Master’s Thesis

CULTURAL CHANGES IN THE MANIPURI

ETHNIC COMMUNITY
An Ethnographic Study on two Villages of Moulvibazar District in Bangladesh

Submitted to
The Institute of Social Welfare & Research, University of Dhaka.

Researcher
Roll No. 81074
Registration No. 2016517026
Course: MSS-204 (Thesis)
MSS 2nd Semester Final Examination: 2021 (Session: 2020-21)

January 2023
 Cultural Changes in the Manipuri Ethnic Community: An Ethnographic
Study on two Villages of Moulvibazar District in Bangladesh

Researcher
Roll No. 81074
Registration No. 2016517026
Course: MSS-204 (Thesis)
MSS 2nd Semester Final Examination: 2021 (Session: 2020-21)

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Social Science (MSS) in
Social Welfare, this report is presented to the Institute of Social Welfare & Research,
University of Dhaka.

Supervisor

…………………………
Professor
Institute of Social Welfare and Research, University of Dhaka

January 2023
 Abstract

Title : Cultural Changes in the Manipuri Ethnic Community: An Ethnographic

Study on two Villages of Moulvibazar District in Bangladesh

Author : Student‘s Examination Roll: 81074

Supervisor : Professor, ISWR, DU
Keywords : Cultural changes, Manipuri ethnic community, Bangladesh

The Manipuri community is one of the 50 ethnic groups in Bangladesh. They are
known in the country and the whole world through their own enriching culture. The
aim of this study is to understand the cultural changes of the Manipuri community in
this diverse culture. Among the ethnic peoples of the plains, Manipuris are the most
prosperous in terms of education and economy. They have their own language and
alphabet; they also have very old and rich literature. In a short time, the Manipuri
ethnic community has moved in step with the mainstream population. In order to
know how much the culture has changed with their development over the course of
time, this research has been done on the current cultural changes among the three
specific generations among them. The study was conducted on Manipuri ethnic
residents of two villages named Bhanubil (Majher Gaon) and Nayapattan in the
Moulvibazar district.

In this study, I tried to explore the different changes in cultural aspects of the
Manipuri ethnic community including their family pattern and values, marriage
systems and rituals, beliefs and religion, festivals and recreation, language, literature
and myth, food habits, dressing and ornaments, occupations and professions, housing
pattern and environment and cultural patterns etc.

The study set specific objectives and according to formulated research objectives.
This study has used ethnographic research design. In-depth ethnographic interview
schedule, participant observation, observation checklist, informal conversation and all
the conventional techniques have been used for data collection and thematic analysis
of all the achieved data has been presented using theme based indicators.

i
Findings of the research present a diverse picture of Manipuri cultural changes
which includes overall lifestyles. Modernization, urbanization, education,
progressiveness and awareness have resulted in visible cultural changes among them.
They are currently in a transition period that is affecting their native cultural practices.

ii
 Glossary

Apokpa and Sanamahism: Ancient religion of Manipuri community.

Meitei Manipuri: Migrated from Manipur province of India with original Manipuri
ethnic background. The term Meitei is used as synonym of Manipuri.

Mondop (Laisang-Mondop): Prayer place of Manipuri people which designed

according to religious customs.

Panchyet (Leipaak): An administrative organization of Manipuri para and villages,

but these organizations have no official recognition in this country.

Rash Purnima: One of the largest religious festivals of the Manipuri‘s.

Vishnupria: A section of the population who migrated from the Manipur province of
India who claim and they have government recognition as Manipuri ethnic group but
Meiteis disagree their claim as Manipuri ethnic community.

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 Executive Summary

Bangladesh is a culturally diverse country of fifty small ethnic groups. The Manipuri
community is one of the recognized ethnic communities and lives in the plain land of
the country. Their own language, alphabet, literature, clothing, food and lifestyle are
very unique. Ethnologically, they belong to the Kuki-Chin group of the Tibeto-
Burman family of the Mongolian race. Meitei Lon or Manipuri language, the mother
tongue of these people, belongs to the Tibeto-Burman sub-family of the Mongolian
family of languages. Although Manipuris are patriarchal, women have also been
contributing to their economy since ancient times. Manipuris have expanded in
education and economy in a very short period of time and today they are almost
hundred percent literate. Manipuris are the most educated ethnic community in
Bangladesh. Manipuri dress, garments and ornaments are also a glory of their unique
culture. Their rich culture and the centuries-old tradition can also be depicted in their
handloom woven clothes and the handicrafts that they make till death.

At the time structural modifications have come in their social lifestyles and they are
progressively dropping their wealthy culture. In the context of dynamically changed
conditions and from the views of globalization in the world the standards of
transformation, absorption, integration and many others have been coming in the
forefront. There are several studies on the habitat, socio-economic status and
development of the Manipuris in the country. But their rich cultural change is absent
in those studies.

The aim of this study is to explore the changes in Manipuri culture. Some objectives
and areas have been selected to make the research more specific. Although the main
objective of the study is to know about the cultural changes in the Manipuri ethnic
community, as well as the reasons for the changes, the resulting problems they face
and their own perception of these changes. The most suitable research method to learn
about the culture of a community or group is the ethnographic method, so the
ethnographic method has been used in this study. And the concentration of Manipuri
people is highest in the Moulvibazar district, so the research is done on some typical
Manipuri families of two villages of this district named Bhanubil (Majhergaon) and
Nayapattan. To measure cultural changes, three specific generations were compared
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in their living strategies and cultural patterns. Participant observation and in-depth
ethnographic interview schedules were used for data collection. Also, the results of
the study are analyzed and justified with established relevant theories and literature.
Findings point out some changes that the Manipuri community and authorities should
be aware of.

The family structure of Manipuris is traditionally joint in nature. From this study and
observation, it is found that most of the Manipuris are living in joint families and most
of the members of their families are job holders and students. Although the nuclear
family is not among the family pattern and value practices of the Manipuri culture,
gradually the popularity of this type of family is increasing in Manipuri society, under
the influence of modernity. Although the religious customs of Manipuri marriage
have not changed much, the social customs have remained relatively visible over the
three generations. Changes in religion and belief are complicated. We know
Manipuris believe in multiple religions. Their original religion is Apokpa or
Sanamahism and they have been followers of Hinduism since the sixteenth century.
Many of them have come to the realization that, just as they are re-adapting their
ancient language, they are adopting their ancient religion Apokpa or Sanamahism. In
Sanamahism, there is no caste system and Brahman concept, there is no complexity of
religious practices, hence this religion is popular among them.

They celebrate all Hindu festivals (do not worship Shakti except Durga Puja), New
year celebrations, and Ningol Chakouba but Raspurnima is the biggest festival in their
culture. In entertainment and recreation, they were family oriented, now in recreation
and leisure, they are almost self-oriented and the internet and technology are playing a
big role here. Manipuri culture has a rich and colorful tradition. Dance and music play
a vital role in the life span of the Manipuri people. As they have a rich language and
now the state of Manipur conducts all its official work and communication in this
language, the Manipuris of this country have taken the initiative to learn the written
form of their language, which will play a milestone role in the development of their
culture. They follow their traditional customs and social structure, and although the
rules have become easier than before, they are less rigid in the development of
education. Meanwhile, they are thriving in job and business sectors keeping with

v
mainstream society. They claim to be dynastic and therefore strive for economic
prosperity.

