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The impact of physical activity and fitness on academic achievement and

cognitive performance in children

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The impact of physical activity and fitness on academic achievement and

cognitive performance in children
Thomas J. H. Keeley a; Kenneth R. Fox a
a
Department of Exercise, Nutrition and Health Sciences, The University of Bristol, UK

Online Publication Date: 01 September 2009

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 International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology
Vol. 2, No. 2, September 2009, 198
214

The impact of physical activity and fitness on academic achievement and

cognitive performance in children
Thomas J.H. Keeley and Kenneth R. Fox*

Department of Exercise, Nutrition and Health Sciences, The University of Bristol, UK

(Received 9 March 2009; final version received 3 August 2009)

The potential for physical activity and fitness to improve cognitive function,
Downloaded By: [University of Bristol Library] At: 16:27 7 October 2009

learning and academic achievement in children has received attention by

researchers and policy makers. This paper reports a systematic approach to
identification, analysis and review of published studies up to early 2009. A three-
step search method was adopted to identify studies that used measures of physical
activity or fitness to assess either degree of association with or effect on a)
academic achievement and b) cognitive performance. A total of 18 studies
including one randomised control trial, six quasi-experimental and 11 correla-
tional studies were included for data extraction. No studies meeting criteria that
examined the links between physical activity and cognitive function were found.
Weak positive associations were found between both physical activity and fitness
and academic achievement and fitness and elements of cognitive function, but this
was not supported by intervention studies. There is insufficient evidence to
conclude that additional physical education time increases academic achievement;
however there is no evidence that it is detrimental. The quality and depth of the
evidence base is limited. Further research with rigour beyond correlational studies
is essential.
Keywords: physical activity; physical fitness; children; young people; academic
achievement; cognitive performance

Introduction
The physical health benefits of participating in regular physical activity and
maintaining physical fitness are widely established (Department of Health, 2004,
United States Department of Health and Human Services, 2008). It has been clearly
demonstrated that physical activity decreases risk of developing cardiovascular
disease (CVD), stroke, some cancers, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus and is also
effective in the treatment of several of these diseases.
There has also been growing interest in the benefits of physical activity for mental
health and a strong evidence base shows that regular activity and improved fitness
increases psychological well-being (Biddle, Fox & Boutcher, 2001, Biddle & Mutrie,
2008). Exercise can help people feel better about themselves and their lives, reduce
anxiety and improve mood. Evidence is also building to show that physical activity is
associated with substantially reduced risks of mental illnesses and conditions such as

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

ISSN 1750-984X print/ISSN 1750-9858 online
# 2009 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/17509840903233822
http://www.informaworld.com
 International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology 199

depression, cognitive impairment and dementia (Fox & Mutrie, in press; Hamer &
Chida, 2008). The benefits of physical activity in the treatment of depression
(National Institute of Clinical Excellence, 2004) and improvement in select aspects of
cognitive function in older adults are becoming increasingly well established
(Angevaren, Aufdemkampe, Verhaar, Aleman, & Vanhees, 2008). Furthermore,
acute bouts of well managed physical exercise may facilitate certain aspects of
information processing in adults (Tomporowski, 2003).
Some of these positive effects on mental health have also been shown in children
and adolescents, although the evidence base is limited. Few studies have investigated
the preventive or treatment effects of exercise on mental illness within this
population, partly because incidence is low. However, reviews have indicated that
exercise and/or sport involvement can have beneficial effects on psychological well-
being. For example, exercise has been shown to improve physical self-perceptions
and to a lesser extent self-esteem in children (Fox, 2001) although effects are
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inconsistent.
In addition to the effects on psychological health, there has been substantial
interest in the potential impact of improved fitness and exercise on cognitive function
and learning in children. The notion that higher levels of activity or fitness may
enhance thinking, concentration and subsequently academic performance is
attractive to educators. Not only could it benefit children, it could improve the
school’s added value for academic achievement. For physical educators and sports
coordinators, it could justify greater provision of physical activity in the school
curriculum. Indeed, since the early 1990s schools have been adopting commercial
programmes such as Brain Gym (www.braingym.org.uk), a system that utilises motor
coordination exercises to enhance learning, despite evidence of its effectiveness.
Other schemes such as ‘Wake Up Shake Up’ (www.foundation-stage.info) and
‘Energizers’ (www.ncpe4me.com/energizers) are also emerging in schools within the
UK and the US respectively.
Four literature reviews have been published on the links between physical activity
and cognitive function or academic performance since 2003. In a review of 44 studies
Sibley and Etnier (2003) examined the evidence for the influence of physical activity
on cognition in children. 28 cross-sectional associational and 16 intervention studies,
with children between the ages of four and 18 years were included. Eight different
categories of cognitive assessment were identified and associations or effects of single
bouts and regular participation in various forms of aerobic training, resistance
training and physical education curriculum were summarised. A mean effect size of
0.32 in favour of activity was reported. This review was very inclusive with several
studies being unpublished, outcome measures were diverse and some samples were
children with learning difficulties where relationships might be quite different.
The association between physical activity and school performance was reviewed
by Taras (2005) in a paper reporting 14 studies, including an unstated number with
abstract only, published between 1984 and 2004, involving participants between five
and 18 years of age. In a narrative summation of the findings, showing weak or no
correlation between activity level and academic performance, Taras concludes that
the field requires further research to better understand the impact of activity levels
upon student performance. Trudeau and Shephard (2008) presented a recent
review of studies linking school time physical activity and academic performance.
Nine cross-sectional studies and seven quasi-experimental studies assessing
 200 T.J.H. Keeley and K.R. Fox

