External Flow 8

8.1. Laminar Flow Over a Flat Plate—Approximate analysis of momentum equation—Approximate analysis of energy equation. 8.2. Reynolds
Colburn Analogy : Momentum and Heat Transfer Analogy for Laminar Flow Over Flat Plate. 8.3. Turbulent Flow Over a Flat Plate.
8.4. Combined Laminar and Turbulent Flow. 8.5. Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres—Drag coefficient—Heat transfer coefficient.
8.6. Summary—Review Questions—Problems—References and Suggested Reading.

When a fluid flows over a body such as plate, cylinder, ∂T ∂T ∂2T

sphere etc., it is regarded as an external flow. In such a Energy : u +v =α 2 ...(8.3)
∂x ∂y ∂y
flow, the boundary layer develops freely without any
constraints imposed by adjacent surfaces. Accordingly, 8.1.1. Approximate Analysis of Momentum Equation
the region of flow, outside the boundary layer in which Consider two-dimensional steady flow of an
the velocity and temperature gradients are negligible incompressible, constant property fluid along a flat plate
is called the free stream region.
as shown in Fig. 8.1.
In an external flow forced convection, the relative
motion between the fluid and the surface is maintained y y=d
by external means such as a fan or a pump and not by
u¥
buoyancy forces due to temperature gradients as in Velocity
boundary
natural convection. layer
In this chapter, our primary objective is to u¥
d(x)
determine the heat transfer coefficient and coefficient
dy
of friction for flow over different geometries such as flat u(x, y)
plate, cylinder and sphere, for both laminar and
turbulent flow conditions, we will discuss theoretical as x
well as empirical relation for both quantities. dx
1 2

8.1. LAMINAR FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE Fig. 8.1. Elemental control volume for integral momentum
equation analysis of laminar boundary layer
In the chapter 7, we have discussed that a flow is termed
To obtain momentum equation in the integral
the laminar flow until the critical Reynolds numbers
form, we must integrate above eqns. (8.1) and (8.2) in
Recr ≈ 5 × 105 is reached. Further, the coefficients of
the y-direction across the boundary layer. Integrating
friction and heat transfer are related to the velocity and
eqn. (8.1).

z z
temperature distribution in the flow, respectively. For
laminar boundary layer, continuity, momentum, and δ ∂u δ ∂v
dy + dy = 0
energy transfer equations with constant properties and 0 ∂x 0 ∂y
zero pressure gradients are: The boundary condition, v = 0 at y = 0

z
∂u ∂v
Continuity : + =0 ...(8.1) δ ∂u
∂x ∂y Then v(y = δ) = – dy
0 ∂x
∂u ∂u ∂ 2u ...(8.4)
Momentum : u +v =ν 2 ...(8.2)
∂x ∂y ∂y

266
 EXTERNAL FLOW 267

Similarly, integrating eqn. (8.2), u=0 at y = 0 ...(a)

z0
δ
u
∂u
∂x
dy + z0
δ
v
∂u
∂y
dy = ν
z0
δ ∂ 2u
∂y 2
dy
∂u
u = u∞ at y = δ ...(b)

z
=0 at y = δ …(c)
∂ ∂u δ FG IJ ∂y
= ν
0 ∂y ∂y
dy
H K and for constant pressure condition at surface
Integrating second term on L.H.S. by parts, we ∂ 2u
at y = 0, u = v = 0, therefore =0 ...(d)
get ∂y 2

z LM OP z LM OP
δ δ
δ ∂u δ ∂v ∂u On solving, we get coefficients as:
dy = ν
0
u
∂x
dy + uv
N Q 0
−
0
u
∂y ∂y N Q 0
C1 = 0, C2 =
3 u∞ u
, C3 = 0, and C4 = – ∞3
Using boundary conditions ; 2 δ 2δ
u = u∞ at y=δ Therefore, the velocity distribution in the
boundary layer becomes
∂u
=0 at y=δ u 3 y 1 y F I F I 3

Substituting, we get
∂y
u∞
=
2 δ
−
2 δ H K H K ...(8.7)

z z
Inserting the eqn. (8.7) into eqn. (8.6), we get

z LM RS 3 F y I − 1 F y I UVOP
δ ∂u δ ∂v ∂u
u dy + u∞ v − u dy = − ν d δ 3

|T 2 H δ K 2 H δ K |WPQ
0 ∂x 0 ∂y ∂y u∞ u∞ − u∞
...(8.5)
y=0
dx 0 MN
The –ve sign is inserted in above equation,
because shear force at wall (y = 0) acts in opposite RS 3 F y I − 1 F y I UV dy
3

direction. Substituting v from eqn. (8.4), we get |T 2 H δ K 2 H δ K |W

z0
δ
u
∂u
∂x
dy − u∞ z 0
δ ∂u
∂x
dy − z
0
δ RS
u −
T
∂
∂y z
0
δ ∂u
∂x
UV
dy dy
W =ν
∂ R|
S
∂y T|
∞u
3 F y I 1 F y I U|
G J− G J V
3

2 H δ K 2 H δ K W|
y=0

z LM 3 F y I − 9 F y I − 1 F y I
∂u 2 3
= −ν d δ

N2 H δ K 4 H δ K 2 H δ K
∂y y=0
or u∞ 2
dx

z z z
0

3 F yI 1 F yI O
δ ∂u δ ∂u δ ∂u ∂u 4 6
or
0
u
∂x
dy − u∞
0 ∂x
dy +
0
u
∂x
dy = – ν
∂y y=0
+
2 H δK
−
4 H δK Q
P dy
or u∞ z
0
δ ∂u
∂x
dy − 2 z 0
δ
u
∂u
∂x
dy = ν
∂u
∂y y=0
3 1
2δ
On integration it leads to
= ν u∞ ...(8.8)

It can be written in the form FG 3 u∞ IJ

z
d 39 2
∂ δ
(u∞u – u2) dy = ν
∂u H
dx 280
u∞ δ = ν
2 δ K ...(8.9)

0 ∂x ∂y y = 0
The free stream velocity u∞ is constant. The
Rearranging, we get

z
variables may be separated as
d δ ∂u
(u∞ − u) u dy = ν ...(8.6) 140 ν
dx 0 ∂y y = 0 δ dδ = dx
13 u∞
It is known as Von Karman integral equation for
momentum transfer in laminar boundary layer. The δ is function of x only, integrating leads to
Assuming velocity distribution in the four term δ2 140 νx
polynomial as = +C ...(8.10)
2 13 u∞
u(x) = C1 + C2y + C3y2 + C4y3
where C is constant of integration and it can be
The constants C1, C2, C3 and C4 are evaluated evaluated from initial condition,
with the following boundary conditions : δ = 0 at x = 0, it gives C = 0
 268 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Therefore, eqn. (8.10) becomes

δ2 =
280 νx
13 u∞
...(8.11)
=
1 0.646
L
×
u∞ /ν z L

0
x −1/2 dx

In dimensionless form 1.292 1.292

= = = 2C fx ...(8.17)
F δI 2
280 ν u∞ L Re L
H xK
x=L
= ν
13 u∞ x
u∞ L
δ ν 4.64 where ReL= , Reynolds number based on total plate
or = 4.64 = ...(8.12) ν
x u∞ x Re x
length, L. The average skin friction coefficient or
u∞ x coefficient of friction is often referred as the drag
where Rex = , the Reynolds number and δ = δ(x),
ν coefficient. The drag force acting on the plate
thickness of velocity boundary layer, at a distance Cf
x from the leading edge of the surface. ρ u∞2 As
F = τs A s = ...(8.18)
2
The exact solution of the boundary layer equation Mass flow rate through the boundary layer
yields to The mass flow rate per unit width through the
δ 5.0 boundary layer at any x position is given by

z
= ...(8.13)
x Re x δ

x =
m ρ u dy
Skin friction coefficient : 0
To evaluate the coefficient of friction, we consider Inserting eqn. (8.7) for u, we get
shear stress at the surface,

τs = µ
∂u
∂y

x = u∞
m z
0
δ
ρ
R| 3 FG y IJ − 1 FG y IJ
T
U| dy
S| 2 H δ K 2 H δ K
V|
W
3

Using eqn. (8.7), we get

y=0
= u∞
L 3 y − 1 × 1 y OP
ρM ×
2 4 δ

τs =
3 µ u∞ N2 2δ 2 4 δ Q 3
0
2 δ 5
Substituting δ from eqn. (8.12), we get It gives
x = ρ δ u∞
m ...(8.19)
8
3 µ u∞
u∞ x µ u∞ u∞ x 8.1.2. Approximate Analysis of Energy Equation
τs = ×
= 0.323
ν
2 4.64 x x ν The integral energy equation can be derived in similar
...(8.14) way as eqn. (8.6). In this case, we consider a control
Further, the shear stress can also be expressed volume for two dimensional steady flow of
in terms of coefficient of friction or skin friction incompressible fluid as shown in Fig. 8.2.
coefficient Cfx, as T¥
ρ u∞2 2 τs y Velocity
τs = C fx or Cfx = ...(8.15) u¥ boundary
2 ρ u∞ 2 layer
Thermal
Inserting eqn. (8.14) in eqn. (8.15), we get boundary
d(x) layer
µ u∞ u∞ x u(x, y)
Cfx = 2 × 0.323 dth
ρ u∞2 x ν T(x, y) Ts
x
= 0.646 ν 0.646 ...(8.16)
dx
= 1 2
u∞ x Re x
Fig. 8.2. Control volume for integral energy analysis of
It is the expression for local skin friction laminar boundary layer
coefficient Cfx.
The energy equation in differential form is given
The average value of coefficient of friction can be by eqn. (8.3).
evaluated by integrating eqn. (8.16) over entire plate.

z z
∂T ∂T ∂2T
1 L 1 L 0.646 u +v =α 2
Cf = C fx dx = dx ∂x ∂y ∂y
L 0 L 0 u∞ x For convenience, we introduce a dimensionless
ν temperature θ(x, y) as:
 EXTERNAL FLOW 269

T( x, y) − Ts 3α
θ(x, y) = ...(8.20) =
T∞ – Ts 2δ th u ∞
where θ(x, y) varies from zero at the wall surface to unity The integration with respect to y yields to
at the edge of thermal boundary layer. Now the energy
equation can be written in the form
LM
d 3 δ 2th 3 δ 2th
− +
3 δ 2th 1 δ 4th
−
∂θ ∂θ ∂ 2θ
dx 4 δ N 4 δ 20 δ 8 δ3
u
∂x
+v
∂y
=α 2
∂y
...(8.21)
+
3 δ 4th
−
1 δ 4th OP
=
3α
...(8.24)
Subjected to boundary conditions 20 δ 3 28 δ 3 Q2 δ th u∞
θ=0 at y = 0 We define new variable as
θ=1 at y = δth δ th
ξ= ...(8.25)
Using v from eqn. (8.4), we get resulting energy δ
equation in integral form as Then eqn. (8.24) becomes
d
dx
LM
N z 0
δ th
u (1 − θ) dy = α
OP
Q
∂θ
∂y y=0
...(8.22)
d
dx
δ
LM F
3 2
20NH
ξ –
3 4
280
ξ
I OP = 3 α
K Q 2 ξδu ∞
...(8.26)