Manipuri food habit, hospitality, dress, ornaments, and housing pattern have changed
a lot from generation to generation through their socio-economic development.
Today the influence of mainstream society and modernization is visible in these areas.
Their perception about these changes is also varied. Many of this community support
the changes, while others do not like. But they are determined to keep the genuine
aspects of their culture intact as much as possible. They face problems like communal
conflict with the Vishnupriya community, lack of recognition as an ethnic
community, less participation in politics, cultural hegemony from the mainstream
society, etc. challenges they face which need to be addressed immediately.

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 Acknowledgments

For conducting this thesis report, many people provided their support and help in a
various way. My first and most gratitude go to Almighty Allah. At the very
beginning, I expressed my deepest thanks and sincere gratitude to my honorable
teacher and supervisor of this thesis. He has given me a professional touch of social
research knowledge in the research field. All the stages of my thesis, his directions,
valuable guidance and suggestions have helped me to complete this thesis report.

I want to express high gratefulness to all the respondents, their family members and
their neighbors for their cordial support. I am also grateful to the public
representatives and government officials of the Adampur Union, Manipuri Lalitakala
Academy and Manipuri Cultural Complex, Moulvibazar.

I would also like to thank all of my teachers of the Institute of Social Welfare and
Research, University of Dhaka, who enriched my knowledge. My gratitude is also to
the librarian, and other staff of the library of the Institute of Social Welfare and
Research, University of Dhaka, for helping me find out necessary books relevant to
my study.

Grateful appreciations are due to A K Sheram, Professor Dr. Tulshi Kumar Das
(SUST), Professor Dr. Faisal Ahmmed (SUST), Lakshmikanta Singha (ECDO),
Nangkopoli Sinha (ECDO), Niranjan Singha (Community Based Tourism, Bhanubil),
Md. Abdul Matin (Ex Head Teacher of Tetoigaon high school, Adampur), Hazi
Abdus Samad, Chandra Shekhar Singha, Prahalat Singha, Sudipta Singha, Morshed
Alam, Tohedul Islam and all of my friends and others who helped me through their
support and cooperation while doing this thesis report.

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 Table of Contents

Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... i
Glossary ..................................................................................................................................... iii
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................... iv
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................................... vii
CHAPTER - 1: PRELIMINARIES .................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Statement of the Problem.......................................................................................... 1
1.2 Review of Literature and Showing the Justification of the Study .............................. 2
1.3 Objectives of the Study .............................................................................................. 3
1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study............................................................................ 3
1.5 Methods in Brief......................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Structure of the Thesis ............................................................................................... 4
1.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER - 2: CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY ......................... 5
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 5
2.2 Conceptual Framework .............................................................................................. 5
2.3 Conceptional Frame (Including Operational Definitions) of this Study ..................... 6
2.3.1 Ethnic Community .............................................................................................. 6
2.3.2 Culture ................................................................................................................ 7
2.3.3 Cultural Change .................................................................................................. 7
2.3.4 Manipuri Ethnic Community .............................................................................. 8
2.3.5 Three Generations.............................................................................................. 8
2.4 Theoretical Framework of this Study ......................................................................... 8
2.4.1 Theory of Cultural Lag ...................................................................................... 11
2.4.2 Theory of Assimilation...................................................................................... 11
2.4.3 Diffusion Theory ............................................................................................... 13
2.4.4 Cultural Hegemony Theory .............................................................................. 13
2.4.5 Cultural Adaptation .......................................................................................... 14
2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 14
CHAPTER - 3: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ..................................................................... 15
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 15

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 3.2 Review of Existing Related Literature of the Study .................................................. 15
3.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 20
CHAPTER - 4: THE SKETCH OF THE MANIPURI ETHNIC COMMUNITY: A LITERARY REFLECTION
.................................................................................................................................................. 22
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 22
4.2 The Sketch of the Manipuri Ethnic Community ....................................................... 22
4.2.1 Settlement in Bangladesh and Geographical Concentration ........................... 23
4.2.2 Origin of the Manipuri Ethnic Community ....................................................... 23
4.2.3 Language .......................................................................................................... 24
4.2.4 Religion and Beliefs .......................................................................................... 24
4.2.5 Marriage System and Rituals............................................................................ 25
4.2.6 Customs and Traditions.................................................................................... 26
4.2.7 Manipuri Dress and Ornaments ....................................................................... 27
4.2.8 Manipuri Dance and Songs .............................................................................. 28
4.2.9 Food Habit ........................................................................................................ 29
4.2.10 Festivals ............................................................................................................ 29
4.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 30
CHAPTER - 5: METHODOLOGY AND METHODS ....................................................................... 32
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 32
5.2 Philosophical Stance of the Study ............................................................................ 32
5.3 Methods of the Study .............................................................................................. 34
5.3.1 The Approach or the Main Method ................................................................. 34
5.3.2 The Study Locale .............................................................................................. 35
5.3.3 Population, Unit of Analysis and Sampling ...................................................... 35
5.3.4 Data Collection ................................................................................................. 36
5.3.5 Data Analysis and Presentation ....................................................................... 38
5.3.6 Ethical Consideration ....................................................................................... 39
5.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 39
CHAPTER - 6: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................... 41
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 41
6.2 Changes in Cultural Patterns within Three Generations in the Manipuri Ethnic
Community ........................................................................................................................... 41
6.2.1 Family Pattern, Kinship and Values .................................................................. 41

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 6.2.2 Marriage System and Rituals............................................................................ 43
6.2.3 Religions and Beliefs......................................................................................... 44
6.2.4 Festival and Recreation .................................................................................... 45
6.2.5 Dance and Songs .............................................................................................. 46
6.2.6 Language literature and Myth.......................................................................... 47
6.2.7 Customs and Traditions.................................................................................... 48
6.2.8 Food Habits and Hospitality ............................................................................. 48
6.2.9 Dress and Ornaments....................................................................................... 49
6.2.10 Occupation and Housing Pattern ..................................................................... 50
6.2.11 Living Strategies of the Manipuri Ethnic Community under the Changing
Cultural Conditions........................................................................................................... 52
6.3 Causes of Cultural Changes in Manipuri People’s Life ............................................. 52
6.4 Challenges that the Manipuri People Face due to Changing Cultural Practices ...... 54
6.5 Views of the Manipuris Regarding Their Cultural Changes...................................... 55
6.6 Discussion of the Results .......................................................................................... 57
6.7 Summary of the Findings ......................................................................................... 58
6.8 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 60
CHAPTER-7: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION............................................................ 61
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 61
7.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 61
7.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 62
List of References ..................................................................................................................... 64
Appendix-I: Interview Schedule ........................................................................................... 67
Appendix-II: Observation Checklist .......................................................................................... 77
Appendix-III: The Respondents’ Family & the Key Informants (KI) .......................................... 79
Appendix-IV: Basic Information of the Researched Respondents ........................................... 83
Appendix-V: Sample Analysis Charts........................................................................................ 83
Appendix-VI: Informed Consent and Related Sheets............................................................. 117
Appendix-VII: Important Photographs ................................................................................... 120

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 CHAPTER - 1: PRELIMINARIES

1.1 Statement of the Problem

Bangladesh is a diverse country of different ethnic communities, languages and
cultures. Along with Bengali culture, the culture of fifty small ethnic communities has
made the country more prosperous. Only 16, 50, and 159 ethnic community people
(BBS, 2022). Like other indigenous people who are live in this country with their
typical cultural beliefs, patterns and livelihood among them Manipuri ethnic
community is the major one and they live at different specific areas of the Sylhet
Division in Bangladesh (Singh, 2009). The Manipuri‘s originally settled in the Indian
state of Manipur. In Bangladesh, they have lived in the plains of the northeast area of
the country for a long time and have become an integral part of this country.