academic performance by grade point averages (GPAs) and determinants of GPA

(concentration, classroom behaviour etc), published between 1966 and 2007, were
included. The review reported non-significant trends in studies and concluded that
academic achievement is not affected by limiting the time allocated to PE
instruction, school physical activity and sports programmes.
A narrative summary of the research into the effects of physical activity on
cognition in childhood was presented by Hillman, Erickson and Kramer (2008) as a
short sub-section of a paper assessing the wider effects of physical activity on
cognition across all age groups. The authors concluded that, from the limited
amount of published research there was no indication that an increase in curriculum
time physical activity is associated with a decrease in academic performance.
A further narrative review is offered by Tomporowski, Davis, Miller, and Naglieri
(2008), of studies of the effects of physical exercise on cognition and academic
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achievement. The conclusion reached by these authors is that exercise may be an

important method of enhancing aspects of mental functioning that are central to
cognitive development. Highlighted in this paper is the variability of the outcome of
studies and poorly selected outcome measures. The authors suggest that this may be
due to factors including researchers selecting populations that do not represent the
general population, for example, children with mental or physical disabilities.
Given the interest in the potential for physical activity in its various forms to
enhance cognitive and school performance, we feel that a more systematic and
rigorous approach to reviewing the literature is warranted that provides a robust and
objective summary of the state of knowledge on this important topic. This is
required in order to judge what is required to take the field forwards. Currently, the
conclusions of existing reviews are equivocal and it is not possible to determine
whether this arises from study or population selection, combining studies of different
design or that address different research questions, or interpretation of findings.
There are several study characteristics that require clearer segmentation including
distinguishing between physical activity versus fitness effects, extra versus within
curriculum activity, cognitive function versus academic achievement, and perhaps
short term or acute versus long term effects.
This review has attempted to address some of these issues by taking a carefully
delineated approach to reporting the current published literature (until February
2009). Studies investigating academic performance and cognitive function as
outcome variables are assessed separately, as are those taking physical activity and
physical fitness as exposure variables. Furthermore cross sectional studies are
separately assessed from intervention studies and greater precision in the definition
of variables is attempted. Summaries are confined to outcomes that have achieved
the researchers’ set levels of statistical significance. Results are discussed in the
context of the potential for this area of research and the kinds of research questions
and designs that would be needed to take the field forwards.

Terms of reference
The following definitions are provided to maintain clarity and consistency through
the remainder of the review.
 International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology 201

Exposure/independent variables
Childhood physical activity is a complex mix of behaviours that take place in diverse
social settings. Consideration could be given to categories such as break-time play,
active travel, sport and physical education (both within and additional to the school
curriculum), informal play and sports and dance clubs outside school. This review
considers contexts as well as modes of activity which might include walking,
running, cycling, swimming, vigorous sports, and dance. Furthermore, consideration
is given to how each of these was quantified in terms of duration, frequency and level
of intensity.
In contrast to physical activity, physical fitness is a complex set of functional
capacities and capabilities. In children, these are partly determined by genetic factors
and stage of biological maturation as well as the amount of physical activity
undertaken. Often a battery of tests are used to assess components such as
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cardiovascular fitness, muscular strength and endurance, sometimes body composi-

tion or degree of fatness, flexibility, agility, coordination, balance and reaction time.
This review includes any aspect of physical fitness when it has been assessed using a
standardised test or measure to score subjects.