Inserting the velocity distribution, eqn. (8.7) Let we consider the thermal boundary layer is
u 3 y 1 y F I F I 3 thinner than velocity boundary layer as shown in

u∞
=
2 δ
−
2 δ H K H K Fig. 8.2, for Pr > 1 the ξ < 1 and term
3
ξ4 becomes
Assuming temperature profile as 280
least, thus negligible. The eqn. (8.26) simplifies to
θ = C1 + C2y + C3y2 + C4y3
d 2 10 α
Subjected to boundary conditions ξδ (ξ δ ) =
dx u∞
θ=0 at y = 0
θ=1 at y = δth Differentiating w.r.t. x, we get
∂θ dξ dδ 10 α
=0 at y = δth 2ξ2 δ2 + ξ3 δ = ...(8.27)
∂y dx dx u∞
∂ 2θ d ξ 1 d ξ3
=0 at y = 0 Using ξ2 = , then
∂y 2 dx 3 dx
Applying, these boundary conditions, we get 2 2 d ξ3 dδ 10 α
dimensionless temperature distribution in the form δ + ξ3 δ = ...(8.28)
3 dx dx u∞
3 y F I
1 y F I 3 Using velocity boundary layer thickness in the
θ=
2 δ th GH JK
–
2 δ th GH JK ...(8.23) form
140 ν
Introducing velocity and temperature distribution δ dδ = dx
13 u∞
in eqn. (8.22 )
|RS
z
280 νx
d LM 3 F y I − 1 F y I OP
δ th 3 and δ2 =
13 u∞
|T N2 H δ K 2 H δ K Q
u∞
dx 0
Then eqn. (8.28) becomes
LM1 − 3 F y I + 1 F y I 3
OP dy
MN 2 GH δ JK 2 GH δ JK
d ξ 3 3 3 39 α
th th PQ x
dx
+ ξ =
4 56 ν

d L3 F y I 1 F y I O
3
3 4 dξ 13 α
=α M G J− G J P
dy M 2 H δ K 2 H δ K P
or ξ3 + x
3 dx
=
14 ν
...(8.29)
N Q th th
y=0 It is linear differential equation of first order in

or
d L
M
dx N z
F3 y – 9 y + 3 y
0
δ th
GH 2 δ 4 δδ 4 δδ th
2
3
th
4
ξ3 and its solution is
13 α
ξ3 = Cx–3/4 + ...(8.30)
1 3 1 I 14 ν
−
2δ 3
y3 + 3
4 δ δ th
y4 −
4δ 3
δ 3th
y6 JK dy where C is constant of integration and evaluated from
boundary conditions
 270 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

δth = 0 at x = 0 cannot be used for liquid metals with very low Prandtl
∴ ξ = 0 at x = 0 number and heavy oils or silicons. The Churchill and
Using, we get C=0 Ozoe have suggested the following correlations for
laminar flow on an isothermal plate
13 α
Then ξ3 = ...(8.31)
14 ν 0.387 Re 1/2
x Pr
1/3
Nux = ...(8.40)
1
Pr–1/3
LM1 + FG 0.0468 IJ OP
2 / 3 1/4

MN H Pr K
or ξ=
1.026
PQ
ν δ for Rex Pr > 100
where Pr = , Prandtl number and ξ = th
α δ Constant heat flux boundary condition
δ th 1 In many practical situations, the surface heat flux
Thus = Pr–1/3 ...(8.32) is constant and the temperature distribution on the plate
δ 1.026
This relation shows that the ratio of thermal to surface is to be determined. The local Nusselt number
velocity boundary layer thicknesses for laminar flow for constant heat flux condition on the plate is expressed
along a flat plate is inversely proportional to the cube by
root of the Prandtl number. Nux = 0.453 Rex1/2 Pr1/3 ...(8.41)
Substituting δ(x) from eqn. (8.12), we get The local Nusselt number can also be expressed
4.53 x in terms of heat flux q and local temperature difference
δth = ...(8.33)
Re 1/2 Pr 1/3 (Tx – T∞) as
Further, the local heat transfer coefficient is qx
defined by Nux = ...(8.42)
kf (Tx − T∞ )
kf (∂T/∂y) y = 0 kf (∂θ/∂y) y = 0
hx = – =− qx
Ts − T∞ Ts − T∞ or Tx – T∞ =
Nu x kf
1/ 2 1/3
3 kf 3 kf Re Pr The average temperature difference over entire
= =
2 δ th 2 4.53 x plate

= 0.332
x
kf
Re1/2 Pr1/3 ...(8.34) Ts – T∞ =
1
L z
0
L
(Tx − T∞ ) dx =
1
L z
0
L qx
Nu x kf

z
or Nux = 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3 ...(8.35)
1 L qx
h x = dx
where Nux = x = Local Nusselt number L 0 u∞
kf 0.453 x 1/2
Pr 1/3 kf
...(8.36) ν
Average heat transfer coefficient can be evaluated

h=
1
L z0
L
hx dx = 2hx x=L
...(8.37)
=
0.453L
q
u∞
Pr 1/3 kf
z
0
L
x 1/2 dx

ν
Thus NuL = 2 Nu x x=L qL
Ts – T∞ =
hL 0.6795 Re L 1/2 Pr 1/3 kf
or NuL = = 0.664 ReL1/2 Pr1/3 ...(8.38)
kf
kf
u L or q = 0.6795 ReL1/2 Pr1/3 (Ts – T∞)
where ReL = ∞ , Reynold number for entire flow L
ν ...(8.43)
length. Comparing eqn. (8.43) with
The fluid properties should be evaluated at mean
q = h (Ts – T∞)
film temperature
Ts + T∞ kf
Tf = ...(8.39) we get h = 0.6795 ReL1/2 Pr1/3
2 L
The eqn. (8.35) is applicable for laminar fluid kf
= 1.5 Nux=L = 1.5 hx=L ...(8.44)
flowing having Prandtl numbers between 0.6 and 50. It L
 EXTERNAL FLOW 271

With 3% error in constant. The eqn. (8.49) is called

8.2. REYNOLDS COLBURN ANALOGY : the Reynolds Colburn analogy, and it expresses the
MOMENTUM AND HEAT TRANSFER relation between fluid friction and heat transfer for
ANALOGY FOR LAMINAR FLOW OVER laminar flow over a flat plate.
FLAT PLATE For Pr ≅ 1, the eqn. (8.49) reduces to
C fx
If two or more processes are governed by similar Stx = ...(8.50)
dimensionless relations, the processes are said to be 2
analogous. The equations (8.2) and (8.3) for laminar flow It is called Reynolds analogy for laminar flow over
over flat plate are of the same form. a flat plate.
The local value of shear stress at the surface may
be expressed in terms of skin friction coefficient Cfx 8.3. TURBULENT FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE
FG C IJ ρ u
fx 2 In the turbulent boundary layer, it is very difficult to
τx =
H2K ∞ ...(8.45) predict the position of fluid lumps, thus the velocity and
temperature profiles can be approximated to give fruitful
Further, the shear stress at the surface can also result. The coefficient of friction and heat transfer
be expressed by equation coefficient are evaluated from empirical correlations
FG ∂u IJ based on experimental data.
τx = µ
H ∂y K y=0 1. (a) Local coefficient of friction Cfx
Using velocity distribution for boundary layer Based on the boundary layer theory given by
schlichting, the local skin or friction coefficient within
u 3 y 1 y RS UV 3
Reynolds number 5 × 105 and 107 is related as
u∞
= −
2 δ 2 δ T W Cf x = 0.0592 Rex–1/5
Valid for 5 × 105 < Rex < 107 ...(8.51)
3µ u∞
we get τx = At higher Reynolds number, the Schultz-Grunow
2δ
suggested the following correlation
4.64 x Cf x = 0.370 (ln Rex)–2.584
Using δ(x) =
Re x Valid for 107 < Rex < 109 ...(8.52)

3 µ u∞ ρu∞ x FG IJ 1/2 (b) Average friction coefficient, Cf

It yields to τx =
9.28 x
×
µ H K ...(8.46) The average friction coefficient over the entire
plate in the turbulent flow is determined by integrating
Equating equations (8.45) and (8.46) for shear eqn. (8.51) w.r.t. x,

z
stress at surface, we get
1 L
C fx µ u∞ FG
ρ u∞ x IJ 1/ 2
1 Cf =
L
C fx dx ...(8.53)
= 0.323 ×
H K 0

z
2 x µ ρu∞2
F µ IJ 1 L FG u IJ − 1/ 5
0.0592 x − 1/ 5 ×
H νK
1/2 ∞
C fx = dx
= 0.323 G L
or
H ρu x K = 0.323 Rex–1/2 0
2
FG IJ
z
∞
− 1/5
...(8.47) 0.0592 u L

Rewriting eqn. (8.35) as =

L H K
× ∞
ν 0
x − 1/5 dx
Nux = 0.332 Pr1/3 Rex1/2
Dividing both sides by Rex Pr, we get 0.0592 F u I
×G J
− 1/5
LM x OP 4/5 L

H νK
∞
=
Nu x
=
hx
= 0.332 Pr–2/3 Rex–1/2
L N4 / 5Q 0

= 0.074 FG
u LI
Re x Pr ρC pu∞ − 1/5

H ν JK
∞
or Stx Pr2/3 = 0.332 Rex–1/2 ...(8.48)
Comparing eqns. (8.47) and (8.48), we get
or Cf = 0.074 ReL–1/5 ...(8.54)
C fx
Stx Pr2/3 ≈ ...(8.49) Valid for 5 × 105 < ReL < 107
2
 272 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

2. The boundary layer thickness in turbulent

boundary can be obtained by following correlations.
Cfx
(a) If the boundary layer is completely turbulent, hx
starting from the leading edge, then
δ
= 0.381 Rex–1/5 ...(8.55)
x
(b) If boundary layer is laminar upto
Recr = 5 × 105 and then becomes fully turbulent, for such Laminar Turbulent
case, the thickness of boundary layer is given by
Transition

x
δ 0 L
= 0.381 Rex–1/5 – 10256 Rex–1 ...(8.56)
x Fig. 8.3. Variation of local friction and local heat transfer
Valid for 5 × 105 < Rex < 107 and 0.6 ≤ Pr ≤ 60 coefficients for flow over a flat plate
3. The heat transfer coefficient in turbulent
boundary layer can be obtained by using Reynolds h
Colburn analogy eqn. (8.49) ; h = haverage

C fx
Stx Pr2/3 =
2
Using Cfx from eqn. (8.51), we obtain
Stx Pr2/3 = 0.0296 Rex–0.2 ...(8.57)
Laminar Turbulent
The Local Nusselt number
Nux = Stx Rex Pr 0 xcr L
x

or Nux = 0.0296 Rex4/5 Pr1/3 ...(8.58) Fig. 8.4. Graphical representation for average heat transfer
Valid for 5 × 105 < Re < 107 and 0.6 < Pr < 60 coefficient for a flat plate with combined laminar and
turbulent flow
If Cfx is used from eqn. (8.52), we get
The friction coefficient for laminar and turbulent
Stx Pr2/3 = 0.185 {ln (Rex)}–2.584 ...(8.59) regions are
for 107 < Rex < 109 Cfx = 0.664 Rex–1/2 0 ≤ x ≤ xcr (laminar)
The average Nusselt number over the entire plate = 0.0592 Re–1/5 xcr ≤ x ≤ L (turbulent)
in turbulent flow is determined by integrating The average friction coefficient over the entire
eqn. (8.35), we get plate is obtained as
Nu = 0.037 ReL4/5 Pr1/3 ...(8.60)
Cf =
1
L
LM
N z xcr
C fx, laminar dx

z
0
Valid for 5 × 105 < ReL < 107 and 0.6 < Pr < 60
The eqns. (8.54) and (8.60) give average friction +
L OP
xcr
C f x, turbulent dx
Q ...(8.61)

z
and heat transfer coefficients, respectively for the entire
plate, when the flow is turbulent over the entire plate. 1 LM xcr
Fu I − 1/2
0.664 x − 1/2
H νK
∞
dx
=
L MN 0