Although Manipuris are not the majority among the ethnic minorities in Bangladesh,
they have developed their own civilization in a specific cultural environment in a
lifestyle nurtured in a uniquely rich tradition. Their rich cultural traditions and
practices have made them popular. Compared to other ethnic communities in
Bangladesh, Manipuris are one of the highly educated and rapidly modernized groups.
Among the ethnic minority of Bangladesh, Manipuri is prominent. Recently, like the
mainstream Bangladeshis, modernization is observable in Manipuri society
(Chowdhury, 2021). Their ideas and perception are changing with the era and
modernity. At the same time structural changes have come in their social life and
they are gradually losing their rich culture. In the context of dynamically changed
situations and from the perspectives of globalization in the world the concepts of
transformation, absorption, integration, etc have been coming in the forefront. The
merging of the Small into the Big is a phenomenon of society (Chakrabarti & Mondal,
2021).

Manipuris has a history of struggles and examples of self-reliance. The Manipuri

people used to live in the Manipur region of India, and a considerable number of them
migrated to Sylhet due to difficulties and other reasons. They have a unique culture
(Tufael, 2009). The Common tendency in Bangladesh is to give emphasis on the
indigenous groups who live in Chittagong hill tracts. But plain land indigenous people
and indigenous people of the other parts of Bangladesh are getting less attention from
1
both government and non-government organizations (Chowdhury, 2021). These plain
land ethnic groups are historically, socially and politically marginalized; reside in
isolated and largely impoverished areas; and receive little attention from local or
national politicians. Ethnic communities have histories, identities and traditions that
are distinct from mainstream Bengali society (Macdonald, 2021).

Though Manipuris are a popular ethnic community, there is no complete information

about their population, cultural issues and activities. We always see different works
with diverse context of their culture. But the sad fact is that there is hardly any
research works about their cultural changes with time and modernity. Manipuri ethnic
community is one such community that has tried to adapt itself to mainstream society
more than any other community over time. Along with socio-economic development,
their cultural changes are noticeable. The purpose of this study is to explore the
culture within three generations, the causes of cultural changes, the problem faced by
Manipuri people and perception of cultural changes in the Manipuri ethnic
community.

1.2 Review of Literature and Showing the Justification of the Study

A literature review is a mandatory part of any research project. A literature review
surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue,
area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and
critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being
investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you
have explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers
how your research fits within a larger field of study (Fink, 2014). Literature reviews
are an integral part of the research process. To conduct this study I have reviewed a
number of relevant literatures to get a clear concept on this topic. I have studied
different literatures from online journals, thesis papers, articles and other relevant
literatures.

There has been a lot of research on the economic, development, cultural context and
history of the Manipuri community, some of which this research has been able to
review. But due to socio-economic development, modernization and the tendency to
merge with mainstream society and other reasons, the Manipuri community is

2
undergoing rapid cultural changes and formations and its impact, preservation of
cultural identity and heritage, and future prospects and problems are almost lacking in
previous studies. These literature reviews will increase the body of knowledge on this
topic. This literature review will contribute (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011) to finding
knowledge gaps and making connections with the proposal. Literature reviews allow
the researcher to get ideas of previous research papers that are similar to this study.
Research findings will contribute to the knowledge and information of planners and
contribute to policy formulation. It will sensitize social analysts and people to protect
the cultural identity of the Manipuri ethnic community. Literature review chapter
discussed the existing literature in detail and shows knowledge gaps.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The purpose of the study is to understand the cultural changes in Manipuri ethnic
community in Bangladesh. In this regard, the study has attempted to know the answer
from two villages of Moulvibazar district of the country. This villages have been
identified as the best representative villages of the district where I have found the
typical Manipuri families that are required for the study. Considering the purpose of
the study, in addressing the knowledge gap, the following specific objectives have
been identified.

1. To explore the culture (of three generations) of the Manipuri ethnic

community.

2. To know the causes of cultural changes in the life of the Manipuris.

3. To identify the challenges that the Manipuri people face due to changing
cultural practices.

4. To know the (negative and/positive) perceptions of the Manipuri ethnic people

regarding their cultural changes.

1.4 Scope and Limitations of the Study

This study will guide government organizations, policy makers, NGOs and
beneficiaries to understand the changes in the cultural sector in Manipuri ethnic
community. The findings of the current research might be helpful to future national
policies and would be useful to identity the causes and impacts of cultural changes in

3
the Manipuri ethnic community. The study will create awareness in protecting the
Manipuri culture and heritage in Bangladesh.

This study has obviously some limitations. It has collected data from two specific
villages rather than many. In addition, it has not covered political views, causes of
communal conflict and other changes in the Manipuri ethnic community due to
various limitations.

1.5 Methods in Brief

The methodology and methods of this study have been discussed in detail in a
separate chapter (Chapter-5) of this report.

1.6 Structure of the Thesis

This thesis has been structured with seven chapters. Statement of the problem, review
of literature and justification, objectives, scope, limitations and methodology are
briefly discussed in the first chapter. Chapter two represents the conceptual and
theoretical framework, chapter three is about the literature review, chapter four is
about the sketch of the Manipuri ethnic community, chapter five described
methodology and methods, and chapter six is about results and discussions.
Recommendations and a conclusion are included in the last chapter.

1.7 Conclusion
There has been a lot of research on the economic, development, cultural context and
history of the Manipuri community, some of which this research has been able to
review. But due to socio-economic development, modernization and the tendency to
merge with mainstream society and other reasons, the Manipuri community is
undergoing rapid cultural changes and formations and its impact, preservation of
cultural identity and heritage, future prospects and problems are almost lacking in
previous studies. These literature reviews will increase the body of knowledge on this
topic. This literature review will contribute (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011) to finding
knowledge gaps and making connections with the proposal. Literature reviews allow
the researcher to get ideas from previous research papers that are similar to this study.
Research findings will contribute to the knowledge and information of planners and
contribute to policy formulation. It will sensitize social analysts and people to protect
the cultural identity of the Manipuri ethnic community.
4
 CHAPTER - 2: CONCEPTUAL AND THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

2.1 Introduction
The terms theoretical framework and conceptual framework are frequently used
interchangeably to suggest the equal thing. Although they are each used to understand
a lookup hassle and information the development, collection, and analysis of research,
it's necessary to recognize the difference between the two. When working on
coursework or dissertation research, make sure to make clear what is being requested
and any particular route or application requirements.

2.2 Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework is a synthetization of interrelated components and variables
which help in solving a real-world problem. It is the final lens used for viewing the
deductive resolution of an identified issue (Imenda, 2014). The development of a
conceptual framework begins with a deductive assumption that a problem exists, and
the application of processes, procedures, functional approaches, models, or theories
may be used for problem resolution (Zackoff et al., 2019). The application of theory
in traditional theoretical research is to understand, explain, and predict phenomena
(Swanson, 2013). The terms conceptual framework and theoretical framework are
often and erroneously used interchangeably (Grant & Osanloo, 2014). Just as with
traditional research, a theory does not or cannot be expected to explain all
phenomenal conditions, a conceptual framework is not a random identification of
disparate ideas meant to incase a problem. Instead, it is a means of identifying and
constructing for the researcher and reader alike an epistemological mindset and a
functional worldview approach to the identified problem.

