Human Factors

● design a habitat that successfully addresses human factors and challenges in

correlation to long-term life on the red planet.
● It should provide comfort and a healthy environment for the astronauts, scientists,
and support team going on the trip.
● Foster a sense of community to Earth (Hoftstede, 2017).
● Supporting research:
○ Human Factors & Ergonomics Society, addresses these issues, such as
radiation exposure, musculoskeletal health, and psychological stress, is
detrimental in designing a Martian habitat (NASA, 2017).
○ (Smith et al., 2018). study : The study shows the effects of long duration
spaceflight on the human body, pointing out physiological and physiological
effects, including microgravity on the body and the risk of
spaceflight-associated neuro-ocular syndrome (Smith et al., 2018).
○ Literature survey (Williams and Davis, 2018).: need for reliable life support
system, radiation protection, and a comfortable living environment.

DESIGN PROPOSAL:

1. Create a modular habitat that allows for customisability & adaptability; this addresses
diverse needs of astronauts on Mars.
2. Incorporate ergonomics principles to optimise the living and working spaces; make
sure of comfort and reduces the risk of musculoskeletal health issues.
3. Integrate advanced radiation shielding technologies into the habitats structure;
protects astronauts from extensive exposure to radiation on the planet.
4. Have a psychological support system; Virtual Reality environments and social
connectivity tools (i.e, Apples newest VR Headset) to mitigate mental stress and
bring a sense of community & connection to Earth.

Transportation

● design a system that facilitates the movement of both people and cargo
● Capable of navigating Martian terrain and atmosphere (Cullen, A., 2019).
● Supporting research:
○ Cullen, A (2019) looked into ideas for Mars transportation with rovers, aircraft,
and spacecraft.
○ Heldmann (2018) came up with a design proposal for a Mars rover optimised
for exploration, including modularity and reliable propulsion.
○ NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (2019) did a mission study on Mars sample
return, talking about challenges of designing a system for retrieval; including
reliable propulsion and sample storage.
■ Reliable propulsion: the use of motive force systems that can
generate force to propel spacecraft/vehicles in a predictable
and safe manner throughout space missions; it reduces the
risk of failure/malfunction.

DESIGN PROPOSAL:
 1. Develop a multi-modal transportation system that includes rovers, aircraft/spacecraft;
each optimised for their respective responsibilities in Mars exploration and
colonisation.
2. Design rovers with modular and scalable architectures; it allows for easy upgrades
and changes based on mission requirements. implement reliable propulsion systems
and advanced autonomy to navigate the challenging Martian terrain.
3. Explore the use of “vertical takeoff and landing” (VTOL) aircraft for efficient
transportation between different regions on Mars; this will increase movement of
personnel and cargo.
4. Create a spacecraft capable of safe and efficient interplanetary travel; also consider
propulsion systems, life support capabilities and long-duration sustainability.

International Collaboration

● Incorporate a modular and expandable structure that enables collaboration among

multiple nations and organisations; a Martian space station
● Supporting research:
○ Nair (2019) talks about the benefits and challenges of international space
exploration collaboration.
○ Paterson (2018) identifies a framework for international collaboration in
space.
○ Billings (2018) looks into a model for international collaboration in space

DESIGN PROPOSAL:

1. Create a modular & expandable architecture, to allow for international collaboration

and participation in Mars missions; this should accommodate the integration of
modules/systems from different nations and organisations.
2. Settle on a standard communication and data sharing protocol to enable seamless
collaboration and interaction among intl. partners
3. Implement shared research facilities and resources to encourage collaborative
scientific findings and technology development.
4. Development a governance framework that promotes equitable participation,
decision-making, and resource allocation among intl. collaborations.

REFERENCES:

Billings, L., Hengeveld, E., & Whitney, P. D. (2018). Internationalization of the International
Space Station: An examination of cooperation, coordination, and control. Acta Astronautica,
154, 404-415.

Cullen, A., Bessette, G., & Mueller, R. (2019). Mars transportation architecture: A review of
current state of the art. In 2019 IEEE Aerospace Conference (pp. 1-16). IEEE.