8.4. COMBINED LAMINAR AND TURBULENT

FLOW + z L

xcr
0.0592 x − 1/5
Fu I
H νK
∞
− 1/5
dx
OP
PQ
In most of the cases, a flat plate is sufficiently long for 1 LM
u F I Fx I
− 1/ 2 1/ 2 xcr

the flow to become turbulent from laminar as shown in =

L
0.664 ∞
MN
ν H K GH 1/2 JK 0
Fig. 8.3. Consider a boundary layer flow along a flat
plate such that the flow is laminar over the region
F u I LM x OP − 1/5 4/5 L OP
H ν K N 4/5 Q
∞
0 ≤ x ≤ xcr and turbulent over the region xcr ≤ x ≤ L,
Fig. 8.4.
+ 0.0592
xcr
PQ
 EXTERNAL FLOW 273

After simplifying, we get Use relation NuL = 0.036 ReL0.8 Pr1/3

1742 and ρ = 1.092 kg/m3,
Cf = 0.074 ReL–1/5 – ...(8.62) µ = 19.123 × 10–6 Ns/m2
Re L
Valid for 5 × 105 < ReL < 107 kf = 0.0265 W/m.K,
Pr = 0.71.
In combined boundary conditions, the average
convection heat transfer coefficient for entire plate can Solution
also be determined by integrating hx over the laminar Given : A crank case of an automobile
region (0 ≤ x ≤ xcr) and then over turbulent region L = 0.6 m, w = 0.2 m, z = 0.1 m
(xcr ≤ x ≤ L) as

z z
Ts = 350 K, T∞ = 276 K, u∞ = 30 m/s.
1 LM x cr
hx , laminar dx +
L
hx , turbulent dx
OP To find: Heat transfer rate.
h=
L N 0 x cr Q Analysis: The Reynolds number
...(8.63)
ρu∞ L
Using eqns. (8.35) and (8.58) in laminar and ReL =
µ
turbulent regions, respectively.

h=
kf LM0.332 F u I
L MN H νK
∞
1/2

z
0
xcr
x 1/2
dx
=
(1.092 kg/m 3 ) × (30 m/s) × (0.6 m)
(19.123 × 10 − 6 N. s/m 2 )

z
= 1.03 × 106
Fu I 4/5 L OP From given relation, the average Nusselt number
H νK x 4 / 5 dx Pr1/3
∞
+ 0.0296
xcr PQ NuL = 0.036 ReL0.8 Pr1/3
Integrating and rearranging, we get = 0.036 × (1.03 × 106)0.8 × (0.71)1/3
NuL = [0.664 Recr1/2 + 0.037 = 2075
(Re4/5 4/5 1/3 Average convective heat transfer coefficient
L – Recr )] Pr ...(8.64)
or 4/5
NuL = (0.037 ReL – A) Pr 1/3 ...(8.65) Nu L kf 2075 × (0.0265 W/m. K )
h= =
where 4/5
A = 0.037 Recr – 0.664 Recr 1/2 L (0.6 m )
In typical transition, Reynolds number Recr = 91.6 W/m2·K
= 5 × 105, then the eqn. (8.65) reduces to Surface area of crank case,
As = (2 × 0.6 m × 0.2 m) + (2 × 0.2 m
hL
NuL = = (0.037 ReL4/5 – 871) Pr1/3 ...(8.66) × 0.1 m) = 0.28 m2
kf
Heat Transfer Rate,
Valid for 0.6 < Pr < 60 Q = hAs(Ts – T∞)
5 × 105 < ReL ≤ 108 = (91.6 W/m2.K) × (0.28 m2)
Recr = 5 × 105 × (350 – 276) (K) = 1898 W. Ans.
When a flat plate is subjected to uniform heat
Example 8.2. Air at 27°C and 1 atm flows over a flat
flux instead of uniform temperature, the local Nusselt plate at a speed of 2 m/s. Calculate the boundary layer
number in turbulent flow region thickness at distances of 0.2 m and 0.4 m from the leading
Nux = 0.0308 Rex4/5 Pr1/3 ...(8.67) edge of the plate. Calculate the mass flow rate, which enters
the boundary layer between x = 0.2 m and x = 0.4 m. The
Example 8.1. The crank case of an automobile is viscosity of air at 27°C is 1.85 × 10–5 kg/ms. Assume unit
approximated as 0.6 m long, 0.2 m wide, and 0.1 m deep. depth in z-direction.
Assuming that the surface temperature of the crank case
Solution
is 350 K. Estimate the rate of heat flow from the crank
case to atmosphere at 276 K at a road speed of 30 m/s. Given : Flow over a flat plate
Assume that the vibration of the engine and chassis T∞ = 27°C, p = 1 atm = 101.325 kN/m2,
induce the transmission from laminar to turbulent flow u∞ = 2 m/s, x1 = 0.2 m,
very near to leading edge that for practical purposes the x2 = 0.4 m, µ = 1.85 × 10–5 kg/ms.
boundary layer is turbulent over the entire surface. To find :
Neglect the radiation and use for the front and rear
surfaces, same heat transfer coefficient as for bottom and (i) Boundary layer at thickness δx=0.2, and δx=0.4
sides. (ii) Mass flow rate between δx=0.2, and δx=0.4.
 274 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Assumptions : Example 8.3. Air at 27°C and 1 atm flows over a heated
1. Steady state conditions. plate with a velocity of 2 m/s. The plate is at uniform
2. Gas constant R for air as 0.287 kJ/kg·K. temperature of 60°C. Calculate the heat transfer rate
3. Incompressible fluid flow with constant from (i) first 0.2 m of the plate, (ii) first 0.4 m of the
properties. plate. (N.M.U., Nov. 2000)
Analysis : The density of air can be calculated by Solution
using equation of state Given : The flow over a heated flat plate
p p T∞ = 27°C, p = 1 atm,
= RT∞ or ρ = u∞ = 2 m/s, Ts = 60°C,
ρ RT∞
x1 = 0.2 m, x2 = 0.4 m.
101.325 kN/m 2
or ρ= To find :
(0.287 kJ /kg . K ) × (27 + 273) (K )
= 1.177 kg/m3 (i) Heat transfer rate from first 0.2 m.
The Reynolds number is calculated as (ii) Heat transfer rate from first 0.4 m.
ρu∞ x Assumptions :
Rex = 1. No heat radiation exchange ;
µ
1.177 × 2 × 0.2 2. The unit depth in z-direction ;
At x = 0.2 m, Re x1 = = 25448 3. Air and surface temperatures are different,
1.85 × 10 − 5
taking the properties at mean film temperature.
1.177 × 2 × 0.4
At x = 0.4 m, Re x2 = = 50897 Properties of air : The mean film temperature
1.85 × 10 − 5
Ts + T∞ 60 + 27
(i) The boundary layer thickness is calculated by Tf = = = 43.5°C
2 2
using eqn. (8.13)
The properties of air at 43.5° C (from Table A-4
5x of appendix)
δ=
Re x ν = 17.36 × 10–6 m2/s, kf = 0.02749 W/m.K,
5 × 0.2 m Pr = 0.7, Cp = 1.006 kJ/kg.K.
At x = 0.2 m, δx = 0.2 = = 6.27 × 10–3 m
25448 Analysis : The Reynolds number at x = 0.2 m
= 6.027 mm. Ans. u∞ x1 (2 m/s) × (0.2 m)
Re x1 = = = 23041
5 × 0.4 m ν (17.36 × 10 − 6 m 2 /s)
At x = 0.4 m, δx = 0.4 = = 8.86 × 10–3 m
50897 (i) The heat transfer rate from first 0.2 m:
= 8.86 mm. Ans. The local value of heat transfer coefficient can be
(ii) To calculate the mass flow rate which enters calculated as
the boundary layer between x = 0.2 m and x = 0.4 m. hx x1
Nu x1 = 1 = 0.332 Re x11/2 Pr1/3
At any x position the mass flow rate in boundary kf
layer can be obtained by using eqn. (8.19) 0.332 × (0.02749 W/m .K )
or hx1 =
5 (0.2 m)
m
= ρu∞ δ
8 × (23041)1/2 × (0.7)1/3
2
= 6.15 W/m . K
Thus the mass that enters between two boundary
layers The average value of heat transfer coefficient
5 h1 = 2 hx1 = 2 × 6.15 = 12.3 W/m2. K

=
∆m ρu∞ {δx=0.4 – δx=0.2}
8 The heat transfer rate upto x = 0.2 m:
5 Q1 = h1 As (∆T)

= ×(1.177 kg/m3) × (2 m/s)
∆m
8 Q1
× [8.86 × 10–3 m – 6.27 × 10–3 m] or = (12.3 W/m2. K) × (0.2 m) × (60 – 27)(K)
L
= 3.82 × 10–3 kg/s. Ans. = 81.18 W/m. Ans.
 EXTERNAL FLOW 275

(ii) The heat transfer rate from first 0.4 m: Assumptions :

u∞ x2 2 × 0.4 1. No radiation heat exchange.
Reynolds no. Re x = = 2. The steady state heat transfer.
2 ν 17.36 × 10 − 6
3. Air and surface temperatures are different,
= 46082 taking the properties at mean film temperature.
The local value of heat transfer coefficient Properties of air : The mean film temperature
1/2 T + T∞ 60 + 10
Nu x2 = 0.332 Re x2 Pr1/3 Tf = s = = 35°C
2 2
0.02749 The properties of air at 35°C (from Table A-4)
or hx2 = × 0.332 × (46082)1/2 × (0.7)1/3
0.4 ρ = 1.1373 kg/m3, µ = 19 × 10–6 kg/ms,
= 4.35 W/m2. K kf = 0.0272 W/m K, Pr = 0.7,
Average heat transfer coefficient Cp = 1.006 kJ/kg K.
h2 = 2hx2 = 2 × 4.35 = 8.7 W/m2. K Analysis : The Reynolds number
ρu∞ x
The heat transfer rate Rex =
µ
Q2
= (8.7 W/m2. K) × (0.4 m) × (60 – 27)(K) (1.1373 kg/m 3 ) × (3 m/s) × (0.3 m )
L =
= 114.8 W/m. Ans. (19 × 10 − 6 kg/ms)
= 53872
Example 8.4. Air at 10°C and at a pressure of 100 kPa
is flowing over a plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. If the plate (i) The boundary layer thickness is calculated by
is 30 cm wide and at a temperature of 60°C. Calculate eqn. (8.13) :
the following quantities at x = 0.3 m. 5x 5 × 0.3 m
δ= = = 6.46 × 10–3 m
(i) Boundary layer thickness, Re x 53872
(ii) Local friction coefficient, = 6.46 mm. Ans.
(iii) Local shearing stress, (ii) The local friction coefficient :
(iv) Total drag force, 0.646 0.646
Cfx = = = 2.783 × 10–3. Ans.
(v) Thermal boundary layer thickness, Re x 53872
(vi) Local convective heat transfer coefficient, (iii) Local shear stress :
(vii) The heat transfer from the plate. C fx 2.783 × 10 − 3
τx = ρu∞2 = × 1.1373 × (3)2
Solution 2 2
Given : Flow over a flat plate = 0.0142 N/m2. Ans.
T∞ = 10°C, u∞ = 3 m/s, Ts = 60°C, (iv) Total drag force :
w = 30 cm = 0.3 m, p = 100 kPa x = 0.3 m. Drag force,
F = average shear stress × shear area = τs As
T¥ The average shear stress,
Air u¥ Ts = 60°C τs = 2 τx = 0.0284 N/m2
and shear area, As = w × L = 0.3 × 0.3 = 0.09 m2
Hence F = 0.0284 × 0.09
0.3 m
= 2.564 × 10–3 N. Ans.
Fig. 8.5. Flow of air over a heated plate
(v) Thickness of thermal boundary layer :
To find : δ 6.46
(i) Boundary layer thickness, δth = Pr − 1/3 = × (0.7)–1/3
1.026 1.026
(ii) Local friction coefficient, = 7.091 mm. Ans.
(iii) Local shearing stress, (vi) Local heat transfer coefficient :
(iv) Total drag force, Nux = 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3
(v) Thermal boundary layer thickness,
kf
(vi) Local convective heat transfer coefficient, or hx = × 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3
(vii) The heat transfer from the plate. x
 276 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