Outcome variables
Academic achievement is the child’s performance when assessed by standardised tests
within a school, or educational setting. Often this is quantified as achievement in
specific subjects such as mathematics or reading skill, grade point average (in the
US) or through standard national assessment tests (SATs). This variable is
dependent on the ability of the child, their home background and environment, as
well as the quality and quantity of academic instruction that child receives.
Cognitive performance refers to the child’s performance when assessed using a
recognised and validated test of cognitive function. Tests assess components of
cognition such as reaction time, attention, working memory and stimulus response
(collectively referred to as executive control). Cognitive and academic performance
are thought to interrelate as aspects of cognition such as attention and working
memory are vital for academic success.

Method
Search strategies
A three-step search method was used to identify studies meeting inclusion criteria
that investigated the relationship between physical activity or physical fitness and
cognitive performance or academic achievement. The terms, and their combinations
were searched in the databases of MEDLINE, PSYCHINFO, Cochrane data base,
Google Scholar and ERIC: physical activity; habitual activity; physical education;
physical fitness; physical education; cognition; cognitive function; cognitive perfor-
mance; cognitive health; academia; academic performance; academic achievement
and academic grades. The references lists of all identified studies were also searched
for titles containing any of the above terms, and all relevant studies followed up.
Three selected prominent authors in the field were then contacted by email and
 202 T.J.H. Keeley and K.R. Fox

provided with the list of studies meeting inclusion criteria and asked to identify
further relevant papers.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

For inclusion within this review studies had to meet all the following criteria:
. Involved a study population of children and/or adolescents, without learning
disorders or special needs, aged between four and 18 years;
. used one of the following research designs: randomised control trial (RCT),
quasi-experimental, cross-section or longitudinal correlational;
. used a measure of physical activity (objective, self-report, or teacher rated) or
physical fitness as an independent or exposure variable;
. used a measure of academic achievement or cognitive performance as a
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dependent or outcome variable; and

. was published or accepted for publication in a peer reviewed journal.

Data extraction
A standard data extraction template was used to extract the following data from all
studies meeting criteria; primary and secondary research questions, location, sample
size and characteristics, study design, exposure and outcome measures, adjustment
variables, results with significance levels, and conclusions. These were then used as a
basis of the summary tables.

Results
Search results
17 studies satisfied inclusion criteria. Of these, 11 were cross-sectional correlational
studies. Five studies were of quasi-experimental design. One randomised controlled
trials was identified. Five studies of correlational design (Table 1a) and five studies of
quasi-experimental design (Table 1b) assessed physical activity and academic
achievement. Four studies of correlational design assessed physical fitness and
academic achievement (Table 2). Two studies of correlational design (Table 3a) and
one study of experimental design (Table 3b) assessed physical fitness and cognitive
function. No study examining the links between physical activity and cognitive
function were found.

Physical activity and academic achievement

The five studies in Table 1a were all cross-sectional and were conducted in North
America, Canada, Australia, Iceland or Hong Kong. Sample sizes varied from 333 to
7691, with ages ranging between kindergarten age and 15 years old. In four studies,
total daily physical activity was assessed using a children’s self-reported physical
activity recall questionnaire and the other featured teacher-rated physical education
curriculum time. Academic performance was assessed by test and examination
results and in one case by an educational professional. In three of the studies
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Table 1a. Physical activity and academic achievement: correlational studies

Author, Physical activity

(date) Location Subjects assessment Academic assessment Primary finding

Carlson et al. USA 5316 students Teacher reported Mathematics Third tertile girls (70
300 mins of PE per week)
(2008) followed from frequency and and reading tests. achieved slightly higher academic scores in
Kindergarten duration of PE kindergarten, first grade and fifth grade reading
to 5th grade. lessons. Tertiles and first grade mathematics compared to first
formed. tertile girls (0
35 mins of PE per week).