In social science research, methods and concepts cannot be divorced from theories
and research tools because they operate within a given set of assumptions about the
nature of society, the nature of human behavior, and the interplay between the two,
whereas philosophy merely seeks to clarify barriers to access knowledge as real and
logical. The philosophy of science and social research process is historical which
depends on the logical and conceptual dimensions. Social research is concerned with
exploring, describing, and explaining social phenomena involving human behavior
5
(Sufian; 1998:3). In research paradigm ontology refers to a theory about reality, and
what reality usually looks like. And epistemology refers to the theory of knowledge
about reality that we can describe specific properties and relationships of. No
philosophical epistemology can be made up of self-evident truths, ever steadfast.

A conceptual framework is an analytical tool for researcher‘s uses to guide research;

it is a set of ideas used to structure research, a map that may include research
questions, literature reviews, methods, and data analysis. Researchers use conceptual
frameworks to guide their data collection and analysis. An operational definition
allows the researchers to describe in a specific way what they mean when they use a
certain term. Generally, operational definitions are concrete and measurable. Defining
variables in this way allows other people to see if the research has validity. Validity
here refers to if the researchers are actually measuring what they intended to measure.
An operational definition is the statement of procedures the researcher is going to use
in order to measure a specific variable.

In this study the following discussions followed by operationalizing various concepts

have made the conceptual frame.

2.3 Conceptional Frame (Including Operational Definitions) of this Study

Operational definitions outline an object, event, variable, concept, or assemble in
terms of the unique processes, tests, and measurements used to decide its presence or
quantity. Operational definitions radically change theoretical definitions into
observable events. This is because an operational definition states which
characteristics will be measured in the mission of value to the thought or assembled
below study. Operational definitions shape the basis for the lookup questions,
hypotheses, and theories related to the research.

2.3.1 Ethnic Community

Ethnicity is a term that describes shared culture—the practices, values, and beliefs of
a group. This includes shared language, religion, and traditions, among other
commonalities. It refers to an ethnic group that a person identifies with or feels a part
of to the exclusion of other groups. An ethnic community is a group of people that
share a common cultural heritage, history, or lineage. According to the Encyclopedia
of Britannica, "Ethnic community is a social group or category of the population that,

6
in a larger society, is set apart and bound together by common ties of race, language,
nationality, or culture. Historically it is the legacy of conquests that brought diverse
peoples under the rule of a dominant group; of rulers who in their own interests
imported peoples for their labor or their technical and business skills; of
industrialization, which intensified the age-old pattern of migration for economic
reasons; or of political and religious persecutions that drove people from their native
lands (Gour, 2021). In this study Manipuri community is used as an ethnic
community.

2.3.2 Culture
The special significance of culture in anthropology and sociology. Culture means
Culture refers to the ways of life of the members of society, or of groups within a
society. It includes how they dress, their marriage customs, language and family life,
their patterns of work, religious ceremonies and leisure pursuits (Giddens, 2005).

Culture is a term that refers to a large and diverse set of mostly intangible aspects of
social life. According to sociologists, culture consists of the values, beliefs, systems of
language, communication, and practices that people share in common.

In this study, the term "culture" is used as a collection of human activities in a society
or social group, as well as the symbolic structures that give meaning to such activities.
For example, customs, laws, popular styles, social standards and traditions. A culture
is a system of behavior shared by the members of society. In this study, the term
culture, some specific indicators used to get various ideas about the Manipuri
community. Those are different institutions like family patterns, kinship and values,
marriage system and rituals, religion and beliefs, festivals and recreation, dance and
songs, language, literature and myth, customs and social structure, food habits and
hospitality, dress and ornaments, occupation and housing pattern, art, handloom and
sculpture, environment and hygiene, etc.

2.3.3 Cultural Change

Cultural change refers to the way people perceive and respond to different situations
involving cultural differences. Change in culture, philosophy, technology, arts,
institutions etc. within a given society or community is known as cultural change.
Change is the most significant factor in contemporary society and humanity's past.

7
Cultural changes in this study refer to visible changes in occupation, education,
housing pattern, age, gender, communal identity and interaction, family pattern and
communal values, dressing and ornaments, and cultural aspects of the Manipuri ethnic
community within the last three generations of the present time.

2.3.4 Manipuri Ethnic Community

People who inhabiting the Manipur region of Assam near the Burma border are called
Manipuri people. Ethnologically, Manipuris belong to the Kuki-Chin group of the
Tibeto-Burman family of the Mongolian race. In this study, Manipuri ethnic people
refer to the minority ethnic group recognized by the Bangladesh Constitution whose
own language is Manipuri and who live in the northeastern region of the country. The
indigenous people living specially in the Sylhet division descended from Manipur of
India who are having a typical lifestyle for many days. There are three types of
Manipuri ethnic communities living in Bangladesh, 1. Meitai Manipuri 2.
Bishnupriya Manipuri and 3. Meitai Pangan (Muslim) Manipuri. But in this study,
the Manipuri community is meant only the Meitai Manipuri community.

2.3.5 Three Generations

A generation refers to all of the people born and living at about the same time,
regarded collectively. It can also be described as, the average period, generally
considered to be about 20–⁠30 years, during which children are born and grow up,
become adults, and begin to have children (Hurlock, 1974). In kinship terminology, it
is a structural term designating the parent-child relationship. Three generations have
been mentioned in this study. Whereas 1st generation people aged 60+ have been
considered i.e., seniors or older people of Manipuri families. Second generation refers
to those whose parents or parent-equivalent relatives belong to the 1st generation and
belong to the same family (Nuclear, joint, or extended), and are between the ages of
40-60. 3rd generation refers to those whose parents or parents' equivalent relatives
belong to the 2nd generation and belong to the same household (nuclear, joint, or
extended), and whose age is more than 18 but less than 40.

2.4 Theoretical Framework of this Study

A theoretical framework provides a general framework for data analysis. It defines the
concepts used and explains existing theories and models in the field of research. The

8
main theoretical question of this study is about the relationship between Manipuri
ethnicity and the cultural changes within three generations. In Bangladesh, the
relationship between ethnicity and cultural changes is conceived in terms of the
relationship between "tribal" culture and the state. Ethnicity can examine through
three major sociological perspectives: functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic
interactionism. Ethnic identity is not a single fixed social phenomenon, but a
collection of different experiences with correlated analysis. Ethnicity has been
conceptualized as a fixed category in which an individual is born, and contains
multiple identities that are politically prominent in different ways in different
contexts. The markers of ethnicity vary by situation. For example, in some cases, it
may be religion, while in other cases language, history or ethnicity can serve as a
marker or point of distinction for different ethnicities. Therefore, the concept has an
elusive feel, which is mainly due to its scalability of its concept. On the one hand, we
encounter highly durable ethnics, some of them indeed tracing their origins over
several centuries, even millennia. On the other hand, we observe the rise of new
ethnics and the dissolution of older ones, as well as the many transformations of
culture that existing ethnics have undergone (Hutchinson & Smith, 1995).