(0.0272 W/m.K ) u∞ π FG
π y IJ µu∞
=
(0.3 m)
× 0.332 and τs = µ
2δ
cos
H
2 δ K y=0
=π
2δ
...(i)
× (53872)1/2 × (0.7)1/3
2
= 6.2 W/m K. Ans. The temperature distribution
(vii) Heat transfer rate from the plate : T − Ts y FG IJ FG IJ
y
2

Q = h A s (∆T) T∞ − Ts
=2
δ th
−
H K H K
δ th
where average heat transfer coefficient,
d R| F y I F y I
2
U|
h = 2hx = 2 × 6.2 = 12.4 W/m2.K and
dT
= (T − T ) S2 G J − G J
dy | H δ K H δ K
V|
T W
∞ s
Hence, Q = (12.4 W/m2.K) × (0.09 m2) dy th th

× (60 – 10)(K) = 55.8 W. Ans.

|R F 1 IJ − 2 y |UV
= (T – T ) S2 G
Example 8.5. The air at a temperature of T∞ , flows over
a flat plate with a free stream velocity of u∞. The plate is
∞
|T H δ K (δ ) |W
s
th th
2

maintained at a constant temperature of Ts. The velocity FG dT IJ 2 2 (T∞ − Ts )

u and temperature T of air at any location are given by
u πy
H dy K y=0
= (T∞ − Ts )
δ th
=
δ th
= sin The heat transfer rate at the plate surface
u∞ 2δ
y F I F I
y
2
dT
and
T − Ts
T∞ − Ts
= 2
δ th
− GH JK GH JK
δ th
h(Ts – T∞) = – kf
dy y=0
where y is the distance measured from the plate along
its normal, and δ and δth are the hydrodynamic and − kf
LM 2 (T − T ) OP
∞ s
thermal boundary layer thicknesses, respectively. Find
the ratio of heat transfer coefficient to shear stress at the or h= N δ Q = 2k th f
...(ii)
(Ts − T∞ ) δ th
plate surface using following data :
u∞ = 10 m/s, δ/δth = Pr1/3, Dividing eqn. (ii) by eqn. (i), we get ratio of heat
–5 transfer coefficient to shear stress
µ(air) = 2.5 × 10 kg/ms, Ts = 200°C,
k(air) = 0.04 W/m.K, Cp(air) = 1000 J/kg.K, h 2kf 2δ 4 kf FG δ IJ = 4k f
T∞ = 50°C (N.I.T. Calicut, May 2003) τs
=
δ th
× =
πµu∞ πµu∞ H δ K πµu
th ∞
Pr1/3

Solution ...(iii)
Given : Flow of air over a flat plate. It is the desired ratio. Ans.

u πy T − Ts y FG IJ FG IJ
y
2
Now, Pr =
µC p
=
2.5 × 10 − 5 × 1000
= 0.625
u∞
= sin
2δ
,
T∞ − Ts
=2
δ th
−
H K H K
δ th kf 0.04
u∞ = 10 m/s. δ/δth = Pr1/3 h 4 × 0.04
and = × (0.625)1/3
Ts = 200°C T∞ = 50°C τs π × 2.5 × 10 − 5 × 10
–5
µ = 2.5 × 10 kg/ms, kf = 0.04 W/m.K = 174.18 m/s K. Ans.
Cp = 1000 J/kg.K. Example 8.6. Air at velocity of 3 m/s and at 20°C flows
To find : Ratio of heat transfer coefficient to shear over a flat plate along its length. The length, width and
stress. thickness of the plate are 100 cm, 50 cm, and 2 cm,
Analysis : The shear stress at the wall is given by respectively. The top surface of the plate is maintained
FG du IJ at 100°C. Calculate the heat lost by the plate and
temperature of bottom surface of the plate for the steady
τs = µ
H dy K y=0 state conditions. The thermal conductivity of the plate
may be taken as 23 W/m.K. (P.U., Nov. 1999)
Using velocity profile
u πy Solution
= sin Given : Flow over a flat plate
u∞ 2δ
T∞ = 20°C, u∞ = 3 m/s,
du d πyF I
π y π FG IJ
or
dy
= u∞
dy
sin
2δH= u∞ cos
K
2 δ 2δ H K Ts = 100°C, k = 23 W/m.K
 EXTERNAL FLOW 277

w = 0.5 m, z = 0.02 m, Q×z 270.7 × 0.02

or Tb = Ts + = 100 +
L = 100 cm = 1 m. kA 23 × (1 × 0.5)
= 100.47°C. Ans.
C
100° Example 8.7. A flat plate 1 m wide and 1.5 m long is
/s Ts = w
=0
3m .5 maintained at 90°C in air with free stream temperature
u¥ = m
z = 0.02 m
of 10°C flowing along 1.5 m side of the plate. Determine
the velocity of the air required to have a rate of energy
Ai dissipation as 3.75 kW.
ra 1m
L=
t2
0° Use correlations
C
NuL = 0.664 Re1/2 Pr1/3 for laminar flow;
0.8
NuL = [0.036 Re – 836] Pr 1/3
Fig. 8.6. Schematic for example 8.6
To find : for turbulent flow.
(i) Heat transfer rate from the plate. Take properties of air:
(ii) Temperature of bottom surface of the plate. ρ = 1.0877 kg/m3, µ = 2.029 × 10–5 kg/ms,
Assumptions : kf = 0.028 W/m K, Pr = 0.703,
1. No radiation heat exchange. Cp = 1.007 kJ/kg K. (P.U., May 1995)
2. Steady state heat transfer conditions. Solution
3. Air and surface temperatures are different, Given : Flow along a flat plate:
taking the properties at mean film temperature.
L = 1.5 m, w = 1 m,
Properties of fluid : The film temperature
T∞ = 10°C Ts = 90°C,
T + T∞ 100 + 20
Tf = s = = 60°C Q = 3.75 kW.
2 2
The properties of air at 60°C from Table A-4 : To find : The velocity of air.
ρ = 1.06 kg/m3, ν = 18.97 × 10–6 m2/s,
kf = 0.02894 W/m K, Pr = 0.696, Air
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg.K.
Analysis : The Reynolds number T¥ = 10°C
Ts = 90°C
u∞ L 3×1
ReL = = = 1.58 × 105
ν 18.97 × 10 − 6
L = 1.5 m
The ReL is less than 5 × 105, hence the flow is
laminar. Fig. 8.7. Schematic for example 8.7
Average heat transfer coefficient :
Assumptions :
NuL = 0.664 Re1/2L Pr
1/3
1. No radiation heat exchange.
kf
or h= × 0.664 Re1/2
L Pr
1/3
2. Steady state heat transfer conditions.
L
0.02894 3. Air flow on both sides of the plate.
h= × 0.664 × (1.58 × 105)1/2
1 Analysis : The heat transfer rate by convection is
× (0.696)1/3 given by :
2
= 6.77 W/m .K
Q = hAs(∆T)
(i) The average heat transfer rate from the plate:
Q = hAs (∆T) = 6.77 × (1 × 0.5) × (100 – 20) For two sides of the plate
= 270.7 W/m. Ans. 3.75 × 103 = 2h × (1.5 × 1) × (90 – 10)
(ii) The temperature of the bottom surface of the (∵ As = 2 sides × 1.5 × 1 m2)
plate:
or h = 15.625 W/m2.K.
Making the energy balance for the plate;
The Nusselt number,
kA(Tb − Ts )
Q= hL 15.625 × 1.5
z NuL = = = 837.05
kf 0.028
 278 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Assuming the laminar flow along the plate ; The properties of air at 300 K (from Table A-4)
NuL = 0.664 Re1/2 Pr1/3 kf = 0.026 W/m.K, Pr = 0.708,
or 837.05 = 0.664 Re1/2 × (0.703)1/3 ν = 16.8 × 10–6 m2/s, µ = 1.98 × 10–5 kg/ms.
or ReL = 2.01 × 106 Analysis : The Reynolds number
The Reynolds number ReL is greater than critical u∞ L 20 × 1.5
Reynolds number 5 × 105, hence assumption made is ReL = = = 1.785 × 106
ν 16.8 × 10 −6
wrong. The fluid flow is turbulent, using the relation ;
NuL = [0.036 Re0.8 – 836] Pr1/3 or ReL > 2 × 105, hence flow is turbulent at
Using the values ; x = 1.5 m
837.05 = [0.036 Re0.8 – 836] × (0.703)1/3 The critical length of flow for laminar boundary
layer can be calculated by using critical Reynolds
or Re0.8
L = 49371.8 number.
or ReL = 7.36 × 105
u x
Assumption made is correct. The velocity of air : Recr = ∞ cr
ρu∞ L ν
ReL = 2 × 10 5 × 16.8 × 10 − 6
µ or xcr = = 0.168 m
µ Re 2.029 × 10 − 5 × 7.36 × 10 5 20
u∞ = = (a) The average heat transfer coefficient for the
ρL 1.0877 × 1.5
laminar boundary layer :
= 9.15 m/s. Ans.
h xcr
Example 8.8. Atmospheric air at 275 K and free stream Nux = = 0.664 Re1/2
cr Pr
1/3
kf
velocity of 20 m/s flows over a 1.5 m long flat plate
kf
maintained at a uniform temperature of 325 K, calculate: h = 0.664 Re1/2 1/3
xcr cr Pr
(a) The average heat transfer coefficient over the
region of laminar boundary layer ; 0.664 × 0.026
= × (2 × 105)1/2 × (0.708)1/3
(b) The average heat transfer coefficient over the 0.168
entire length of 1.5 m ; = 41.0 W/m2.K. Ans.
(c) The total heat transfer rate from the plate to (b) The average heat transfer coefficient over
the air over 1.5 m length and 1 m wide. entire plate :
Assume transition occurs at Recr = 2 × 105. Since the flow is turbulent at x = 1.5 m and
(Mumbai University, May 2003) Reynolds number
Solution Re = 1.785 × 106
Given : T∞ = 275 K, u∞ = 20 m/s, Using eqn. (8.66) for average heat transfer
L = 1.5 m, w = 1 m, coefficient
Ts = 325 K Recr = 2 × 105 NuL = (0.037 ReL0.8 – 871)Pr1/3
To find : 0.026
(a) The average h over the region of laminar h= × [0.037 × (1.785 × 106)0.8 – 871]
1.5
boundary layer ; × (0.708)1/3
(b) The average h over the entire length of 1.5 m ; 2
= 43.8 W/m .K. Ans.
(c) The total heat transfer rate from the plate to (c) The total heat transfer rate
the air over 1.5 m length and 1 m wide.
Q = h As (∆T) = (43.8 W/m2·K)
Assumptions :
× (1.5 m × 1 m) × (325 – 275)(K)
1. No heat exchange by thermal radiation and
heat conduction. = 3290 W. Ans.
2. The steady state heat transfer. Example 8.9. The local atmospheric pressure at
3. Air and surface temperatures are different, Mahableshwar hill station in Maharashtra (1610 m from
taking the properties at mean film temperature. sea level) is 83.4 kPa. Air at this pressure and 20°C flows
Properties of air : The film temperature with a velocity of 8 m/s over a 1.5 m × 6 m flat plate
T + T∞ 275 + 325 whose temperature is 134°C. Determine the rate of heat
Tf = s = = 300 K transfer from the plate, if the air flows parallel to (a) 6 m
2 2
long side, and (b) the 1.5 m side.
 EXTERNAL FLOW 279