International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology 203

Sigfusdottir et al. Iceland 5810 ninth and Self-reported Self-reported average A very weak positive (r0.09) and
(2006) (nationwide) tenth grade physical grades for Icelandic, significant (p B0.01) correlation between
students activity. Maths, English and self-reported PA and self-reported grades.
Danish
Yu et al. (2006) Hong Kong, 333 students Physical activity Examination/test PA not associated with academic achievement
China aged 8
12 questionnaire for results and teacher in either boys (r0.067, non-sig) or girls
years. older children reported conduct (r0.068, non-sig). PA negatively associated
(PAQ-C). grades. with school conduct in girls (r0.124,
pB0.01)
Dwyer et al. Australia 7691 students Experimenter administered School representative Weekly PA associated with scholastic rating in 9,
(2001) aged 7
15 years questionnaire assessing rated each students 10 and 11 year old girls ( r range 0.11 to 0.14, p
frequency, duration and academic ability rangeB0.05 to B0.01) and 9, 10 and 12 year old
intensity of previous weeks boys (r range 0.11 to 0.17, p rangeB0.05 to
PA and usual activity B0.001). Usual lunchtime activity positively
(r range0.08 to 0.18 and significantly
(p range B0.05 toB0.001) associated with
scholastic rating in boys and girls.
Tremblay et al. New 6923 sixth Four questions assessing Maths and reading A weak negative relationship between PA and
(2000) Brunswick, grade students participation in physical test scores academic achievement.
Canada activity
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204
T.J.H. Keeley and K.R. Fox
Table 1b. Physical activity and academic achievement: intervention studies

Author, (date) Location Subjects Intervention Academic assessment Primary finding

Ahamed et al. British 288 primary AS! BC: 16 months of Canadian Achievement Usual practice schools had significantly
(2007) Columbia, school students, an additional 47 min/wk Test (CAT-3) (p 0.001) higher scores at baseline than
Canada aged 9
11 of school time PA intervention schools, but not at follow-up.
Coe et al. Michigan, USA 214 sixth grade One semester of one Academic achievement Academic achievement not affected by the
(2006) students 55 min lesson of grades and standardised one semester of increased PE.
PE per day test score
Sallis et al. Southern 654 fifth and Project SPARK: 2 years Metropolitan Intervention group showed significantly
(1999) California, sixth grade of an additional 27
42 Achievement Test (p range0.02 to 0.001) smaller declines in
USA students min/wk of PE and an (MAT6/7) academic performance compared to control
additional 27
29 min/ group.
wk of ‘self-management’
classes
Shephard et al. Trois Rivieres, 546 first to 5 hours of PE per week Standardised exam and Improvement in performance in English, but
(1984) Quebec sixth grade for five years; control teacher rating. not maths in standardised exam. Improved
students 40mins per week for teacher ratings.
same time period.
Dwyer et al. South Australia 500 fifth grade 2 years of 75 min/day of ACER arithmetic test No significant difference in either measure
(1983) students PE focusing either on and GAP reading test of academic performance.
skill or fitness. Controls
maintained three classes
of 30 min/week
Downloaded By: [University of Bristol Library] At: 16:27 7 October 2009

Table 2. Physical fitness and academic achievement: correlational studies

Physical fitness
Author, (date) Location Subjects assessment Academic assessment Primary finding

Eveland-Sayers et al. Tennessee, 134 third, forth 1 mile run, sit-up, Mathematics and A significant negative correlation between
(2009) USA and fifth grade sit-and-reach reading/language 1-mile run times and mathematics (r 0.28,
students and BMI. sections of p B0.01) and muscular fitness and mathe-
Terra Nova test matics (r0.20, pB0.05). When analysed by