Douglas, S. (2022, March 3). NASA Seeks Ideas for Handling Waste on Future Human
Missions to Mars. NASA.
https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/stmd/stmd-prizes-challenges-crowdsourcing-program/cent
er-of-excellence-for-collaborative-innovation-coeci/coeci-news/nasa-seeks-ideas-for-handlin
g-waste-on-future-human-missions-to-mars/
‌ eldmann, J. L., Colaprete, A., & Elphic, R. C. (2018). A modular Mars rover concept for
H
long-term surface exploration. Acta Astronautica, 153, pg.147-161.

Hofstede, G. (2017). Dimensionalizing cultures: The Hofstede model in context. Online

readings in psychology and culture, 2(1).

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. (2019). Mars Sample Return Mission Concept Study.
https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/mars-sample-return

Nair, S., Johnson, S., & Nissen, J. (2019). International collaboration in space exploration:
Benefits, challenges, and opportunities. Acta Astronautica, 155, pg.268-276.

NASA Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. (2017). Human factors and ergonomics for
habitat design on Mars. Retrieved from
https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/humansystemsdesignhandbook.pdf

Paterson, R. W., Bogner, A., & Kato, H. (2018). International collaboration in space
exploration: A framework for future missions. Acta Astronautica, 151, pg.193-200.

PLAEX Building Systems Inc. (n.d.). PLAEX Building Systems Inc. https://plaex.ca/

‌ mith, S., Zwart, S. R., & Heer, M. (2018). Human health and performance for long-duration
S
spaceflight. In Principles of clinical medicine for space flight (pp. 589-614). Springer, Cham.

Williams, D. R., & Davis, J. R. (2018). Habitability and future human missions to Mars: A
comprehensive literature survey. In 2018 IEEE Aerospace Conference (pp. 1-14). IEEE.
Christina’s research
Human Factors 1: Healthcare and Medical Support
https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/glenn/nasa-manages-astronaut-health-with-effective-diagnostics-research/
https://now.northropgrumman.com/how-do-astronauts-handle-medical-emergencies-in-space
Healthcare and medical support for the colony on Mars involve the establishment of advanced medical facilities
for diagnostics, emergency treatment and preventive care. There is also a need to establish telemedicine
protocols that can enable remote consultations with advanced technology and diagnostic tools. Medical team
members must receive training in basic medical procedures to ensure they can address any health issues
immediately and effectively.

Human Factors 2: Ethical and Legal Considerations

https://www.digital.nsw.gov.au/delivery/digital-service-toolkit/resources/building-a-service/governance
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0265964620300424
Ethical and Legal Consideration for Martian Consolidation involves certain elements such as autonomy,
informed consent and privacy. With governance framework, it must address the unique challenges that the
colony on Mars and ensure the protection of various topics like human rights and equitable distribution of
resources. The governance framework should also promote cooperation in resolving conflicts in a remote and
isolated environment.

Transportation 1: Interplanetary Transport System

https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/mission/timeline/surfaceops/navigation/
https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/timeline/cruise/
The Interplanetary Transport System revolves around the development of spacecraft capable of travelling
through vast distances between Earth and Mars efficiently and reliably. There should be great emphasis on a
system that will optimise the use of fuel and travel time to ensure sustainable and safe transportation for crew
and cargo in order to provide support for the colony.

Transportation 2: Landing and Surface Mobility

https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/mission/timeline/surfaceops/navigation/
The Landing and Surface Mobility of Mars enables the touchdown and exploration of Mars's surface. Advanced
designs in the land and ensure the safe deployment of resources while vehicles or rovers can explore and scout
for further resources. Having this system is vital for creating a suitable habitat location and can establish
infrastructure to support the colony.