Solution The heat transfer rate

Given : Q = 11.07 × (1.5 × 6) × (134 – 20)
Air = 11,358 W. Ans.
T¥ = 20°C Ts = 134°C Example 8.10. An air stream at 0°C is flowing along a
1.5 m
heated plate at 90°C at a speed of 75 m/s. The plate is
u¥ = 8 m/s
45 cm long and 60 cm wide. Assuming the transition of
patm = 83.4 kPa
boundary layer takes plate at Recr= 5 × 105. Calculate
the average value of friction coefficient and heat transfer
6m coefficient for full length of the plate. Also calculate the
heat dissipation from the plate.
Fig. 8.8. Flow over a flat plate
(Anna Univ., March 2000)
To find : Rate of heat transfer from the plate, if
(a) L = 6 m, and (b) L = 1.5 m. Solution
Analysis : The film temperature Given : Air flows along a heated plate
T + Ts 20 + 134 L = 45 cm = 0.45 m, T∞ = 0°C
Tf = ∞ = = 77°C = 350 K
2 2 w = 60 cm = 0.6 m, Ts = 90°C
The density of air
Recr = 5 × 105, u∞ = 75 m/s
p 83.4 kPa
ρ= =
RT (0.287 kJ/kg.K) × (20 + 273) (K)
Air at
= 0.991 kg/m3 T¥ = 0°C
The density is only the function of pressure and
other properties are independent of pressure. Thus from
u¥ = 75 m/s Heated plate at
Table A-4 ; Ts = 90°C
kf = 0.030 W/m.K, µ = 2.075 × 10–5 kg/ms
Pr = 0.697
Fig. 8.9. Schematic for example 8.10
(a) When air flows parallel to 6 m side, the
Reynolds number To find :
ρu∞ L 0.991 × 8 × 6 (i) Average value of friction coefficient,
ReL = = = 2292434
µ 2.075 × 10 − 5 (ii) Average heat transfer coefficient,
which is greater than 5 × 105, thus there would be a (iii) Heat dissipation from the plate.
combined laminar and turbulent flow. The average
Assumptions :
Nusselt number
Nu = (0.037 ReL0.8 – 871) Pr1/3 (i) Steady state conditions.
= [0.037 × (2292434)0.8 – 871] (ii) Due to symmetry, the analysis for friction
× (0.697)1/3 = 3248 coefficient and heat transfer rate on one side of plate
Nu kf only.
3248 × 0.030
Then h = = = 16.25 W/m2.K (iii) Constant properties.
L 6
The heat transfer rate from the plate Analysis : The film temperature of fluid
Q = h (wL) (Ts – T∞) Ts + T∞ 90 + 0
= 16.25 × (1.5 × 6) × (134 – 20) Tf = = = 45°C ≈ 318 K
2 12
= 16,672 W. Ans.
The properties of air from Table A-4 :
(b) When air flows is parallel to 1.5 m side of plate
0.991 × 8 × 1.5 ρ = 1.113 kg/m3, Cp = 1.007 kJ/kg.K,
ReL = = 5.73 × 105 µ = 1.928 × 10–5 kg/ms
2.075 × 10 − 5
which is again slightly greagter than 5 × 105, thus using kf = 0.0276 W/m.K, Pr = 0.693
Nu = [0.037 (ReL)0.8 – 871] Pr1/3 = 553.5 (i) The Reynolds number for fluid flow
553.5 × 0.030 ρu∞ L 1.113 × 75 × 0.45
and h= = 11.07 W/m2.K ReL = = = 1.95 × 106
1.5 µ 1.928 × 10 − 5
 280 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

which is greater than 5 × 105, thus the flow becomes Analysis : The film temperature of air over the
turbulent at x = 0.45 m. For combined region of laminar plate
(upto Re = 5 × 105) and turbulent (Re > 5 × 105), the Ti + T∞ 30 + 470
Tf = = = 250°C
average friction coefficient is determined by eqn. (8.62) 2 2
1742 The properties of air at 250°C from Table A-4
Cf = 0.074 ReL–1/5 –
Re L ρ = 0.674 kg/m3, Cp = 1035 J/kg.K,
1742 ν = 41.79 × 10–6 m2/s, kf = 0.0427 W/m.K,
= 0.074 × (1.95 × 106)–1/5 – 6
1.95 × 10 Pr = 0.68
= 3.19 × 10–3. Ans. The Reynolds number
(ii) The average Nusselt number is given by u∞ L 2 × 0.4
ReL = = = 19143.33
eqn. (8.66) ν 41.79 × 10 − 6
hL which is less than 5 × 105, thus the flow is laminar.
Nu = = (0.037 ReL4/5 – 871) Pr1/3 For average Nusselt number, using
kf
hL
= {0.037 × (1.95 × 106)4/5 – 871} Nu = = 0.664 ReL1/2 Pr1/3
kf
× (0.693)1/3 = 2754.4
0.0427
and the heat transfer coefficient or h = 0.664 × × (19143.33)1/2 × (0.68)1/3
0.4
2754.4 × 0.0276 = 8.62 W/ m2.K
h= Making the energy balance on the plate
0.45
= 168.94 W/m2.K. Ans. Rate of internal energy gain = Rate of heat
(iii) The heat dissipation rate from the plate transfer to plate by convection and radiation
Q = h(2A)(Ts – T∞) = h (2wL) (Ts – T∞) dT
or mC = hAs (T∞ – Ti) + σε A(T4∞ – Ti4)
dt
= 168.94 × (2 × 0.6 × 0.45) × (90 – 0)
dT
= 8210.34 W. Ans. or ρ(Lwz) C = h(2wL) (T∞ – Ti) + σε (2wL) (T∞4 – Ti4)
dt
Example 8.11. Hot air at 470°C flows over a flat plate dT
40 cm × 20 cm and 3 mm thick at a velocity of 2 m/s or 8000 × (0.4 × 0.2 × 0.003) × 450 ×
dt
along the 40 cm side. The initial plate temperature is = 8.62 × (2 × 0.4 × 0.2) × (470 – 30)
30°C. The specific heat of the plate is 450 J/kg.K and + 5.667 × 10–8 × 0.85 × (2 × 0.4 × 0.2)
density of the plate material is 8000 kg/m3. Calculate × (7434 – 3034)
the initial temperature rise of the plate in °C/min, if the
dT
plate receives heat due to convection and radiation from or 864 = 606.85 + 2283.84 = 2890.7
both sides. dt
dT 2890.7
Assume emissivity of the plate is 0.85. or = = 3.345°C/sec
dt 864
Solution = 199.76°C/min. Ans.
Given : Hot air flows over a flat plate
Example 8.12. In a glass making process, a plate of
Ti = 30°C = 303 K, T∞ = 470°C = 743 K. glass 0.5 m × 2 m and 3 mm in thickness is cooled by
To find : The initial temperature rise of the plate blowing hot air with velocity 1 m/s in direction parallel
in °C/min. to plate, such that the rate of cooling is slow. The initial
glass plate temperature is 425°C and hot air tempera-
ture is 200°C. Estimate :
Ti = 30°C e = 0.85 z = 3 mm (i) Initial rate of cooling in °C/min.
T¥ = 470°C C = 450 J/kg.K
3 (ii) Time required for cooling from 425°C to
r = 8000 kg/m
u¥ = 2 m/s 375°C.
w = 20 cm Assume properties of glass as
L = 40 cm ρ = 2500 kg/m3, C = 0.76 kJ/kg.K
Fig. 8.10. Schematic for example 8.11
 EXTERNAL FLOW 281

and properties of air may be taken from following table: The average heat transfer coefficient

T °C ν × 106 m2/s kf (W/m.K) Pr ρ kg/m3

Nu L kf 118.2 × 0.046
h= =
L 2
200 34.85 0.039 0.68 0.746
= 2.72 W/m2.K.
300 48.33 0.046 0.67 0.615
(i) The initial rate of cooling :
400 63.09 0.051 0.66 0.524
The energy balance on glass plate yields :
Assume that air flow takes place on both sides of Rate of decrease of internal energy of plate
plate.
= Rate of heat convection from both sides
Solution of plate.
Given : Hot air is flowing across a glass plate dT
– mC = h(2A) (Ti – T∞)
T∞ = 200°C Ti = 425°C dt
z = 3 mm L=2m dT
or – ρVC = h(2wL) (Ti – T∞)
w = 0.5 m u∞ = 1 m/s dt
T = 375°C. dT
or – ρ(wL z)C = h(2wL) (Ti – T∞)
dt
dT
– 2500 × (0.5 × 2 × 3 × 10–3) × (0.76 × 103)
Cp = 0.76 kJ/kg. K 3 mm dt
T¥ = 200°C r = 2500 kg/m3
Ti = 425°C
= 2.72 × (2 × 0.5 × 2) × (425 – 200)
u¥ = 1 m/s
dT 1224
0.5 m or =– = – 0.214 °C/s
dt 5700
2m
= – 12.88 °C/min
Fig. 8.11. Schematic for example 8.12 The temperature decreases at the rate of 12.88°C
To find : per minute initially. Ans.
(i) Initial rate of cooling, (ii) Time required to cool the glass plate from
425°C to 375°C :
(ii) Time required for cooling of glass plate from
425°C to 375°C. Using lumped system analysis
Analysis : The film temperature of air T − T∞ FG
= exp −
h A st IJ
Ts + T∞ 400 + 200
Tf = = = 300°C
Ti − T∞ H ρVC K
2 2 F I
where mean surface temperature of plate G 2.72 × (2 × 2 × 0.5) t JJ
= exp G −
375 − 200
Ts =
425 + 375
= 400°C 425 − 200 GG 2500 × (2 × 0.5 × 3 × 10 )
−3
JJ
2
Thus the air properties should be used at 300°C.
H × 0.76 × 10 3
K
0.778 = exp L−
MN 5700 OPQ
ν = 48.33 × 10–6 m2/s, kf = 0.046 W/m.K, 5.44 t
or
Pr = 0.67, ρf = 0.615 kg/m3
The Reynolds number 5700
or t=– × ln(0.778) = 263.33 s
u∞ L 1× 2 5.44
ReL = = = 41382 = 4.39 min. Ans.
ν 48.33 × 10 − 6
which is less than Recr = 5 × 105, thus the flow is laminar.
Thus for average Nusselt number, using correlation 8.5. FLOW ACROSS CYLINDERS AND SPHERES
hL Another external flow involves fluid flow across circular
NuL = = 0.664 ReL1/2 Pr1/3
kf cylinders and spheres. The characteristic length for a
circular cylinder or sphere is taken to be the external
= 0.664 × (41382)1/2 × (0.67)1/3 = 118.2
diameter D. Thus the Reynolds number is defined as:
 282 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