International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology 205

sex difference correlations were significant in
girls but not in boys.
Castelli et al. Illinois, 259 3rd and The Fitnessgram Annual ISAT test Total (r0.42, pB0.01), Maths (r 0.45,
(2007) USA 5th grade p B0.45) and Reading (r0.41, pB0.01)
students achievement positively and significantly
associated with ‘‘total fitness’’. Total (r0.48,
p B0.48), Maths (r0.49, pB0.01) and
Reading (r0.45, pB0.01) achievement
positively and significantly associated with
cardiovascular fitness.
Grissom (2005) California, 884,715 5th, The Fitnessgram STAR, SAT/9 and CAT/ Consistent, positive and significant association
USA 7th and 9th 6 tests between fitness scores and academic
grades students achievement scores
Dwyer et al. (2001) Australia 7691 students Numerous subjective School representative Consistent, positive (r range0.11 to 0.18

aged 7
15 years measurements and rated each students sacled by increasing time on 1.6 km run) and
PWC170 academic ability significant (p rangeB0.05 to B0.001) asso-
ciation between cardiovascular fitness and
academic achievement. Disparities of results
between subjective and objective
measurements.
Downloaded By: [University of Bristol Library] At: 16:27 7 October 2009

206
Table 3a. Physical fitness and cognitive performance: correlational studies

Author, Physical fitness Cognitive

T.J.H. Keeley and K.R. Fox

(date) Location Subjects assessment assessment Primary finding

Buck et al. Illinois, 74 children The Fitnessgram The Stroop Aerobic fitness was positively and significantly (p 0.001) associated with
(2007) USA aged 7
12 colour-word the word, colour and incongruent colour-word conditions of the Stroop
years task task. Results suggest aerobic fitness was associated with better cognitive
functioning and executive control.
Hillman et al. Illinois, 24 children The Fitnessgram A visual High fit children had a significantly faster reaction time (p B0.01), greater
(2005) USA mean age 9.6 oddball P3 amplitude (p B0.001) and shorter P3 latency (pB0.001). Results
years paradigm suggest greater allocation of of attention and working memory in high fit
children.

Table 3b. Physical fitness and cognitive performance: intervention studies

Author,
(date) Location Subjects Intervention Cognitive assessment Primary finding

Davis et al. Augusta, 94 children, Low-dose (20 mins) vs CAS (based) on the Planning, Controls showed significantly lower
(2007) Georgia, aged 7
11 High-dose (40 mins) of Attention, Simultaneous and post-test CAS Planning score than
USA years, mean gymnasium based exercise Successive (PASS) theory. high-dose exercise group p .01. No
age 9.2 years. eliciting a Heart Rates of significant difference between control
150BPM. 5 days per week and low-dose exercise groups or low
for 15 weeks. and high-dose exercise groups.
 International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology 207

associations were reported when controlled for socio-economic status, parental

education and ethnicity of the child.
Results from the studies in Table 1a were mixed. The Hong Kong study, which
had the smallest sample, found no association between physical activity (as measured
by the Physical Activity Questionnaire for Children (PAQ-C)) and examination/test
scores. The study by Carlson et al. (2008) where physical education time tertiles were
compared did show significantly higher mathematics and reading scores in the high
versus the low PE tertile. This effect was weak but provides some indication that
more time dedicated to PE is not detrimental to academic performance. In the
remaining three correlational studies weak positive relationships, with r values
ranging from 0.08 to 0.18, were found. There were no consistent patterns for age and
gender.
In summary, these cross-sectional associational studies provide limited evidence
of a weak relationship between physical activity and academic achievement.
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No inference can be made on the causal nature of the relationships described in

these correlational studies. Table 1b details five non-randomised controlled inter-
ventions that varied in duration from six months to five years. These studies were
conducted in Canada, Australia and North America. All groups were of primary
school age and cohort size varied between 214 and 654. The interventions were based
on sustaining higher levels of physical activity through increased PE curriculum time
and in one case (Sallis et al., 1999) additional self-management classes. Therefore, in
all cases the increase in PA was at the expense of academic instruction, with control
schools continuing their normal curriculum provision. Increases in PE time varied
from 27 minutes per week to 75 minutes per day. The measurement of children’s
physical activity varied from direct observation to use of the PAQ-C and the
calculation of MET values. Academic achievement was assessed using standardised
national tests, grades and in one case teacher ratings were added.
Two studies showed that an increase in school time physical activity was not
associated with a change in academic performance. One study showed significantly
smaller declines in four out of the eight measures of academic performance when
compared to control schools. One showed an increase in performance in Mathe-
matics but not in English and one showed a closing of a baseline difference in
academic performance which was suggestive of a positive effect for higher levels of
curriculum-based physical activity. None of the studies reported a significant
detrimental effect of school time physical activity on academic performance. There
was no obvious dose response relationship between the degree of the increase in
physical activity or the length of intervention and academic performance in the
school.
In summary, these studies indicate that the introduction of more curriculum time
physical activity, at the expense of time allocated to academic subjects, does not have
a detrimental effect on childrens’ academic performance. Only one study reported a
significant improvement in elements of academic achievement with increased school
time physical activity.