International Collaboration 1: Exchange of Expertise

https://www.nber.org/reporter/2012number1/transfer-knowledge-across-countries
https://www.nasa.gov/ames/core-area-of-expertise-space-and-earth-science/
Exchange of Expertise is the mutual sharing of intelligence, skills knowledge and experience between the
collaborating nations. With the use of programs, research collaboration, and workshops all parties will benefit.
Experts in particular fields such as aerospace engineering, and planetary science can contribute to the
advancement of colonising Mars and can foster innovation and collaboration in space exploration endeavors.
Ailin’s Research:
HUMAN FACTORS:

Artificial gravity:

● The lack of gravity within Mars is one of the major challenges in creating a Martian society.
● Constructing an O’Neill cylinder would involve creating a cylindrical structure which makes a full
rotation every 2 minutes. This would generate a centripetal force which would then create an artificial
replication of Earth’s gravity.
● Taking the O’Neill cylinder as inspiration to create architecture and infrastructure using this method to
allow the creation of an artificial gravity.

Sustainable waste management:

● The build-up waste will begin to deteriorate the environment and also negatively impact the health of
the public. It can also inevitably result in climate change and the current environmental issues we face
on earth.
● Sustainable recycling and waste management methods such as Trash-to-Gas can be used to control and
dispose of waste.
● The Trash-to-Gas waste disposal method uses a thermal degradation process which converts waste
into a gas from which can be recycled and reused for other purposes or disposed of through a gas
venting system.

TRANSPORTATION:

Interplanetary transportation:

● The current travel time between earth and Mars is roughly seven months. To ease the transition and
transportation methods we need to create a more efficient system which ensures the health of its
passengers while also prioritising the speed of its arrival.
● Innovations in propulsion systems will provide the technology needed to reduce the travel time
between Earth and Mars. This will include either nuclear electric and/or nuclear thermal propulsion
systems.
● Another innovation which aids in the transportation process is an inflatable heat shield that NASA is
currently working on which allows spacecrafts to land on any planet with an atmosphere, delivering
cargo and passengers safely.

INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION:

Communication and power systems:

● It is also essential to create a system of communication between Mars and Earth to maintain
community and collaboration.
● Creating a laser communication system on Mars would allow for real time information to be
delivered to Earth. With the current radio system, communications between Mars and earth would take
nine years for a simple map to be delivered. The laser system can cut down this time to 9 weeks.
● Creating a nuclear fission power system on Mars would also provide a durable and efficient power
source capable of withstanding the environmental elements of Mars providing a source of electricity
and power.

Lea, R. (2022, May 21). Artificial gravity: Definition, future tech and research. Space.

https://www.space.com/artificial-gravity

What If. (2020, July 5). What If We Built an O'Neill Cylinder? [Video]. YouTube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CeD0bP6m6ZM
Douglas, S. (2022, March 3). NASA Seeks Ideas for Handling Waste on Future Human Missions to Mars.
NASA.

https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/stmd/stmd-prizes-challenges-crowdsourcing-program/center-of-excellence-fo
r-collaborative-innovation-coeci/coeci-news/nasa-seeks-ideas-for-handling-waste-on-future-human-missions-to-
mars/

NASA. (n.d.). Propulsion System.

https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/propulsion-system/

Hall, L. (2020, July 17). 6 Technologies NASA is Advancing to Send Humans to Mars. NASA.

https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/stmd/6-technologies-nasa-is-advancing-to-send-humans-to-mars/
Taylor’s Research

Human Factors

o Psychological Support
Psychological training program and support for travellers to prepare them mentally for the 9-month
journey, including coping with confinement, isolation, and the lengthy duration of the trip. This training
would also cover psychological preparation for life on Mars.

https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/hhp/behavioral-health/#:~:text=Astronauts%20receive%20extensive%
20training%20to,maintain%20motivation%20and%20increase%20morale.

https://medium.com/predict/the-psychological-preparation-for-mars-exploration-in-the-2030s-91a7bae3862c

.
Transportation
o By expanding the importance of spacecraft designs, and life support during the extended journey, we can develop
a necessary and safe transportation system for the mission to Mars.

https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20150003035/downloads/20150003035.pdf

https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/stmd/6-technologies-nasa-is-advancing-to-send-humans-to-mars/

Cost and research sharing

International collaborations. regarding expenses, technology developments.
o Significant costs are involved in the Mars missions, using international collaborations to share expenses to make
each mission more achievable.
o Sharing information and advancements in technology across research communities in each country contributes to
the success of missions and development.

https://share.america.gov/nasa-mars-mission-international-partners/#:~:text=When%20NASA%27s%20Perseve
rance%20rover%20searches,%2C%20Italy%2C%20Spain%20and%20Norway

https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Mars_Express/International_collaboration
Luu’s research

Human Factors

The initiative aims to integrate advanced recreational facilities within Martian habitats, focusing on promoting
physical well-being, mental health, and community bonding among the residents. The facilities would cater to
various interests and needs, ensuring accessibility and engagement for all inhabitants.