ρu∞ D u∞ D Fig. 8.13 (a), the fluid flows the curvature of the cylinder.
ReD = = ...(8.68)
µ ν At higher velocities (Re > 2 × 105), the fluid wraps the
where u∞ is the uniform velocity of fluid as it approaches cylinder on frontal side and it is attached to the surface
the cylinder or sphere. The critical Reynolds number of cylinder as it approaches the top of the cylinder. As
for flow across a circular cylinder or sphere is boundary layer detaches from the surface, forming a
Recr = 2 × 105.
wake behind the cylinder as shown in Fig. 8.13 (b). This
The cross flow over a cylinder or sphere involves
complex flow pattern as shown in Fig. 8.12. point is called separation point.
Flow in wake region is characterised by random
Boundary
layer
Separation vortex formation and pressure is much lower than the
point
stagnation point pressure.
The flow separation occurs at about θ = 80°,
when the boundary layer is laminar and at about
θ = 140°, when it is turbulent.
u¥
q
8.5.1. Drag Coefficient
The flow across a circular cylinder or sphere strongly
influences the drag force FD acting on the body. This
drag force is caused by two effects : the friction drag,
Stagnation Wake
point which is due to shear stress at the boundary surface
and the pressure drag, which is due to the pressure
Fig. 8.12. Typical flow pattern in cross flow over
a circular cylinder differential between front and rear side of the body
As free stream fluid approaches the cylinder, it when wake is formed in the rear. The variation of
is brought to rest at the forward stagnation point with average drag coefficient CD for cross flow over a single
an increase in fluid pressure. Thus the fluid branches out circular cylinder and a sphere with Reynolds number are
and encircle cylinder forming a boundary layer, that presented in Fig. 8.14. The large decrease in CD for
wraps around the cylinder. The pressure decreases in Re > 2 × 105 is caused by transition to turbulent flow,
the flow direction, while fluid velocity increases. which moves the separation point further on the rear of
Laminar
the body reducing the size of wake and thus magnitude
boundary of pressure drag. The drag coefficient CD may be defined
layer
as

u¥ FD
CD = ...(8.69)
ρu∞ 2
Af
Separation 2
5
(a) Laminar flow (Re < 2 × 10 ) where Af = cylinder frontal area, normal to direction of
Laminar Transition Turbulent flow.
boundary boundary Af = LD for cylinder of length L
layer layer
π 2
= D for a sphere.
u¥ 4
The drag coefficient plays very important role in
Separation design of high speed vehicles like racing cars and
5
(b) Turbulence occurs (Re > 2 × 10 ) aeroplanes. The cars are manufactured with low inclined
Fig. 8.13. Flow pattern for cross flow over a cylinder for walls and glasses to reduce the drag coefficient.
various Reynolds number Aeroplanes are designed in the shape of birds and
At very low free stream (Re < 2 × 105), the fluid submarines in shape of fish in order to minimise drag
completely wraps around the cylinder as shown in coefficient, thus fuel consumption.
 EXTERNAL FLOW 283
400
200
100
60
40
20
10
6 Smooth cylinder
CD
4
2
1
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1 Sphere
0.06
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Re
Fig. 8.14. Average drag coefficient for cross flow over a smooth circular cylinder and a smooth sphere

0.62 Re D 1/2 Pr 1/3 LM1 + F Re I OP

5/ 8 4 /5

MN GH 28,200 JK
8.5.2. Heat Transfer Coefficient D
= 0.3 +
Flow across cylinders and spheres involves flow [1 + (0.4/Pr) 2 / 3 1/4
] PQ
separation, which make the analysis complicated. ...(8.70)
Therefore, such flow must be studied experimentally. Valid for ReD Pr > 0.2.
The complicated flow pattern across a cylinder discussed
earlier influences the heat transfer. The experimental 800
results of variation of the local Nusselt number Nuθ
around the circumference of cylinder, subjected to cross q
700 D
flow of air is shown in Fig. 8.15. Here, for all the cases,
the Nusselt number Nuθ is relatively high at the
600
stagnation point (θ = 0°), but it decreases with increase Re =
in θ due to thickening of boundary layer. The Nusselt 186
219
,000
number becomes minimum at the separation point 500
170
,00
0
,000
(between 80° to 100°) and then it further increases with Nu q
140
,000
increase in θ due to intense mixing of fluid in the 400
separated flow region. When transition from laminar to 101,
300
turbulent takes place, there is observed a sharp rise in
300
Nusselt number, and once again due to increase in 70,80
0
thickness of turbulent boundary layer, the Nusselt
number decreases. 200

The engineers are always interested in average

value of heat transfer coefficient over the entire surface. 100

Several relations are available in the literature. The

Churchill and Bernstein suggested the following empiri- 0
0° 40° 80° 120° 180°
cal relation for average Nusselt number, when cylinder
q from stagnation point
is in cross flow
Fig. 8.15. Variation of the local heat transfer coefficient
hD along the circumference of a circular cylinder in cross
Nucyl =
kf flow of air
 284 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

All the fluid properties must be evaluated at the 1

Tf = (T∞ + Ts).
1 2
film temperature Tf = (Ts + T∞). For flow over a sphere, Whitaker recommands the
2
The average Nusselt number for flow across cyl- following correction.
inders can be expressed in compact form as hD
Nusph = = 2 + [0.4 ReD1/2
hD kf
Nucyl =
kf
= C Rem Pr1/3 ...(8.71)
µ∞F I
1/4

The experimentally determined constants C and

2/3
+ 0.06 ReD ] Pr 0.4
µs
GH JK ...(8.72)
m are given in Table 8.1 for circular as well as for which is valid for
non-circular geometries. The characteristics length D
0.71 < Pr < 380
for use in calculation for Reynolds and Nusselt numbers
for different geometries are indicated on the figure. All 3.5 < ReD < 80,000
the fluid properties must be evaluated at film 1 < (µ∞/µs) < 3.2
temperature
TABLE 8.1. Empirical correlations for the average Nusselt number for forced convection over
circular and non-circular cylinders in cross-flow

Cross-section of the cylinder Fluid Range of Re Nusselt number

Circle Gas or 0.4 – 4 Nu = 0.989 Re0.330 Pr1/3
liquid 4 – 40 Nu = 0.911 Re0.385 Pr1/3
D 40 – 4000 Nu = 0.683 Re0.466 Pr1/3
4000 – 40,000 Nu = 0.193 Re0.618 Pr1/3
40,000 – 400,000 Nu = 0.027 Re0.805 Pr1/3
Square Gas 5000 – 100,000 Nu = 0.102 Re0.675 Pr1/3

Square Gas 5000 – 100,000 Nu = 0.246 Re0.588 Pr1/3

(tilted 45°)
D

Hexagon Gas 5000 – 100,000 Nu = 0.153 Re0.638 Pr1/3

Hexagon Gas 5000 – 19,500 Nu = 0.160 Re0.638 Pr1/3

(tilted 45°) 19,500 – 100,000 Nu = 0.0385 Re0.782 Pr1/3
D

Vertical Gas 4000 – 15,000 Nu = 0.228 Re0.731 Pr1/3

plate
D

Ellipse Gas 2500 – 15,000 Nu = 0.248 Re0.612 Pr1/3

D
 EXTERNAL FLOW 285

A special case of convection heat transfer from The heat dissipation rate
sphere when liquid droplets freely fall on the sphere, Q = h (πDL) (Ts – T∞)
the Ranz and Marshall suggested
= 55.56 × (π × 0.1 × 1) × (110 – 4)
Nusph = 2 + 0.6 ReD1/2 Pr1/3 ...(8.73)
= 1850.35 W. Ans.
Example 8.13. A long 10 cm diameter steam pipe is
exposed to atmospheric air at 4°C. The outer surface of Example 8.14. A metallic bar of 25 mm diameter is
the pipe is at 110°C and air is flowing across the pipe at cooled by air at 30°C, cross-flowing past the bar with a
the velocity of 8 m/s. Determine the rate of heat loss from velocity of 2.5 m/s. If the surface temperature of the bar
the pipe per unit of its length. is not to exceed 85°C and resistivity of the metal is
Solution 0.015 × 10–6 Ohm per metre. Calculate (i) the heat
Given : A long pipe exposed to air in cross flow. transfer coefficient from the surface to air, and (ii) the
To find : The heat transfer rate from pipe per permissible current intensity for the bus bar.
unit length. (P.U.P., May 2002)
Analysis : The properties of air at 1-atm pressure
Solution
and the film temperature of Tf = 21 (T∞ + Ts) = 21 (4 + 110) Given : Flow across a metallic bar
= 57°C = 330 K are: D = 25 mm = 0.025 m, T∞ = 30°C
Ts = 110°C u∞ = 2.5 m/s, Ts = 85°C
ρ = 0.015 × 10–6 ohm/m
D = 10 cm To find :
(i) The heat transfer coefficient,
(ii) Permissible current intensity for the bus bar.
Air T¥ = 4°C Analysis : The properties of air at
u¥ = 8 m/s
1 1
Tf = (Ts + T∞ ) = (85 + 30)
Fig. 8.16. Schematic for example 8.13 2 2
= 57.5°C = 330.5 K
kf = 0.0283 W/(m.K)
ν = 18.65 × 10–6 m2/s,
ν = 1.86 × 10–5 m2/s
kf = 0.0288 W/m.K, Pr = 0.696
Pr = 0.708
(i) Heat transfer coefficient :
The Reynolds number of the flow is
The Reynolds number
u∞ D (8 m/s)(0.1 m) u∞ D 2.5 × 0.025
ReD = = = 43,011 =
ν 1.86 × 10 − 5 m 2 /s ReD = = 3351.2
ν 18.65 × 10 − 6
The Nusselt number for flow across a cylinder The average Nusselt number for flow across a
can be calculated as cylinder can be given by
0.62 Re 1/2 1/3 NuD = CRem D Pr
1/3
D Pr
Nu = 0.3 + where m = 0.466 and C = 0.683 for Re = 3351.2 from
[1 + (0.4/Pr) 2 / 3 ]1/ 4
Table 8.1, thus
L F Re I
× M1 + G
OP
5/8 4 /5

MN H 28,200 JK
D NuD = 0.683 × (3351.2)0.466 × (0.696)1/3 = 26.6
PQ The heat transfer coefficient
0.62 × (43011) 1/2 × (0.708) 1/3 Nu D kf 26.6 × 0.0288
= 0.3 + h= =
[1 + (0.4/0.708) 2 / 3 1/4
] D 0.025
LM F 43011 I OP
5/8 4 /5
2
= 30.63 W/m .K. Ans.