The theory of Cultural change may be defined as a process by which different

successive forms in socio-cultural Institutions or the culture of mankind as a whole
are developed and accumulated to constitute the growth of culture over different
periods but in continuity. Other theories of cultural change are Diffusion theory and
Acculturation theory. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging
change and forces resisting change. These forces are related to social structures and
natural events and are involved in the perpetuation of cultural ideas and practices
within current structures, which are themselves subject to change. Cultural change can
have many causes, including the environment, technological inventions, and contact
with other cultures. In diffusion, the form of something (though not necessarily its
meaning) moves from one culture to another. Acculturation has different meanings,
but in this context, it refers to the replacement of the traits of one culture with those of
another.

The concept of culture that implicitly informs both the cultural adaptation and class
legitimation models of cultural change casts primary emphasis on the subjective

9
features of culture. This emphasis is evident in the very terms used to identify culture:
"collective conscience" (Durkheim), "orientations that guide action" (Parsons), "class
consciousness" (Marx), "beliefs and conceptions" (Weber), "mental structures"
(Mannheim). Although there are other more objective aspects of ideology in these
conceptions as well, the basic orientation tends to derive from a variant of subject-
object dualism in which ideas are associated with the subjective realm while behavior
and social structure are conceived of as objective realities. One of the difficulties of
this conception, of course, is that culture ceases to have readily available empirical
referents. Instead of consisting primarily of observable artifacts, it remains a matter of
beliefs and outlooks, of moods and motivations that are in the best of cases difficult to
pin down in instances of historical change. In addition, much of the emphasis in these
theoretical traditions have been on the psychological functions of ideology for the
individual.

Cultural change has often been characterized in sociological theory as a

developmental or evolutionary process that occurs in a sequence of analytically
distinct stages in response to changing societal conditions. Cultural adaptation theory,
cultural hegemony, and cultural transformation theories will help in this study to
explain the process and causes of cultural change. Variously described as institutional
differentiation, growing societal complexity, or in terms of more specific tendencies
such as urbanization and industrialization, social conditions are said to create
problems that lead to new patterns of culture. These processes, moreover, are
generally not entirely neutral with respect to subsequent developments but are thought
to enhance the society's adaptive capacity to accomplish tasks necessary to its
survival. Consequently, the cultural changes that become theoretically interesting are
those that contain evidence of "adaptive upgrading," to use Talcott Parsons's (1971,
27) term, or "adaptive modification," as Marshall Sahlins (1960, 12) has suggested.

The theories that are relevant to the purpose of this study and have been used to
analyze the collected data have been discussed briefly here in the following
paragraphs.

10
2.4.1 Theory of Cultural Lag
The concept of cultural lag was first developed in 1922 by sociologist Williams F.
Ogburn. Ogburn noticed that material culture tends to develop and advance at a faster
rate than non-material culture. Material culture is the physical and tangible aspects of
culture including technology, buildings, and tools. Non-material culture is the aspect
of culture that isn't physical, nor is it tangible. Non-material culture includes cultural
values, morals, and religion. Cultural lag refers to the phenomenon that occurs when
changes in material culture occur before or at a faster rate than the changes in non-
material culture. In other words, cultural lag is when technological change, or
something similar to tools, develops faster than society can process those changes.
Culture is the speed and direction of social change. It not only influences our social
relationships, it also influences technological inventions. The complex combination of
technology and social values produces conditions that encourage further technological
change. Cultural factors play a positive as well as negative role in bringing about
technological change. Cultural factors such as habits, customs, traditions,
conversation, values etc. can resist technological changes or diversification of social
values can contribute to technological inventions. Ogburn has divided culture into two
parts namely: material and non – material culture, and the difference between material
culture and nonmaterial culture is known as ‗cultural lag‘. ‗Lag ‗, in its general term,
denotes crippled movement. Here culture means the faltering of one aspect of culture
behind another.

2.4.2 Theory of Assimilation

The concept 'Assimilation' has different connotations. It is widely explained in both
positive and negative lights. Assimilation has become a contradictory phenomenon in
development activities for those who are working with different indigenous
communities. Some people suggest that it brings prosperity and wellbeing among
those who are a neglected section of the population. On the contrary, it is treated as
subversive for sustainable development and is a process of demoralization for the
culture of a distinct ethnic group. This view suggests that assimilation demolishes rich
indigenous customs and different cultural practices that ultimately destroy the distinct
identity of a particular group of the population. From this point of view, removing
assimilation to maintain, protect and develop indigenous people's identities,

11
languages, customs, way of life and religion has become a concern to the international
community (ILO, 1989). In Bangladesh, there are 50 indigenous groups who have
lived here from time immemorial and who have distinct cultural practices, customs
and languages. They are living within the same territory as other minority and
majority groups but with an independent identity from people outside of their
concentration. Members of this community learn this culture and transmit it from one
generation to the next (Schaefer and Lamm, 1995). In Bangladesh, indigenous
people's language and culture has substantially contributed to enriching the language
and cultural life of the majority Bengali people. However, for many reasons, their
cultural activities and traditional customs are practiced less and many indigenous
people are becoming more familiar with majority of people's culture and practices.
This represents a natural progression of culture-changing over a period of time. It is
said that culture and traditional customs are historically bound yet dynamic over time
(Timberlake and others, 2002) In the process of assimilation, members of an ethnic
group are expected to abandon traditional ways and customs and to adopt the new
culture fully by completely changing their personal cultural identification, attitudes
and beliefs, behaviors, language, marital expectations, parenting style and
expectations and sense of social responsibility so that they are congruent with the
dominant culture (Timberlake and others, 2002). Assimilation and mainstreaming are
used interchangeably. Mainstreaming can be defined as a process by which a small
section of the population imitates and practice the majority of people's ideas and
beliefs and try to become connected with the majority culture. Customs and beliefs
are representative of distinct cultures and daily living practices (Morales and Sheafor,
1998). Obligations and reciprocity work as positive inducements to customary
behavior. Custom is defined as an accepted way of behaving or of doing things in a
society or a community (Baker and others, 2000). A person's ethnicity is derived from
his or her family background. Families follow the custom and culture of the
community in which it is located. Culture is the set of values, beliefs, and norms for
socially acceptable language patterns, behaviors, and standards for ideal role types
that represent the social structure of a given society (Timberlake and others, 2002).

12
2.4.3 Diffusion Theory
Diffusion is defined as the borrowing by one society of a cultural trait belonging to
another society as the result of contact between the two societies. In really simple
terms, it's what happens when one society comes into contact with another society and
ends up adopting some of the cultures of that society as its own. Diffusion
encompasses the notion that societies throughout time have borrowed from one
another. Although certain parts of cultures might be inherent to a group, culture often
spreads from one group to another group through a process called cultural diffusion.
Cultural diffusion is the spread of any element of a culture from one group to a group
that does not already have that element in its culture. Cultural diffusion describes the
way cultures merge and spread around the world. Ideas can spread within a culture or
from one culture to another. Sometimes people use the phrase transcultural diffusion
to call out an idea spreading across cultures instead of within cultures. Cultural
diffusion happens through – 1) times of conflict, 2) migration and 3) trade.

2.4.4 Cultural Hegemony Theory

Cultural hegemony is derived from the term ―hegemony‖, which is a method of
gaining dominance by a leader state (territory) over other subordinate states, by
threatening them with powerful means. The import of the term has evolved over time,
from having signified a militaristic dominance, then a geopolitical dominance, and
finally a cultural dominance.

