Physical Layer in OSI Model:

The physical Layer is the bottom-most layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model which
is a physical and electrical representation of the system. It consists of various network components
such as power plugs, connectors, receivers, cable types, etc. The physical layer sends data bits from
one device(s) (like a computer) to another device(s). The physical Layer defines the types of
encoding (that is how the 0’s and 1’s are encoded in a signal). The physical Layer is responsible for
the communication of the unstructured raw data streams over a physical medium.

Functions Performed by Physical Layer

The following are some important and basic functions that are performed by the Physical Layer of
the OSI Model –

1. The physical layer maintains the data rate (how many bits a sender can send per second).

2. It performs the Synchronization of bits.

3. It helps in Transmission Medium decisions (direction of data transfer).

4. It helps in Physical Topology (Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring) decisions (Topology through which we
can connect the devices with each other).

5. It helps in providing Physical Medium and Interface decisions.

 6. It provides two types of configuration Point Point configuration and Multi-Point
configuration.

7. It provides an interface between devices (like PCs or computers) and transmission medium.

8. It has a protocol data unit in bits.

9. Hubs, Ethernet, etc. device is used in this layer.

10. This layer comes under the category of Hardware Layers (since the hardware layer is
responsible for all the physical connection establishment and processing too).

11. It provides an important aspect called Modulation, which is the process of converting the
data into radio waves by adding the information to an electrical or optical nerve signal.

12. It also provides a Switching mechanism wherein data packets can be forwarded from one
port (sender port) to the leading destination port.

Physical Topologies

Physical Topology or Network Topology is the Geographical Representation of Linking devices.

Following are the four types of physical topology-

1. Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, each and every device should have a dedicated point-
to-point connection with each and every other device in the network. Here there is more
security of data because there is a dedicated point-to-point connection between two
devices. Mesh Topology is difficult to install because it is more complex.

2. Star Topology: In star topology, the device should have a dedicated point-to-point
connection with a central controller or hub. Star Topology is easy to install and reconnect as
compared to Mesh Topology. Star Topology doesn’t have Fault Tolerance Technique.

3. Bus Topology: In a bus topology, multiple devices are connected through a single cable that
is known as backbone cable with the help of tap and drop lines. It is less costly as compared
to Mesh Topology and Star Topology. Re-connection and Re-installation are difficult.

4. Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device is connected with repeaters in a circle-like
ring that’s why it is called Ring Topology. In Ring Topology, a device can send the data only
when it has a token, without a token no device can send the data, and a token is placed by
Monitor in Ring Topology.

Line Configuration

 Point-to-Point configuration: In Point-to-Point configuration, there is a line (link) that is fully

dedicated to carrying the data between two devices.

 Multi-Point configuration: In a Multi-Point configuration, there is a line (link) through which

multiple devices are connected.

Modes of Transmission Medium

1. Simplex mode: In this mode, out of two devices, only one device can transmit the data, and
the other device can only receive the data. Example- Input from keyboards, monitors, TV
broadcasting, Radio broadcasting, etc.
 2. Half Duplex mode: In this mode, out of two devices, both devices can send and receive the
data but only one at a time not simultaneously. Examples- Walkie-Talkie, Railway Track, etc.

3. Full-Duplex mode: In this mode, both devices can send and receive the data simultaneously.
Examples- Telephone Systems, Chatting applications, etc.

The Physical Layer is the lowest layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, which is a
conceptual framework used to understand and standardize the functions of a telecommunication or
computing system. It deals with the physical transmission of data over a communication channel,
focusing on the electrical, mechanical, and functional aspects of the hardware involved in
transmitting signals.

1. Signals: A signal is a physical phenomenon that carries information. In the context of

communication systems, a signal is typically an electromagnetic wave, electrical voltage, or
current that varies in some manner to represent data or convey a message from a sender to
a receiver.

2. Analog Signals: Analog signals are continuous and can take any value within a range.
Examples include voltage waves, sound waves, and light waves. Analog signals are
commonly used in traditional telecommunication systems.

3. Digital Signals: Digital signals are discrete and represent information using a finite set of
distinct values (usually binary, 0 and 1). They are commonly used in modern communication
systems and digital electronics. Digital signals are less susceptible to noise and distortion
compared to analog signals, making them more reliable for long-distance transmission.

4. Modem: Takes care of Conversions

5. Signals can also be categorized based on their characteristics, such as amplitude, frequency,
phase, and modulation scheme. Understanding signals is fundamental to designing and
analyzing communication systems, as they are the carriers of information in various forms of
communication, including telecommunication, networking, and electronics.
 6. Transmission Modes:

 Parallel Transmission: In parallel transmission, multiple bits are transmitted

simultaneously over separate channels or wires. It is commonly used for short-
distance communication within computer systems.

 Serial Transmission: In serial transmission, data is transmitted sequentially over a

single channel or wire. It is often used for long-distance communication as it
requires fewer physical connections and can achieve higher speeds.

7. Physical Layer Devices:

 Repeaters: Repeaters are devices used to regenerate and retransmit signals to

extend the distance over which data can be transmitted. They amplify the signals
they receive and transmit them at a higher power level.

 Hubs: Hubs are devices that serve as central connection points for network devices.
There are two types of hubs:

 Active Hub: An active hub amplifies incoming electrical signals before

retransmitting them to all connected devices.

 Passive Hub: A passive hub simply serves as a physical connection point,

without any signal amplification or regeneration.

Line Coding in Digital Communication

Line coding refers to the process of converting digital data into digital signals.
Whenever we transmit data it is in the form of digital signals, so with the help of line
coding, we can convert a sequence to bits (or encoding) into a digital signal which is
then again converted into bits by the receiver (or can be said as decoded by the
receiver). For all this to happen we need line coding schemes that could also be
able to avoid overlapping and distortion of signals.

1. Unipolar
2. Polar
3. Bipolar

Unipolar Line Coding

In Unipolar we are simply representing a signal in a graphical form where positive

voltage represents logical or binary 1 and 0 voltage represents logical zero. We can
say that it's the simplest line code. The drawback of this scheme is that it is not self-
clocking which means that it can't be decoded without a separate clock signal or any
other synchronization source.
NRZ (Non-Return to Zero):

The term Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) means that the signal (the red line in the above
diagram) will not return to zero in the middle of the bit (i.e. either 0 or 1). Unipolar
schemes were generally designed as NRZ schemes. But if we compare it to the
polar NRZ scheme, this scheme leads to wastage of power i.e. the normalized power
(i.e. the power required to send 1-bit per resistance) is almost double as compared
to polar NRZ.

Polar Line Coding

As its name suggests polar which means it will have both positive and negative
values for voltages or amplitude
it is quite like the NRZ scheme

Let's see how these are represented:

Bipolar Line Coding

Bipolar consists of three voltage levels which are positive negative and zero. While
representing, the voltage level for one bit of data is at zero, and the other bit inverts
transits, or alternates between positive and negative voltage.