MN GH 28,200 JK
× 1+ = 196.34 (ii) Permissible current intensity :
PQ Heat dissipation rate for 1 metre of bar
Nu kf 196.34 × 0.0283 Q = hAs (∆T) = h (πDL) (∆T)
and h= =
D 01
. = 30.63 × (π × 0.025 × 1) × (85 – 30)
= 55.56 W/m2.K = 132.33 W
 286 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

Heat generation rate in bus bar for 1 metre of The rate of heat transfer from cylinder surface
bar. per metre length
F ρL I = I LM ρL OP
= I2 Re = I2 GH A JK N (π/4) D Q
c
2
2
Q
L
= (πD) h (∆T)

= I2
LM 0.015 × 10 × 1OP = 30.557 × 10
−6
–6 I2
= (π × 0.05 m) × (100.6 W/m2. K)
× (127 – 27)(K)
N (π/4) × (0.025) Q
2
= 1581 W/m. Ans.
In steady state conditions (ii) Square tube : With vertical height of 0.05 m
Heat dissipation rate = Heat generation rate u∞ L
132.33 = 30.557 × 10–6 I2 Re = = 5.975 × 104
ν
or I2 = 4330489 or I = 2081 A. Ans. Nu = 0.102 Re0.675 Pr1/3
Example 8.15. Air at 27°C is flowing across a tube with
0.102 × 0.03 × (5.975 × 10 4 ) 0.675
a velocity of 25 m/s. The tube could be either a square of
5 cm side or a circular cylinder of 5 cm dia. Compare × (0.7) 1/3
or h=
the rate of heat transfer in each case, if the tube surface 0.05
is at 127°C. = 91.02 W/m2. K
Use the correlation : Nu = C Ren Pr1/3 The rate of heat transfer from cylinder surface
where, C = 0.027, n = 0.805 for cylinder per metre length
C = 0.102, n = 0.675 for square tube.
Q
Solution = hAs (∆T)
Given : Flow across the square and circular tube L
D = 5 cm, Ts = 127°C, = (91.02 W/m2. K) × (4 × 0.05 m)
T∞ = 27°C, u∞ = 25 m/s. × (127 – 27)(K)
To find : Heat transfer rate in each case. = 1820 W/m. Ans.
Assumptions : The heat transfer rate from square tube is higher
1. No radiation heat exchange. than that from circular tube.
2. The steady state heat transfer conditions. Example 8.16. Air stream at 27°C moving at 0.3 m/s
3. Air and surface temperatures are different, across 100 W incandescent bulb, glowing at 127°C. If
taking the properties at mean film temperature. the bulb is approximated by a 60 mm diameter sphere,
Properties of air : The mean film temperature estimate the heat transfer rate and the percentage of
T + T∞ 27 + 127 power lost due to convection.
Tf = s = = 77°C
2 2 Use correlation Nu = 0.37 ReD0.6.
The properties of air at 77°C = 350 K
(N.M.U., Dec. 2002)
ρ = 0.955 kg/m3, kf = 0.03 W/m.K,
ν = 20.92 × 10–6 m2/s. Pr = 0.7, Solution
Cp = 1.009 kJ/kg. K. Given : Flow over a electric bulb :
Analysis : (i) The cylindrical tube : T∞ = 27°C, u∞ = 0.3 m/s, P = 100 W,
The Reynolds number, Ts = 127°C, D = 60 mm = 0.06 m.
u D 25 × 0.05 To find :
Re = ∞ = = 5.975 × 104 (i) The heat transfer rate.
ν 20.92 × 10 − 6
The Nusselt number, (ii) Percentage of power lost due to convection.
hD Properties of fluid : The film temperature
Nu = = 0.027 Re0.805 Pr1/3
kf Ts + T∞ 127 + 27
Tf = = = 77°C = 350 K=
0.03 2 2
or h= × 0.027 × (5.975 × 104)0.805
0.05 The properties of air at 77°C are
× (0.7)1/3 ν = 2.09 × 10–5 m2/s,
= 100.6 W/m .K2
kf = 0.03 W/m.K.
 EXTERNAL FLOW 287

Solution
Given : A decorative plastic film on a copper
Air sphere to be cured ;
D = 10 mm, u∞ = 10 m/s,
27°C
Ti = 75°C, T∞ = 23°C
3 m/s 127°C T = 35°C, p = 1 atm.
100 W

Air

10 m/s Copper
sphere
23°C
Fig. 8.17. Schematic of an incandescent bulb
Assumptions :
1. Spherical shape of the electric bulb. Fig. 8.18. Schematic for example 8.17
2. No radiation heat exchange.
To find : The time required to cool the sphere to
3. The steady state heat transfer conditions.
35°C.
Analysis : The Reynolds number
Assumptions :
u D 0.3 × 0.06
ReD = ∞ = = 865.3 1. No radiation heat exchange.
ν 2.09 × 10 − 5
2. The steady state heat transfer conditions.
NuD = 0.37 ReD0.6 = 0.37 × (865.3)0.6 = 21.4
The heat transfer coefficient 3. Internal temperature gradients within the
kf 0.03 sphere are negligible.
h= Nu D = × 21.4 = 10.7 W/m2. K
D 0.06 Analysis : The time required to cool the sphere
(i) The heat transfer rate: can be calculated by
Q = hAs(Ts – T∞) = h(πD2)(Ts – T∞)
= (10.7 W/m2. K) × π × (0.06 m)2 θ
=
T − T∞
= exp −
RS
ht UV
× (127 – 27)(K) θ i Ti − T∞ T
ρδC W
= 12.10 W. Ans.
where, δ = characteristic length, and it is calculated
(ii) The percentage of heat lost by forced
for sphere as ;
convection:
Q 12.10 V D 0.01m
= × 100 = × 100 = 12.1%. Ans. δ= = = = 0.001667 m
P 100 As 6 6
Example 8.17. A decorative plastic film on a copper and h is the heat transfer coefficient, can be calculated
sphere, 10 mm in diameter is cured in an oven at 75°C. by using eqn. (8.72) :
The sphere is suddenly removed from the oven and
NuD = 2 + (0.4 ReD1/2 + 0.06 ReD2/3) Pr0.4 [µ∞/µs]1/4
exposed to an air stream at 1 atm. and 23°C, flowing at
10 m/s. Estimate how long, it will take to cool the sphere u∞ D (10 m/s) × (0.01 m)
where, ReD = = = 6510
to 35°C. ν 15.36 × 10 − 6 m 2 /s
Take properties of copper as :
Hence the Nusselt number ;
ρ = 8933 kg/m3, k = 399 W/m.K,
NuD = 2 + {0.4 × (6510)1/2 + 0.06 × (6510)2/3}
C = 387 J/kg.K.
and properties of air at 296 K as :
× (0.709)0.4 ×
LM 181.6 × 10 −7
kg/ms OP 1/ 4

ν = 15.36 × 10 –6 m2/s, kf = 0.0258 W/m.K, N 197.8 × 10 –7

kg/ms Q
Pr = 0.709, µ = 181.6 × 10 –7 kg/ms
= 47.4
and for air at 328 K, µ = 197.8 × 10 –7 kg/ms.
and the heat transfer coefficients ;
(N.M.U., May 1998)
 288 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

kf
= 47.4 ×
0.0258 W/m . K 35 − 23
= exp −
RS 122t UV
h = Nu
D 0.01 m 75 − 23 T
8933 × 0.001667 × 387 W
or ln (12/52) = – (122/5762)t
= 122 W/m2.K
or t = 69.13 sec. Ans.
Now using the values for calculation of time
required for cooling ;

8.6. SUMMARY
TABLE 8.2. Summary of convection heat transfer correlations for external flow

Correlation Geometry Conditions and properties at

δ = 5x/Rex–1/2 Flat plate Laminar, Tf

Cfx = 0.646 Rex–1/2 Flat plate Laminar, local, Tf

Nux = 0.332 Rex1/2 Pr1/3 Flat plate > 0.6

Laminar, local, Tf, Pr ~

δth ≈ δ Pr–1/3 Flat plate Laminar, Tf

Cf = 1.292 ReL–1/2 Flat plate Laminar, average, Tf

NuL = 0.664 ReL1/2 Pr1/3 Flat plate > 0.6

Laminar, average, Tf, Pr ~

Nux = 0.565 Pex1/2 Flat plate < 0.05

Laminar, local, Tf, Pr ~

Cfx = 0.0592 Rex–1/5 Flat plate < 108

Turbulent, local, Tf , Rex ~

δ = 0.37x Rex–1/5 Flat plate < 108

Turbulent, local, Tf , Rex ~

Nux = 0.0296 Rex4/5 Pr1/3 Flat plate < 108, 0.6 ~

Turbulent, local, Tf , Rex ~ < Pr ~
< 60

Cf = 0.074 ReL–1/5 – 1742 ReL–1 Flat plate < 108

Mixed, average, Tf , Recr = 5 × 105, ReL ~

NuL = (0.037 ReL4/5 – 871) Pr1/3 Flat plate Mixed, average, Tf , Recr = 5 × 105,
< 108, 0.6 < Pr < 60
ReL ~

Nu D = CReDmPr1/3 Cylinder Average, Tf , 0.4 < ReD < 4 × 105,

(and m from Table 8.1) > 0.7
Pr ~

NuD = 0.3 + {0.62 ReD1/2 Pr1/3/[1 + (0.4/ Cylinder Average, Tf , ReD Pr > 0.2
Pr)2/3]1/4}[1 + (ReD/28,200)5/8]4/5

NuD = 2 + (0.4 ReD1/2 + 0.06 ReD2/3)Pr0.4 Sphere Average, T∞ , 3.5 < ReD < 7.6 × 104,
. (µ∞/µs)1/4 0.71 < Pr < 380, 1.0 < (µ∞/µs) < 3.2

NuD = 2 + 0.6 ReD1/2Pr1/3 [25(x/D)–0.7] Falling drop Average, T∞

m,
NuD = CReD 0.36(Pr /Pr )1/4 Average, T∞, 1000 < ReD < 2 × 106,
maxPr ∞ s Tube bank
0.7 < Pr < 500
EXTERNAL FLOW 289

REVIEW QUESTIONS 4. Air at 24°C flows along a 4 m long flat plate with a
velocity of 5 m/s. The plate is maintained at 130°C.
1. Where is the heat flux be higher for laminar forced
Calculate the heat transfer coefficient over the entire
convection from a horizontal flat plate at leading edge
length of the plate and the heat transfer rate per metre
or trailing edge ?
with of the plate. [Ans. 9.73 W/m2. K, 4120 W/m]
2. How does the flow in thermal boundary layer over a 5. Air flows along a thin plate with a velocity of 2.5 m/s.
flat plate differ from the flow outside the thermal The plate is 1 m long and 1 m wide. Estimate
boundary layer ? the boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge
3. How are average friction and heat transfer coefficients of the plate and the force necessary to hold the plate
in the stream of air. The air has a viscosity of
determined in flow over a flat plate ?
0.86 × 10–5 kg/ms and a density of 1.12 kg/m3.
4. When a fluid flows over a cylinder, why does the drag [Ans. 8.1 mm, 0.0158 N]
coefficient suddenly drop, when the flow becomes 6. Air flows along a thin flat plate 1 m wide and 1.5 m
turbulent ? long at a velocity of 1 m/s. The free stream
5. Why is the flow separation in flow over cylinders temperature is 4°C. Calculate the amount of heat that
delayed in turbulent flow ? must be supplied to plate in order to maintain it at a
uniform temperature of 50°C. [Ans. 441.6 W]
6. Why are racing cars and airplanes designed
7. Atmospheric air at 300 K and free stream velocity of
aerodynamic ?
30 m/s flows across a single tube. Water at 60°C enters
7. Which car will consume less fuel; one with sharp a tube of 25 mm diameter at mean fluid velocity of
corners and other one is contoured in shape of an 2 m/s. Calculate the exit temperature of water, if the
ellipse ? tube is 3 m long and wall temperature is constant at
100°C. [Ans. 77°C]
8. Explain the Reynolds Colburn analogy for laminar
8. Forced air at 30°C flows over a square flat plate
flow over a plate.
maintained at 110°C. The drag force experienced by
9. Explain Reynolds Chilton analogy for turbulent flow the plate is 12 N. Using the Reynolds Colburn
over a flat plate. analogy, to calculate the heat transfer coefficient and
10. Explain the heat transfer phenomenon, when a fluid heat loss from the plate surface. Assume flow is
flows across a bluff body. turbulent. [Ans. 80.22 W/m2.K, 10285.84 W]
9. A refrigerated truck carrying the food stuff is speeding
on a highway at 95 km/h in a desert area, where the
PROBLEMS ambient air temperature is 50°C. The body of the
truck may be considered as a rectangular box, 10 m
1. Air at atmospheric pressure and 400 K flows over a
long, 4 m wide and 3 m high. Consider the boundary
flat plate with a velocity of 5 m/s. The transition from
layer on four walls to be turbulent and the heat is
laminar to turbulent occurs at a Reynold number of
transferred from these four surfaces. If the wall
5 × 105; determine the distance from the leading edge
surfaces of the truck are maintained at 10°C.
of the plate at which transition takes place. Calculate the following :
[Ans. 2.59 m] (a) Heat loss from the four vertical surfaces ;
2. Atmospheric air at 27°C flows along a flat plate with (b) Power required to overcome the resistance acting
a velocity of 8 m/s. The critical Reynolds number at on surfaces. [Ans. (a) 320.08 W, (b) 3.88 kW]
which transition from laminar to turbulent takes 10. The atmospheric air at 30°C flows past a flat plate
place is 5 × 105. with a sharp leading edge. The velocity of the air is
(a) Determine the distance from the leading edge of 4 m/s. The plate is heated uniformly throughout its
the plate at which the transition occurs ; entire length and is maintained at a surface
(b) Determine the local coefficient of friction at the temperature of 50°C. Assuming that the transition
location where transition occurs ; and occurs at a critical Reynolds number of 5 × 105, find
(c) Determine the average drag coefficient over the the distance from the leading edge at which the flow
distance where the flow is laminar. is in the boundary layer changes from laminar to
turbulent. At this location, calculate (a) thickness of
[Ans. (a) 1.05 m, (b) 9.1358 × 10–4, (c) 0.072 N]
hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers ; (b) total
3. Air at atmospheric pressure and 54°C flows with a drag force per unit width of the plate; (c) heat transfer
velocity over a 1 m long flat plate maintained at rate ; (d) mass enters the layer.
200°C, calculate the average shear stress and heat [Hint. Consider surface area of both sides of the
transfer coefficient over 1 m length of the plate. plate] (N.M.U., Nov. 1999)
Determine the rate of heat transfer between the plate [Ans. (a) 13.9 mm, 15.258 mm ; (b) 6.98 N ;
and air per metre width of the plate.
(c) 445.2 W ; (d) 140.76 kg/h]
[Ans. 1790 W/m]
290 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