Physical fitness and academic achievement

The four studies, three from North America and one from Australia, included
in Table 2, examined the relationship between physical fitness and academic
 208 T.J.H. Keeley and K.R. Fox

performance. Ages ranged from 7 to 15 years with sample sizes ranging from of 134
to 884,715. Two studies used the US Fitnessgram which includes the following tests:
PACER (cardiovascular endurance), push-ups and sit-ups (muscular endurance), sit
and reach (flexibility) and body mass index. In the Eveland-Sayers et al. (2009) study
all but the PACER test of the US Fitnessgram battery was used, replacing this with a
one-mile run. The fourth study (Dwyer, Coonan, Leitch, Hetzel, & Baghurst, 2001)
used a battery of tests including standing long jump (muscular power), sit ups and
push ups (muscular endurance), sit and reach (hip flexion), skinfold thicknesses
(fatness), lung function, 50 meter sprint (muscular power) and 1.6 kilometer run
(cardiorespiratory endurance). Three studies used standardised tests to assess
academic achievement while one study used a rating of academic ability on a five-
point scale by an adult school representative (usually the school principal). Two
studies (Castelli, Hillman, Buck, & Erwin, 2007; Dwyer et al., 2001) reported
controlling for socioeconomic status and parental education.
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Consistent moderate positive correlations between physical fitness and academic

performance were seen across the studies. The strongest correlations were seen with
cardiovascular fitness, with r values ranging from 0.41 when using the PACER to
0.20 using the increasing time on 1-mile run. Associations were also seen between
measures of muscular force/power and flexibility and academic scores. Dwyer et al.
(2001), with 7691 children, also used a laboratory bicycle-based PWC170 that
measures physical capacity at the heart rate of 170 beats per minute per kilogram of
lean body mass. In contrast to the field test of cardiovascular fitness, there was no
relationship found with academic performance. This raises questions about the
possible confounding of motivation, confidence, or cognitive skill factors when
operating field tests of cardiovascular fitness.
In summary, these four studies provide evidence of a relationship between mainly
cardiovascular fitness and academic performance when field tests are used as
estimates of fitness. However, this was not confirmed by the only study that used a
more precise laboratory-based measure of cardiovascular fitness.

Physical fitness and cognitive performance

Our search strategy revealed two small correlational studies (Table 3a) and one
intervention study (Table 3b) conducted in the US that assessed the association
between physical fitness and cognitive performance. The Fitnessgram described in
the previous section was used in both the correlational studies. In the study by Buck,
Hillmann, & Castelli (2007), using a sample of 74 children between the ages of 7 and
12 years, the Stroop colour word task was used to assess selective attention, response
inhibition, interference control and speed response (executive control). In the
Hillman, Castelli, & Buck (2005) study of 24 children, with an average age of 9.6
years, a visual oddball paradigm was adopted to assess the ability to discriminate,
time for task completion, as well as P3 latency and amplitude. The P3 is part of the
event-related brain potentials occurring 300
800ms after stimulus and occurs when
the participant is attending to and discriminating between stimuli. In both studies
higher levels of aerobic fitness were associated with significantly better performance
on the cognitive task. These two studies provide initial evidence of a potential
relationship between aspects of fitness (mainly aerobic) and cognitive performance.
 International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology 209

The only intervention study was conducted recently by Davis et al. (2007). They
used a pre and post intervention aerobic fitness treadmill test and the CAS test,
based on the Planning, Attention, Simultaneous and Successive (PASS) theory of
cognitive functioning. The intervention consisted of low and high-dose gymnasium
based exercise programmes, focused around group games. Children in the low-dose
group exercised for 20 minutes, five days per week for 15 weeks and the children in
the high-dose group exercised for 40 minutes. Both groups aimed to achieve an
average heart rate of 150 bpm for each session. The high-dose exercise group differed
significantly from the no additional exercise control group on the Planning aspect of
the CAS test. This well-designed study provides initial evidence for an effect of
exercise upon at least one aspect of executive function. It is of note that low and
high-dose intervention groups did not differ significantly on the treadmill post-test,
suggesting that difference in fitness gains made by the two groups were small.
Factors other than fitness change may have been responsible for the difference in
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cognitive function.