Cultural hegemony is a concept put forth by the Italian, Marxist philosopher, Antonio
Gramsci. The concept implies the dominance of a custom-made culture that meets the
needs of the majority but serves the interests of the dominant social class. It involves
the careful manipulation of the social institutions by the dominant group, so as to
impose their beliefs, perceptions, values, etc., on other social groups in such a way
that the modified social culture is accepted as the norm. Such a cultural state leads to
the acceptance of the resulting social, economic, and political discrepancies as
normal. These social constructs, in turn, are viewed as natural and beneficial to the
larger population, when in fact it benefits only the dominant group. It eventually
functions to replace the majority‘s worldview with that of the ruling social class.

13
2.4.5 Cultural Adaptation
Cultural adaptation is a relatively new concept used to define the specific capacity of
human beings and human societies to overcome changes in their natural and social
environment by modifications to their culture. The scale of culture changes depends
on the extent of habitat changes and could vary from slight modifications in
livelihood systems (productive and procurement activity, mode of life, dwellings and
settlements characteristics, exchange systems, clothing, and so on) to the principal
transformation of the whole cultural system, including its social, ethnic,
psychological, and ideological spheres.

2.5 Conclusion
The conceptual and theoretical framework are one of the foremost components of
the research manuscript. Those are presented in the first section of all dissertations. It
is the structure that holds or helps a principle by introducing and describing it as to
what lookup trouble it exists. It demonstrates a perception of theories and concepts
relevant to the theme of the research. And it offers the broader areas of knowledge
under consideration. The specific assertion of the theoretical assumptions permits its
reader to consider it critically. It connects the researcher to the present information
thru education via applicable theory, also, with the aid of offering the basis of the
hypothesis and the choices of the research methods. It helps researchers to generalize
more than a few components of an observed phenomenon by definitely describing it
and also identifying their limits.

The theories that have been discussed here in this chapter have made the theoretical
frame of this research project.

14
 CHAPTER - 3: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

3.1 Introduction
A literature review is a mandatory part of any research project. A literature review
surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue,
area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and
critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being
investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you
have explored while researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers
how your research fits within a larger field of study (Fink, 2014). Literature reviews
are an integral part of the research process. To conduct this study we have reviewed a
number of relevant literatures to get a clear concept of this topic. We have studied
different literatures from online journals, thesis papers, articles and other relevant
literatures. A literature evaluation discusses published statistics in a unique difficulty
area, and every now and then records in a unique challenge place within a sure time
period.

The important focus of an academic research paper is to improve a new argument, and
a research paper is probably to contain a literature evaluation as one of its parts. In
research, we use the literature as a foundation and as support for a new perception that
we contribute. The center of attention of a literature review, however, is to summarize
and synthesize the arguments and thoughts of others without adding new
contributions.

3.2 Review of Existing Related Literature of the Study

Ahmmed and Singh (2006) in their book "State of Rural Manipuris in Bangladesh"
described and analyzed the overall landscape of rural Manipuri life. Manipuri people
are in many ways living in a comparatively better situation than other indigenous
communities. They are incredibly family and community oriented. Their traditional
livelihood is agriculture and both males and females are engaged in this sector.
However, handloom is another dominant occupation of the Manipuris mainly done by
Manipuri women. Manipuri people view handloom as their tradition and it has a
special artistic value which originates from Manipuris craft arterially or occasionally.

15
Some of the Manipuris work as carpenters. But at present, they are also engaged in
non-agricultural occupations. The participation of women outside of household work
is also increasing. As an ethnic minority group, they are inherently insecure group.
Sometimes they feel insecure by the majority of people's various unethical activities.
They also face language and cultural barriers but the literacy rate is still higher than
the majority of people. Manipuris do not need the help of people outside their
community for family structure, loyalty and social values. Especially very poor
people can survive by taking support from relatives and the community. They lead
their life in a simple manner that reflects their deeply believed legacy.

Chowdhury (2021) in her paper "Impact of Modernization on Socio-economic

Development of Manipuri Communities: A Sociological Study" explain the extent of
the influence of modernization on the life style in Manipuri communities. The
purpose of this paper is to examine social and economic factors as well as how
modernization has affected the Manipuris in Sylhet Sadar. The study discovered a
notable and favorable impact of modernity in a number of areas, including education,
health, and employment in Manipuri communities. It also provided a comparison of
men and women's roles in the field of mansions. The Manipuri community is very
hardworking. Very rich or extremely poor families are rare. In terms of economics,
the Manipuris generally belong to the lower-middle to middle-class category. They
are hard-working. As a result, everybody do some sort of work for their livelihood.
Social outlook also cooperates in this sense, because of strong social solidarity among
them.

Alam (2008) in his paper "Socio-cultural and Socio-economic profile and Political
Views of an Ethnic Community: A case study of two selected village in Moulvibazar
District" described rural Meitei Manipuri community's cultural and socio-political
scenarios. Meitei people are a little more concerned about mainland politics.
Remarkable activities in political perspective didn‘t show in this study but they are
culturally aware due to their life long exposure to cultural activities. They have a
strong and sincere sense of harmonious belongingness to there community. They were
born and raised in an environment with elements of cultural awareness. Likewise,
Meiteis possess a unique value system that is infused into their conscience by the
sociocultural environment itself, allowing them to grow into rather good human souls.

16
No matter how poor and illiterate they are. The Bangladeshi Manipuris are a peace-
loving, self-reliant, hard-working community with a high sense of self-dignity and
maintaining a civic and aesthetic sense that can be modeled.

Singha and Singha (2020) in their article "Manipuri Language and Its Socio-Cultural
Values" attempt to focus on the socialization patterns and cultural values of Manipuri.
Language is part of Manipuri society and culture, upholding the community's
sociocultural values. Manipuri language has a long literary tradition. The speeches,
legends, songs, and manuscripts of politically dominant groups found in this language
clearly indicate the long and ongoing existence of this language. The study found that
the Manipuri language is one of the most persistent advanced languages in Modern
Indian literature and its socio-cultural values are highly remarkable. All socio-cultural
events and facts narrated and described in previous documents know that this
language has a close relationship with Manipuri society and it is always involved in
all affairs of the people.

Pal et al (2017) in their paper "Comparative Study of the Predictor of Socio-economic

Status Between Manipuri and Khasia Ethnic Community in North Eastern Region of
Bangladesh" The main objective of this study was to find predictors of socioeconomic
status between the Manipur and Khasya communities in Bangladesh. This predictors
are family type, age at first marriage, income and using the contraceptive. This study
finds by analyzing those indicators between two communities, result is Manipuri
community's socio-economic status is better than the Khasia community.

Saha and Choudhury (2021) in their paper "Traditional Settlement and Dwelling
Culture of Diasporic Manipuri Community in Bangladesh" showed several
interpretations of how socio-cultural, religious, and environmental values were
reflected in their architecture were made in this study. Manipuris from Bangladesh
prefer to live in small clans of 10 to 20 houses. The majority of settlements are
situated on flat land. Instead of being randomly distributed, houses and open spaces
are strategically placed in what is known as a para in the local language. Alternative
fashion is now widely used and has grown in popularity over time. The most
recognizable part of the Manipuri temple is known as Mandapa, which resembles a
Hindu temple.

17
Islam et al (2016) in their study "Is Socio-economic Condition of Manipuri Tribe
Improving? A Two-Phase Comparison Using Income Distribution Model?" which
was designed to assess changes in their socio-economic condition through two phases
(from the year 2001 to 2008) study. The socio-economic condition of the Manipuri
community was investigated by using various univariate and bivariate statistical tools
no mentionable development had been found in the education sector of Manipuri
community from the year 2001 to 2008 in the study comparatively, women lag behind
men. Women are involved in traditional work and men are joining modern
professions.

