D001 to D024
3. Terminal parameter
4. Fault parameter- F(only shown when fault occur)
5. Communication parameter – A103 to A107, D015
6. Advance group parameter – A051 to A111

10.4 Advantages of VFD

 The drives are available in a wide range of torque, speed and power.
 They are adaptable to almost any operating conditions such as explosive and radioactive
environment, submerged in liquids, vertical mounting and so on.
 The drive does not pollute the environment.
 It can operate in all four quadrants of speed torque plane.
 They can be started instantly and can immediately be fully loaded. i.e., there is no need to
refuel or warm up the motor.
 They have flexible control characteristic and can be employed to automatically control
the drive.
 They have high efficiency and considerably low no load losses and having a short time
overloading capacity.
 Drives save energy.

10.5 Disadvantages of VFD

35
  The application of the drive is limited because it cannot use in a place where the power
supply is not available.
 The initial cost of the system is high.
 It has a poor dynamic response.
 The output power obtained from the drive is low.
 During the breakdown of conductors or short circuit, the system may get damaged due to
which several problems occur.

11 Instruments used in industries

11.1 Temperature measurement

RTD

A Resistance Thermometer or Resistance Temperature Detector is a

device which used to determine the temperature by measuring the
resistance of pure electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a temperature
sensor. If we want to measure temperature with high accuracy, RTD is the
only one solution in industries. It has good linear characteristics over a Fig. 11.1 RTD
wide range of temperature.

Thermocouple

A thermocouple is an electrical device consisting of two dissimilar conductors forming electrical

junctions at differing temperatures. A thermocouple produces a temperature-dependent voltage
as a result of the thermoelectric effect, and this voltage can be interpreted to
measure temperature. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature
sensor.

Thermistor
Fig. 11.2 Thermocouple

A thermistor is a type of negative coefficient resistor whose resistance is

dependent on temperature, more so than in standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of
thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiter, temperature sensors
(Negative Temperature Coefficient or NTC type typically), self-resetting over current
protectors, and self-regulating heating elements (Positive Temperature Coefficient or
PTC type typically). Fig. 11.3 NTC
thermistor

36
Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) in that the material used in a
thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs
use pure metals. The temperature response is also different;
RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while
Thermistors typically achieve a greater precision within a
limited temperature range, typically −90 °C to 130 °C.

11.2 Pressure measurement

Diaphragm

A second type of aneroid gauge uses deflection of a flexible

membrane that separates regions of different pressure. The amount
of deflection is repeatable for known pressures so the pressure can
be determined by using calibration. The deformation of a thin
diaphragm is dependent on the difference in pressure between its
Fig. 11.4 Diaphragm
two faces. The reference face can be open to atmosphere to measure
gauge pressure, open to a second port to measure differential
pressure, or can be sealed against a vacuum or other fixed reference pressure to measure absolute
pressure. The deformation can be measured using mechanical, optical or capacitive techniques.
Ceramic and metallic diaphragms are used.

Bourdon

The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a flattened tube tends to straighten or regain
its circular form in cross-section when pressurized. Although this
change in cross-section may be hardly noticeable, and thus involving
moderate stresses within the elastic range of easily workable
materials, the strain of the material of the tube is magnified by
forming the tube into a C shape or even a helix, such that the entire
Fig. 11.5 Bourdon
tube tends to straighten out or uncoil, elastically, as it is pressurized.

Strain gauge

37

Fig. 11.6 strain gauge

Resistance Strain Gauges can be used as a secondary element in pressure measurement. They can
be joined together with bellows and diaphragms to effectively
measure pressure. A strain gauge is a device used to measure strain
on an object. The most common type of strain gauge consists of an
insulating flexible backing which supports a metallic foil pattern.
The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable adhesive, such as
cyanoacrylate. As the object is deformed, the foil is deformed,
causing its electrical resistance to change. This resistance change,
usually measured using a Wheatstone bridge, is related to the strain by the quantity known as the
gauge factor.

Capacitive pressure transducer

A capacitive transducer has a static plate and a deflected flexible diaphragm with a dielectric in
between. When a force is exerted to the outer side of the diaphragm the distance between the
diaphragm and the static plate changes. This produces a capacitance which is measured using an
alternating current bridge or a tank circuit. A capacitance
pressure transducer is based on the fact that dielectric constants
Fig. 11.7 Capacitive pressure transducer
of liquids, solids and gases change under pressure. The figure
below shows an arrangement of a cylindrical capacitor that can
withstand large pressure. As the change in dielectric constant is
quite small (only about ½ percent change for a pressure change
of about 10 M Pa), it is usable only at large change in pressure.
Besides, the capacitance-pressure relation is non-linear and is
affected by temperature variation.

Piezoelectric pressure transducer

The main principle of a piezoelectric transducer is that a force, when applied on the quartz
crystal, produces electric charges on the crystal surface. The charge thus produced can be called

Fig.11.7 piezo electric transducer

38
as piezoelectricity. Piezoelectricity can be defined as the electrical polarization produced by
mechanical strain on certain class of crystals. The rate of charge produced will be proportional to
the rate of change of force applied as input. As the charge produced is very small, a charge
amplifier is needed so as to produce an output voltage big enough to be measured. The device is
also known to be mechanically stiff.