Discussion
During the past 10 years, interest has grown considerably in the social, mental and
educational benefits of physical activity for young people. There appears to be great
potential in this area, and indeed a belief in the value of sport and activity for social
and mental benefits has already underpinned considerable investment in their
promotion by local and national government. Particular attention has been paid to
the potential for physical activity to improve learning and academic achievement.
However, the small number of published reviews that have focused on the effects of
physical activity on academic and cognitive performance in young people have not
produced consistent results. This review attempted to take a systematic and rigorous
approach to the identification, selection, and interpretation of this body of literature.
The following general conclusions can be drawn about the state of the evidence
base (until the end of February 2009):
1. There are few published studies. Only 17 were identified. The reasons for this
paucity of research, especially given policy interest and indications of plausible
mechanisms from related areas of research (discussed later) are not clear.
2. The majority of studies are cross-sectional and correlational in design. These
at best have produced weak positive associations. There are several factors
including level of motivation and aspirations, cognitive skills, clustering of
abilities within individuals, parental encouragement and logistic support, that
could provide alternative explanations for associations between engagement in
activity and sport and mental performance. Controlled intervention studies
are therefore necessary to isolate cause and effect.
3. Only six intervention studies were identified. Experimental studies have
focused on the effect of additional school-time physical activity on academic
performance. An exception is the recent work of Davis et al. (2007) that
addressed aspects of executive function. No studies primarily addressing
effects of physical activity in other contexts such as the active travel, break-
time play, informal play from the home, or participation in non-school based
clubs and teams were located.
 210 T.J.H. Keeley and K.R. Fox

4. Exposure variables have mainly been in school activity time or performance

on a battery of physical fitness tests.
5. Outcome variables have been restricted to performance on standardised
academic tests, grade point average and three studies provided scores on
cognitive performance tasks.

Based on the existing evidence, we feel we are able to make the following statements.
1. Based on five cross sectional studies, a weak relationship may exist between
total daily physical activity and academic achievement. There are several
plausible alternative explanations for this relationship and no intervention
studies to support it.
2. There is no consistently convincing evidence to show that increasing
curricular-based physical activity improves academic achievement. However,
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where physical activity has replaced academic time in the curriculum in

primary schools, there is no evidence of a detrimental effect on academic
achievement. Given the benefits of physical activity for children’s healthy
growth, weight management, and general health, this could be taken as
supportive evidence for a greater amount of school time spent on physical
activity. However, experimental studies that compare the effects of replacing
decreased academic time with physical activity or sedentary non-academic
time are required before firm conclusions can be drawn.
3. Based on four cross-sectional studies, a weak relationship exists between
aspects of physical fitness, primarily aerobic fitness as measured by field
running tests, on elements of academic achievement. It should be noted that
the only study to use a laboratory-based test of aerobic fitness did not find a
relationship, and field tests are susceptible to confounding by motivational
factors (Fox & Biddle, 1988). There is no experimental evidence to indicate
that improving fitness will increase academic achievement.
4. Based on two cross-sectional studies, a weak relationship exists between
aspects of physical fitness, primarily aerobic fitness and executive control
elements of cognitive performance. This is supported by one recent well-
designed randomised controlled trial showing positive effects for a programme
of additional daily exercise.