Singha (2019) in his study "Economic status and Changing Pattern of Manipuri
Cultural Activities" describes how economic status and cultural changing pattern are
related. Changes in Manipuri culture and patterns of ritual activities are highly
represented in each activity. It means the place where most people spend earlier on
marriage, sacrifice, death anniversary and so on. It showed insight into the changing
economic production relations, the specific roles of various monetized and non-
monetized inputs. The study was an interpretation of the Manipur culture and
traditions which would be in a transferred way but people in the society are very
conscious of saving dignity, honor and customs in the same way as before. The people
of Manipuri society are now in a transition period with the modern process of the
material world and colorful ultra-modern life, and the impetus of new economic
forces has been forcing activities that are not authorized by the community law.

Saha and Chowdhury (2020) in their study named "A Study of Vernacular
Architecture and Settlement of Diasporic ‘Manipuri’ Community In Bangladesh"
revealed the cultural entity of Manipuri that has been transformed into their living
environment and household architecture. This finds out about is a documentation of
Manipuri habitat tradition via the intervention of their living environment, which will
entice any future working on this issue. This research shows that notwithstanding a
speedy socio-economic change of context, the Manipuri housing exercise is deeply
related to their socio-cultural and religious values. Architectural factors adapted
through the Manipuris are assessed right here as a phase of cultural symbols to have a
rigorous view of the philosophy of living.

18
Bari (2010) in her research named "Food Practices among Ethnic Communities of
Bangladesh (Some Observations among Manipuri and Khasi Communities in Sylhet)"
described food practices among two larget ethnic communities, Monipuris and Khasis
take rice as their staple food and prefer raw flavored food. They do not like
overcooked food for their daily meals and they are used to cooking in clay furnaces.
Mitoi people also abstain from consuming meat, eggs and onion. Mitoi people also do
not consume cow‘s milk and use chives instead of onions. The statistical record about
the fitness reputation of Manipuri and Khasi communities is now not a static thing.
The file states that the Manipuri community is plenty healthier than the Khasi
community. Manipuris are vegetarians, and they keep away from protein and fatty
foods. Most of them are habituated to eating cellulose-type carbohydrates. They avoid
oil and fatty meat. But the humans of the Khasi Community are habituated to
consuming pork, hen and alcohol as dictated with the aid of their religion. Further
study is wanted to decide the life reputation of Monipuri and Khasi communities.
Sounderson (2006) in her study named "The adaptation and Immersion of Minority
Cultures to a Predominately Mono Cultural Nation" showed how two ethnic
communities Manipuri and Khasi people are adopted mainstream culture by a
theoretical perspective. The definition of subculture continues that tradition should no
longer remain stagnant, that it evolve alongside the continuum of time and appear in
societal change. The proposition of this article is that the lack of cultural safety for
minority communities has accelerated the fee of cultural degradation to a pace that is
faster than its natural evolution. There are two specific trends that represent this
accelerated pace, those are Cultural assimilation and Cultural migration.

Ghani (2006) in his study named "Ethnic Community and Occupational Mobility: A
Sociological Baseline Study Among the Patra Community in Sylhet" explained Patra
ethnic community's occupational mobility.The essential objective of this paper is to
explore the adjustments in occupational mobility patterns amongst the Patra
community based totally on a learn about which follows the changes in the interior
and external factors well-known in the sociological discourses. The modalities used
here are common in the conventional sociological criteria. It covers the adjustments in
economic and cultural patterns following the converging process. It specifically
focuses on the have impact on of adjustments in occupational mobility on the social

19
unity of the neighborhood and the religious conversion for "Sanskritization" on
economic life.

Ara (2018) in her paper "Gender discrimination in Manipuri community of

Bangladesh: An ethnographic study" explored findings expose that the Manipuri
community is now not aware about gender discrimination. But gender discrimination
exists extremely in this community; particularly girls are dominated, unnoticed and
oppressed in every walk of life. Their role is susceptible and considered subordinate
and inferior to the male. The patriarchal social structure, male-dominated family
pattern, poverty, lack of schooling and awareness, way of life and superstitions,
nonsecular beliefs and customs are accountable for making ladies subordinate and
imposing unequal remedy to them in Manipuri society. The Manipuri's cultural
practices also current females as the passive actors and factors.

Saad and Sadia (2011) in their article named "Religious Aspects of Adibasi Life in
Bangladesh" explained a brief introduction to the religious life extra or less normal of
thirty or extra small ethnic groups, preferably known as 'Adibasi as an alternative than
tribal, dwelling more often than not in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of southeastern
Bangladesh however also in the northern and northwestern side if the country, The
sturdy have an impact on of crew cohesion and monetary life on the persona of
Adibasi faith and tradition is careworn and also the tendency of Adibasis to retain
plenty of the religio-cultural facets of their standard way of life even when converted
to Christian or Buddhist traditions of non-secular faith. The disinclination of Hindus
and Muslims to search for conversion of Adivasis is noted.

3.3 Conclusion
There has been a lot of research on the economic, development, cultural context and
history of the Manipuri community, some of which this research has been able to
review. But due to socio-economic development, modernization and the tendency to
merge with mainstream society and other reasons, the Manipuri community is
undergoing rapid cultural changes and formations and its impact, preservation of
cultural identity and heritage, and future prospects and problems are almost lacking in
previous studies. These literature reviews will increase the body of knowledge on this
topic. This literature review will contribute (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011) to finding

20
knowledge gaps and making connections with the proposal. Literature reviews allow
the researcher to get ideas of previous research papers that are similar to this study.
Research findings will contribute to the knowledge and information of planners and
contribute to policy formulation. It will sensitize social analysts and people to protect
the cultural identity of the Manipuri ethnic community. Keeping these obstacles in
thought and considering the goal of the find out about which is to make bigger
awareness about the challenging aspects of cultural changes of this wealthy cultural
ethnic crew we designed the find out so that a thorough, in-depth investigation using
ethnographic research ought to be undertaken. The research ensured that a sufficient
amount of time used to be allocated to field work phase. This helped to gather
appropriate information on the authentic Manipuri culture.

21
 CHAPTER - 4: THE SKETCH OF THE MANIPURI ETHNIC
COMMUNITY: A LITERARY REFLECTION

4.1 Introduction
Manipuri actually refers to the people living in the Indian state of Manipur, who have
their own language, culture, ethnicity and history. But the definition of the Manipuri
community in Bangladesh is slightly different. Most people in Bangladesh know the
Manipuri community through their traditional handloom cloth and Manipuri dance.
The Manipuri community is constitutionally a small ethnic group in this country.
They are different from all other small ethnic groups, geographically, sub-divisions
among them and different way of life. The Manipuris in Sylhet are one of the major
ethnic communities of Bangladesh.