Supporting Research:

Physical Health in Confined Spaces

- Studies on the International Space Station (ISS) have shown that regular physical activity is crucial for
maintaining astronauts' health during long-duration space missions (Kozlovskaya et al., 2013).

Mental Health and Social Interaction

- Research emphasizes the importance of social interaction and leisure activities in maintaining mental health
in isolated and extreme environments, like space habitats (Stuster, J., 2010).

Design Proposal:

1. Modular Recreational Areas

- Implement modular designs that can be customized to suit the changing needs and preferences of the
habitat's residents, including sports facilities, relaxation zones, and social hubs.

2. Virtual Reality (VR) Environments:

- Utilize VR technology to simulate Earth-like environments or fantastical landscapes, offering residents

mental escapes and virtual exploration opportunities.

3. Community Gardens and Green Spaces:

- Incorporate hydroponic gardens and biophilic designs to foster relaxation and provide a connection to nature,
supporting mental well-being and facilitating social interaction.

4. Fitness and Physical Activity Centers:

- Equip fitness centers with space-efficient and multi-purpose exercise equipment designed for Mars' gravity.
Offer programs and activities that encourage regular physical activity and camaraderie among residents.

5. Arts and Culture Lounges:

 - Create spaces dedicated to the arts, offering resources for creative expression, cultural exchange, and
relaxation, enhancing the habitat's social fabric.

6. Educational and Skill-building Workshops:

- Organize workshops and classes that allow residents to learn new skills, pursue hobbies, and engage in
lifelong learning, fostering a sense of personal growth and community engagement.

References

Kozlovskaya, I. B., Grigoriev, A. I., & Stepantzov, V. I. (2013). Countermeasures for the negative effects of
weightlessness on physical systems in long-term space flights. *Acta Astronautica, 92*(2), 41-49.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actaastro.2013.03.015

Stuster, J. (2010). Behavioral issues associated with long-duration space expeditions: Review and analysis of
astronaut journals experiment 01-E104 (Journals). *NASA Technical Memorandum, 2010-216130*.
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20100023107

TRANSPORTATION:

The idea revolves around establishing a subsurface transit network on Mars to protect inhabitants and cargo
from the planet's harsh surface conditions, including extreme radiation and weather phenomena. This network,
consisting of tunnels and covered trenches, would utilise autonomous vehicle technology for transportation,
enhancing safety and operational efficiency.

Supporting Research:

● Discussing Martian environmental hazards, one could refer to the comprehensive information
available through NASA's Mars Exploration Program (NASA, n.d.).
● Regarding the critical aspect of radiation protection on Mars, Hassler et al.'s (2014) study
provides crucial insights into the radiation environment measured by the Mars Science
Laboratory's Curiosity Rover.
● In exploring autonomous vehicle technology suitable for Martian terrain, research by Frazzoli,
Dahleh, and Feron (2001) offers valuable perspectives on real-time motion planning for agile
autonomous vehicles.

Design Proposal:

1. Tunnel Engineering and Construction:

● Develop advanced tunnelling machines that can operate in Mars' unique soil and rock
composition. Utilise in-situ resource utilisation (ISRU) techniques to minimise the need for
Earth-imported materials.

2. Autonomous Transit Pods:

 ● Design autonomous pods for both passenger and cargo transport. These vehicles should be
equipped with AI-driven navigation systems optimised for underground travel, ensuring safety
and efficiency.