11. Air at 27°C and 1 bar flows over a flat plate at a speed (ii) The local heat flux and surface shear stress at
of 2 m/s, the trailing edge,
(i) Calculate the boundary layer thickness at (iii) The total drag force and heat transfer per unit
400 mm from the leading edge of the plate. Find width of the plate.
the mass flow rate per unit width of the plate. 15. Air at 25°C and atmospheric pressure flows at a
Take µ = 19.8 × 10–6 kg/ms at 27°C. velocity of 25 m/s over both surfaces of a 1 m long
flat plate, maintained at 125°C. Calculate the rate
(ii) The plate is maintained at 60°C, calculate the
of heat transfer per unit width from the plate for the
heat transfer rate per hour. Use following
value of critical Reynolds number corresponding to
properties of air
105, 5 × 105 and 106.
ν = 17.36 × 10–6 m2/s, 16. A circular pipe 25 mm outside diameter is exposed
kf = 0.0275 W/m.K to an air stream at 27°C and 1 atm. The air moves in
Cp = 1006 J/kg.K, cross flow over the pipe at 15 m/s, while the outer
R = 287 J/kg.K, Pr = 0.7. surface of the pipe is maintained at 100°C. What is
the drag force exerted on the pipe per unit length?
[Ans. (i) δ = 8.57 mm, m
= 0.01242 kg/s, What is the rate of heat transfer from the pipe per
(ii) Q = 416.7 kJ/h] unit length ?
12. Air at 20°C and at atmospheric pressure flows at a 17. Atmospheric air at 27°C is flowing at a velocity of
velocity of 4.5 m/s past a flat plate with a sharp 15 m/s. What is the rate of heat transfer per unit
leading edge. The entire plate surface is maintained length from the following surfaces, each at 77°C,
at a temperature of 60°C. Assuming that the when the air is in cross flow over the surface ?
transition occurs at Re = 5 × 105, find the distance (i) A circular cylinder 10 mm in diameter,
from the leading edge, at which the flow in the (ii) A square cylinder 10 mm on a side,
boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent, (iii) A vertical plate 10 mm high.
at this location calculate :
18. An uninsulated steam pipe is used to transport steam
(i) Thickness of hydrodynamic and thermal boundary from one building to another. The pipe is 0.5 m in
layers, diameter has a surface temperature of 150°C and is
(ii) Local and average heat transfer coefficients, exposed to atmospheric air at 30°C. The air moves
(iii) Heat transfer rate from both sides for unit width in cross-flow over the pipe with a velocity of 5 m/s.
of the plate, What is the heat loss per unit length of the pipe ?
(iv) The skin friction coefficient. 19. Water at 20°C flows over a 20 mm diameter sphere
[Ans. xcr = 1.88 m, (i) 12.34 mm, 13.55 mm, with a velocity of 5 m/s. The surface of the sphere is
(ii) 3.05 W/m2.K, 6.1 W/m2.K, at 60°C. What is the drag force on the sphere ? What
(iii) 917.44 W, (iv) 9.136 × 10–4] is the heat transfer rate from the sphere ?
13. Air at 20°C and at a pressure of 1 bar is flowing over 20. Atmospheric air at 27°C and at a velocity of 0.5 m/s
a flat plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. If the plate is 280 mm flows over a 40 W bulb, whose surface is at 140°C.
wide and at 56°C. Calculate the following quantities The bulb may be approximated as a sphere of 50 mm
at x = 280 mm diameter. What is the heat loss by convection to air?
(i) Boundary layer thickness. 21. A 25 mm diameter sphere is to be maintained at 50°C
(ii) Local friction coefficient, in either an air stream or a water stream, both at
(iii) Average friction coefficient, 20°C, and 2 m/s, velocity. Compare the rate of heat
(iv) Shearing stress due to friction, transfer and drag force for two fluids.
(v) Thickness of thermal boundary layer. 22. Steam at 1 atm and 100°C is flowing across a 5 cm
outer diameter tube at a velocity of 6 m/s.
(vi) Local heat transfer coefficient,
Estimate Nusselt number, heat transfer coefficient
(vii) Average heat transfer coefficient,
and heat transfer rate per metre length of the pipe,
(viii) Rate of heat transfer by convection, if the pipe is at 200°C.
(ix) Drag force on the plate, and 23. An electric transmission line of 1.2 cm diameter
(x) Total mass flow rate through the boundary. carries a current of 200 A and has a resistance of
[Ans. (i) 6.26 mm, (ii) 0.00296, (iii) 0.00594, 3 × 10–4 ohm per metre length. If air at 16°C and
(iv) 0.0152 N/m2, (v) 7.05 mm, (vi) 6.43 W/m2.K, 33 km/h is flowing across it, calculate surface
(vii) 12.86 W/m2.K, (viii) 36.3 W, (ix) 0.0012 N temperature of wire.
(x) 0.01335 kg/s] 24. A long hexagonal copper extrusion is removed from
14. Engine oil at 100°C and at a velocity of 0.1 m/s flows a oven at 400°C and exposed to air at 50°C, flowing
past a flat plate maintained at 20°C. Determine: across it at 10 m/s. The surface of the copper has an
(i) The velocity and thermal boundary layer emissivity of 0.9 due to oxidation. The rod is 3 cm
thicknesses at the trailing edge, across opposite flat sides and has an cross-sectional
EXTERNAL FLOW 291
area of 7.79 cm2 and perimeter of 10.4 cm. Calculate The resistance wire is exposed to an air stream at
the time required for the centre of the copper to cool 30°C, with velocity of 7 m/s. Calculate the surface
to 100°C. temperature of the wire.
25. A stainless steel pin fin 5 cm long, 6 mm outer
33. Air at 20°C and atmospheric pressure is flowing over
diameter extends from a flat plate into an air stream
a flat plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. If the plate is 30 cm
flowing at 175 m/s. Estimate (i) average heat transfer
wide and at a temperature of 60°C, calculate at
coefficient, (ii) temperature at the end of fin, (iii) the
x = 0.3 m;
rate of heat flow from the fin.
Take plate temperature as 650°C and air steam (i) Thickness of velocity and thermal boundary
temperature as 30°C. layers,
26. During a cold winter day air at 15.27 m/s is blowing (ii) Local and average friction coefficients,
parallel to 4 m high and 10 m long wall of a house. If (iii) Local and average heat transfer coefficients,
outside air is at 5°C and wall is maintained at 12°C,
(iv) Total drag force on the plate,
calculate the rate of heat loss from the wall by
convection. What would be the heat dissipation rate, (v) Heat transfer rate.
if air velocity is doubled ? [Ans. 9212 W, 16,408 W] Take the following properties of air at 313 K
27. The top surface of a container truck moving at 70 km/h ρ = 1.18 kg/m3, ν = 17 × 10–6 m2/s
is 2.8 m wide and 8 m long. The top surface is absorbing
kf = 0.0272 W/m.K, Cp = 1.007 kJ/kg.K
net solar radiation at the rate of 200 W/m2, while it is
exposed to ambient air at 30°C. Assuming the roof of Pr = 0.705. (V.T.U., Karnataka, July 2002)
the truck is perfectly insulated and the radiation heat [Ans. (i) 6.52 mm, 7.14 mm
exchange with the surroundings to be negligible, (ii) 2.80 × 10–3, 5.61 × 10–3
calculate the equilibrium temperature of the top
(iii) 6.16 W/m2.K, 12.32 W/m2.K
surface of the container.
(iv) 2.68 × 10–3 N
28. A stainless steel ball (ρ = 8055 kg/m3, C = 480 J/kg.K)
of diameter 15 cm is removed from the oven at a (v) 44.46 W]
uniform temperature of 350°C. The ball is then 34. The air at atmospheric pressure and at 40°C flows
exposed to atmospheric air at 30°C with velocity of with a velocity 8 m/s along a flat plate, 3 m long,
6 m/s. The surface temperature of the ball eventually which is maintained at a uniform temperature of
drops to 250°C. Determine the average heat transfer 100°C. Calculate the local heat transfer coefficient
coefficient during the cooling process and calculate at the end of the plate and average heat transfer
the time for cooling process. coefficient over entire length of the plate. Assume
29. A person extends his uncovered arms into an air Recr = 2 × 105. [Ans. 18.93 W/m2.K, 20.62 W/m2.K]
stream at 6°C and 30 km/h in order to feel cooling. 35. Assuming a man as a cylinder of 40 cm diameter
Initially the skin temperature of the arm is at 37°C. and 1.72 m high with a surface temperature of 37°C.
Consider the arm as 60 cm long and 7.5 cm diameter Calculate the heat lost from its body, while standing
cylinder, calculate the rate of heat dissipation from in wind flowing at 20 km per hour at 17°C.
an arm.
30. A long aluminium wire of 3 mm diameter is extruded Use the relation : NuD = 0.027 ReD0.805 Pr1/3.
at a temperature of 350°C. The air at 35°C flow across [Ans. 947.43 W]
the wire at 6 m/s, velocity. Calculate the rate of heat
transfer from a wire to air per metre length, when it
is first exposed to air.
Ts = 37°C
31. Consider a person who is trying to keep his body cool
in a hot summer day by turning a fan on and exposing
his entire body to an air stream at 30°C. The fan is
blowing air at a velocity of 2 m/s. If the person is doing
some light work and generating sensible heat at a Air
rate of 100 W, calculate the average temperature of
outer skin of the person. The average human body T
= 17°C D L = 1.72 m
can be treated as a 30 cm diameter cylinder with an
u
= 20 km/h
exposed surface area of 1.7 m2. Neglect heat loss by
radiation. Also calculate the heat dissipation rate
from the body if air velocity is doubled.
[Ans. 33.8°C, 32.2 °C]
32. A 4 m long, 1.5 kW electric resistance wire is made of
0.25 cm diameter stainless steel (k = 15.1 W/m.K).
Fig. 8.19. Schematic for problem 35
 292 ENGINEERING HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

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York, 1985. 11. Holman, J.P., “Heat Transfer”, 7th ed. McGraw Hill,
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