Piston type pressure transducer

The input pressure is given to the piston. This moves the piston accordingly and causes the
spring to be compressed. The piston position will be directly proportional to the amount of input
pressure exerted. A meter is placed outside the piston and spring arrangement, which indicates
the amount of pressure exerted. As the device has the ability to withstand shock, sudden pressure
changes, and vibrations, it is commonly used in hydraulic applications. Mostly, the output of the
piston and spring arrangement is given to a secondary device to convert
Fig. 11.8 piston type pressure
movement into an electrical signal.
transducer

11.3 Proximity sensors

Inductive proximity sensor

An inductive proximity sensor is a type of non-contact electronic

proximity sensor that is used to detect the position of metal objects. The
sensing range of an inductive switch is dependent on the type of metal being detected. Ferrous
metals, such as iron and steel, allow for a longer sensing range, while nonferrous metals, such as
aluminum and copper, can reduce the sensing range by up to 60 percent. The sensor consists of
an induction loop. Electric current generates a magnetic field, which
Fig. 11.9 inductive proximity
collapses generating a current that falls toward zero from its initial Trans sensor

when the input electricity ceases. The inductance of the loop changes
according to the material inside it and since metals are much more effective
inductors than other materials the presence of metal increases the current
flowing through the loop. This change can be detected by sensing circuitry,
which can signal to some other device whenever metal is detected.

Capacitive sensors

39
Capacitive sensors are constructed from many different media, such as copper, Indium tin oxide
(ITO) and printed ink. Copper capacitive sensors can be implemented on standard FR4 PCBs as
well as on flexible material. ITO allows the capacitive sensor to be up to 90% transparent (for
one layer solutions, such as touch phone screens). Size and spacing of the capacitive sensor are
both very important to the sensor's performance. In addition to the size of the sensor, and its
spacing relative to the ground plane, the type of ground plane used is very important. Since the
parasitic capacitance of the sensor is related to the electric field's (e-field) path to ground, it is
important to choose a ground plane that limits the concentration of e-field lines with no
Fig. 11.10 capacitive sensor
conductive object present.

Magnetic proximity sensors

Magnetic field sensors and movement sensors inside the ordnance

detect changes to the terrestrial magnetic field of the ordnance caused
by another ferromagnetic object. A signal processor inside the ordnance
receives the signals from the magnetic field sensors and movement
sensors and activates the detonator which will then detonate the
explosives within the ordnance.
Fig. 11.11 Magnetic proximity sensor

Photoelectric proximity sensors

A photoelectric sensor, or photo eye, is equipment used to discover the distance, absence, or
presence of an object by using a light transmitter, often infrared,
and a photoelectric receiver. They are largely used in industrial
manufacturing. There are three different useful types: opposed
(through beam), retro-reflective, and proximity-sensing
(diffused).

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 Fig. 11.12 photoelectric proximity sensor

Difference between Modes

Table 11.1

Name Advantages Disadvantages

 Must install at two points on system:

 Most accurate
Through- emitter and receiver
 Longest sensing range
Beam  Costly - must purchase both emitter and
 Very reliable
receiver
 Only slightly less accurate than
 Must install at two points on system:
through-beam
sensor and reflector
Reflective  Sensing range better than
 Slightly more costly than diffuse
diffuse
 Sensing range less than through-beam
 Very reliable
 Only install at one point  Less accurate than through- beam or
Diffuse  Cost less than through-beam or reflective
reflective  More setup time involved

11.4 PH measurement

PH measurement is used in a wide variety of applications: agriculture, wastewater treatment,

industrial processes, environmental monitoring, and in research and development. PH is a
measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The pH value states the relative quantity of
hydrogen ions (H+) contained in a solution. The greater the concentration of H+ the more acidic
the solution and the lower the PH. In this relationship, pH is defined as the negative logarithm of
hydrogen activity. A standard pH measuring system consists of three elements: 1) pH electrode;
2) temperature compensation element and 3) pH meter or controller.

41
 Fig. 11.13 PH scale

Definition of pH

The pH value of a solution is the negative log of its hydrogen ion activity (α), which is the
product of hydrogen ion concentration [H+] and the activity coefficient of hydrogen (GH+) at
that concentration.

11.5 Conductivity measurement

Electrical Conductivity is the ability of a solution to transfer (conduct) electric current. It is the
reciprocal of electrical resistivity (ohms). Therefore conductivity is used to measure the
concentration of dissolved solids which have been ionized in a polar solution such as water. The
unit of measurement commonly used is one millionth of a Siemens per centimeter (micro-
Siemens per centimeter or µS/cm). When measuring more concentrated solutions, the units are
expressed as milli-Siemens/cm (mS/cm) i.e. - 10-3 S-cm (thousandths of a Siemens). For ease of
expression, 1000 µS/cm are equal to 1 mS/cm. Often times conductivity is simply expressed as
either micro or milli Siemens. However this unit of measurement is sometimes (incorrectly)
referred to as micro-mho's rather than micro-Siemens. The expression "mho" was simply the
word ohm spelled backwards.

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