3. Renewable Energy Integration:

● Power the transit network with renewable energy sources. Solar panels at the surface entry
points could charge batteries used by the autonomous pods, supplemented by nuclear reactors
for continuous power supply.

4. Safety and Emergency Systems:

● Incorporate comprehensive safety measures within the tunnels, including emergency shelters,
robust communication systems, and automated health monitoring.

5. Modular and Scalable Design:

● Ensure that the tunnel system is modular, allowing for phased construction and expansion.
This approach facilitates scalability and adaptability to future needs and technologies.

6. Integration with Surface Infrastructure:

● Seamlessly connect the subsurface network with surface habitats, research facilities, and ports.
Design standardised docking stations and cargo transfer points for efficient operations.

References

NASA. (n.d.). Mars Exploration Program. Retrieved October 4, 2024, from https://mars.nasa.gov/

Hassler, D. M, Zeitlin, C., Wimmer-Schweingruber, R. F., Ehresmann, B., Rafkin, S.,

Eigenbrode, J. L., ... & Gómez-Elvira, J. (2014). Mars' surface radiation

environment measured with the Mars Science Laboratory's Curiosity Rover. Science,

343(6169), 1244797. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1244797

Frazzoli, E., Dahleh, M. A., & Feron, E. (2001). Real-time motion planning for agile autonomous

vehicles. Journal of Guidance, Control, and Dynamics, 25(1), 116-129. https://doi.org/10.2514/2.4701

International collaborations

The creation of a cooperative legal system and regulations for Mars aims to provide a foundational
structure that governs life, work, property ownership, environmental conservation, and public safety.
This system would be the result of collaborative efforts among Earth's nations and relevant
international organizations, ensuring that Martian law reflects a consensus that balances human
aspirations with the preservation of Mars for future generations.
Supporting Research:

1. International Space Law:

The Outer Space Treaty serves as the cornerstone of international space law, delineating principles
that govern the activities of states in the exploration and utilisation of outer space (United Nations
Office for Outer Space Affairs, 1967). This foundational document ensures that outer space remains
accessible for peaceful purposes, emphasising the importance of cooperation and mutual benefit
among spacefaring nations.
2. Environmental Protection on Mars:
Planetary protection policies play a critical role in space exploration, particularly in preventing
biological contamination. The meticulous analysis by Rummel et al. (2014) on "Special Regions" on
Mars underscores the necessity of stringent environmental regulations to safeguard Martian
ecosystems from potential terrestrial contamination. This research is pivotal in shaping future
environmental regulations on Mars, ensuring that exploration efforts do not compromise the planet's
integrity.

Design Proposal:
1. Martian Legal Charter: Draft a Martian Legal Charter that outlines the basic rights and responsibilities of
individuals and organisations on Mars. This charter would cover aspects such as property rights, resource
utilisation,scientific research, and cultural heritage.

2. International Mars Commission: Establish an International Mars Commission (IMC) comprised of

representatives from participating countries and organisations. The IMC would be responsible for overseeing the
implementation of the Martian Legal Charter, resolving disputes, and updating regulations as necessary.

3. Planetary Protection and Environmental Stewardship Agency: Create a specialized agency under the
IMC to enforce planetary protection protocols and environmental stewardship on Mars. This agency would also
conduct environmental impact assessments for proposed activities and developments.

4. Public Safety and Emergency Services: Develop a framework for public safety and emergency services
on Mars, including search and rescue, medical services, and disaster response. This framework would require
international cooperation to pool resources and expertise.

5. Mars Property and Resource Management: Implement a system for managing property and natural
resources on Mars, ensuring equitable access and sustainable use. This system would include land use planning,
resource extraction regulations, and habitat zoning.

References

United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs. (1967). Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities
of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.
Retrieved from https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/introouterspacetreaty.html

Rummel, J. D., Beaty, D. W., Jones, M. A., Bakermans, C.,

Barlow, N. G., Boston, P. J., ... & Meyer, M. A. (2014). A new analysis of

Mars "Special Regions": Findings of the second MEPAG Special Regions

Science Analysis Group (SR-SAG2). Astrobiology, 14(11),

887-968. https://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2014.1227