As the literature stands, it is not possible to determine whether cognitive

performance or academic achievement are improved by physical activity or physical
fitness. Although there is weak cross-sectional evidence, there are too many other
possible and plausible explanations for this relationship. Parents who support and
encourage their children’s academic activities are also likely to encourage them to be
active. Similarly, children are likely to emulate their parents’ values which might
include both sport and academic achievement. Further, there may be some degree of
clustering of academic and athletic abilities in children. As explained earlier,
academically more capable or driven children may be more motivated in particular
to do well on tests of physical fitness, particularly where running for speed and
distance is the measure. Children with behavioural problems are less likely to be
involved or survive in school sport. Children who are unfit and inactive may reflect
greater illness and school absence, and miss out on school work.
 International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology 211

In conclusion, there is only a small amount of research published, that features

sufficiently rigorous measurement, and adequate study design. Only one randomised
controlled trial was located. Clearly, there has been very limited investment in
research in this area. This is surprising because of policy interest in the area, and the
intuitive and grass roots belief that physical activity is good for the brain.
Furthermore, there are indications from other research approaches, particularly in
psychobiology and neuroscience, most of it based at this stage on animal models,
that there may be some important underpinning mechanisms to explain effects of
exercise on cognitive function. Neurogenesis is the growth of new nerve cells in the
nervous system, and provides a potential mediating mechanism by which physical
activity and fitness could improve cognitive efficiency. In mice, voluntary exercise
and running have been shown to stimulate hippocampal neurogenesis (van Praag
et al., 2005, Brown et al., 2003). Similarly, exercise induces angiogenesis (the growth
of new vascularity and hypertrophy of existing blood vessels) within the cerebral
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cortex of rats (Kleim, Cooper, & VandenBerg, 2002). It has been postulated that this
may benefit cognitive function by allowing greater perfusion of blood through this
region.
It has been suggested that mechanisms such as these underpin the growing
evidence base that indicates reduction in the region of 30% in subsequent risk of
premature cognitive decline and dementia in older adults who have been and remain
active (Fox & Mutrie, in press, Hamer & Chida, 2009). The notion that exercise helps
maintain the hard wiring and blood supply in the brain seems plausible as metabolic
turnover with exercise increases dramatically from rest. It seems equally plausible
that exercise might stimulate neural growth and efficiency during the period of
biological maturation in children. However, there is little current evidence to support
this. Perhaps the most convincing evidence is provided by Winter et al. (2007) who
showed through a randomised cross-over design that vigorous activity can improve
brain-derived neurotropic factor, dopamine and epinephrine and these improve post-
exercise capacity for aspects of short term and medium term cognitive performance.
However, this study was conducted with young male adults.

Future research
Certainly, these diverse sources of evidence suggest that high quality research should
be undertaken to investigate the impact of both acute and regular physical activity
on the cognitive function of children and young people, particularly during
important phases of growth. There is also a case for investigating the impact of
exercise on the cognitive function of those who have cerebral impairment.
Our view of the work to date is that intervention designs are needed. Because of
the early stage of this research, many small scale studies focusing on potential
mechanisms and feasibility studies are required before more expensive trials are
attempted. There is insufficient knowledge at the descriptive level to identify
definitive mechanisms and interventions at this point. It would seem helpful to
pay more attention to the path of potential effect. For example, before impact on
academic achievement is addressed, it would seem appropriate to have some notion
of the potential mechanisms by which physical activity or fitness would take effect.
This may be through higher levels of specific cognitive performance such as
concentration, memory, decision making, alertness and thinking speed. It may be
 212 T.J.H. Keeley and K.R. Fox

a result of psycho-physiological shifts caused by exercise or improved fitness on

cerebral function so future research should be ambitious and consider endocrino-
logical changes and functional fMRI techniques. This will require exercise
researchers to team with neuroscientists. Social psychologists on the other hand
may wish to investigate the effect of individual differences in motivation and factors
in the activity setting as contributors to effect.
Other considerations are important. Objective measures of physical activity such
as accelerometry and stronger measures of physical fitness are likely to provide
greater insight into individual differences and help increase precision of estimates. It
is notoriously inaccurate to assess activity through self-report in children.
Greater attention should be paid to the context in which activity takes place, and
the mode, frequency and intensity of the activity. Different effects are likely to be
seen as these factors vary. Similarly, different factors might dominate with
developmental stage of the child, so careful thought needs to be given to choice of
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age group of the sample.

Future research needs to take into account current weaknesses but the quality of
future research will be dependent on adequate funding. Currently, given the paucity
of research, no strong tradition is established for work in this area. Although it will
take time, if the research question or objectives are clearly stated, if a convincing case
is provided for the need to address the research question, and there is high quality in
the research method, measures and analytical tools proposed, then there will be
increasing chance of the work being funded.

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