According to the constitution of Bangladesh, the Manipuris of this country are divided
into three groups. The parts are 1. Meitei Manipuri, 2. Bishnupriya Manipuri and 3.
Pangan Manipuri. Among them, Pangan Manipuris are basically the Muslim form of
Meitai Manipuris. The difference between these two groups is religious. As religious
matters are inextricably linked with culture, their lifestyles are also somewhat
different. There is no difference in their language and origin. Meitei Manipuris have
linguistic, political and ethnic differences with Bishnupriya Manipuris. In many
cases, whether the Bishnupriya Manipuris belong to Manipuri at all is a matter of
debate within Manipuri society and the state of Manipur. As in this study we have
selected only Maitai Manipuri as Manipuri for the convenience of research, therefore
only Maitai Manipuri culture is being described here. Manipuris are a community
very rich in their culture. Even in the era of industrialization, urbanization, and
modernization, the unique characteristics of their culture are quite diverse, distinct,
and aesthetic.

4.2 The Sketch of the Manipuri Ethnic Community

A picture of the life of the Manipuri ethnic community has been briefly outlined based
on available literature in this chapter. This sketch will provide us an overview—
including their origin, settlement, culture, customs, beliefs, economic life and many
more—of the researched community.

22
4.2.1 Settlement in Bangladesh and Geographical Concentration
The geographical origin of the Meitei-speaking people in Bangladesh is the area that
is now the state of Manipur in India. Even today, Manipur state is universally
recognized as the hub of the Meitei language, culture, and education. One simply
cannot talk about the Meitei without mentioning Manipur. The state of Manipur was
previously known by various names (Kyangleipak, Kyangkleipang, Kyanglei,
Meitrabak, and Mekhali). One theory is that the land was named Manipur by
missionaries who arrived there from Sylhet during the reign of Maharaj Garibniwaz in
the first half of the eighteenth century (Islam 2003). Manipuris migrated to the
Bangladesh area and settled here at different times due to wars, conflicts and socio-
political reasons. Their migration started during the reign of Rajarshi Baghyachandra
(1764–1789) and the process was accelerated by the Manipur-Burma War (1819–
1825) which is a black chapter in the history of Manipur. After the war with Burma,
Manipur was ruled by the Burmese invaders for about seven years. During that
period, King Chourajit Singh along with two younger brothers, Marjit Singh and
Gambhir Singh took refuge in Sylhet. A hoard of Manipuri subjects followed them. A
palace was built at that time at Mirzajangal of Sylhet town. (Islam, 2003). After
fleeing war and its effects, the Meitei put down roots in present-day Bangladesh,
mostly in the Sylhet division, as one of the forty or so language groups of Bangladesh.
Of course, as they witnessed India‘s independence from the British, experienced the
years as East Pakistan, and finally the birth of Bangladesh as a nation, their post-
Manipur years have also been fraught with great historical turmoil. . They are the
inhabitants of the plains of the country and although they are now scattered
throughout the country for various reasons, their habitat is mainly in the north-eastern
part of the country i.e. Sylhet division. Manipuris are found in all the districts of the
Sylhet division. But most Manipuri settlements are mainly in Kamalganj upazila of
the Moulvibazar district of Sylhet division.

4.2.2 Origin of the Manipuri Ethnic Community

The Banglapedia explains that ―ethnologically, Manipuris belong to the Kuki-Chin
group of the Tibeto-Burman family of the Mongolian race. But a good admixture of
Aryan and other blood groups took place in the mainstream of Manipuri nation‖
(Islam, 2003). Still, when traveling through various subdistricts in Sylhet, it was quite

23
easy for us to tell who Meitei are and who are not, particularly when they are wearing
their traditional clothes.

4.2.3 Language
Manipuris have their own rich language which has its own alphabet. A Number of
books and brochures have been published in the Manipuri language in Bangladesh.
Their language has 27 letters (Ahmmed and Singha, 2006). Mother-tongue Meitei
speakers consistently reported that the Meitei language is widely used in their
villages. This is apparently true whether Meitei speakers are praying or conversing at
home or with neighbors. Probably because Meitei is widely used in Meitei villages,
this is seen as the most useful language to know in Meitei villages and as the language
mothers should speak with their children. Meitei children do appear to continue to
speak Meitei as their best language, which is an indication that the Meitei language is
not being lost. On the other hand, Meitei speakers acknowledge the need to know
other languages, primarily Bangla. They tend to feel that Bangla should be the
medium of education in primary schools and that it is okay for their children to speak
another language better than Meitei.

4.2.4 Religion and Beliefs

Most of the Manipuri people are belonging to ‗Hinduism‘ though some of them are
Muslims and they are believed to have converted to Hinduism in the sixteenth
century. However, elements of their pre-Hindu religion still remain today. They
celebrate a lot of religious festivals as well as cultural festivals. The Manipuris are
influenced by the Hindu Vaisnavite culture. The quiet of the morning and evening
would resonate with the sound of the temple Kangsi(bell) and cymbals. The
drumming of pongs and devotional singing at the community will often be heard at
night. Religious activities such a scripture reading, devotional song sessions rituals
feasting, wedding and funereal ceremonies are common rituals. Every Manipuri home
has a Tulsibong in the courtyard. The Manipuri religious life is marked by the co-
existences of the traditional Meithei belief system and the vaisnvaite Hindu faith.

The Manipuri religion is represented by tits God and goddesses and Myths, its own
legend and traditions, its social customs, uses its priests, and ceremonies and special
worship of Radha and Krishna (Khutnom, 2010). The Manipuris believe in holy

24
books and incantation (laiwa). The sacred Puyas, written in the Meitei script are the
guide and record of faith for them. The maichous of the court have to learn them by
heart. They have equal regard for all types of sacred books. During the festivals or
rituals of the summer season, the Maibas, Brahman priests and the story tellers would
explain to the audience, the stories of the gods.

4.2.5 Marriage System and Rituals

In the marriage system, they give emphasis on the opinion of the bride and bride-
groom but give priority on the parent‘s decision. Dowry is not being present in
Manipuris society. Marriage ceremonies are held in the ―Mondop‖. They believe that
women's oppression is related to dowry. They have unwritten divorce system in
marriage. After marriage, the bride lives in the husband's house. Marriage brings a
new phase of life to the unmarried male and female. A newly married pair can live
together only after the completion of marriage, which is preceded by a social,
ceremonial function. The weeding proposal for a young boy and a girl has been
subjected to some social criteria including the matching of the boy and the girl,
affinity of clans or, otherwise and comparison of the horoscopes (Ahmed, 2007).
Manipuri has colorful wedding rituals traditionally yet unique. As always, weddings
are an occasion of mirthful joy and splendid colors celebrating the very essence of
love. Manipuri weddings boast of a bespoke elegance that has all the ingredients of a
munificent Indian wedding.

Hinaba: This refers to the first meeting of the parents of the groom and the bride.
Here, the groom's parents visit the bride's place where the horoscopes of the
prospective couple are tallied. If all goes well, the date of the next meeting is fixed.

Yathang thanaga: In this ritual, the parents of the bride visit the groom's place and
give their consent to the wedding.

Waraipot puba: The groom's family brings food items to the bride's house. The
wedding is finally sealed between both families.

Heijapot: This refers to the formal engagement of the bride and the groom. The
groom along with his family visit the bride's family with gifts. The bride's family

25
invites their relatives and close friends to be a part of this happy occasion. The priest
finally announces the wedding date amidst a lot of cheer.

Rituals during the wedding: The groom, his family and other kinsmen are greeted at
the bride's place by a Meitei woman. With a thali covered with banana leaves and
containing betel nut and betel leaves, they are accorded a warm welcome inside. The
seating arrangement and the wedding altar is made around the tulsi (basil) plant.
Interestingly, all the rituals in a Manipuri wedding are centered around the tulsi plant.
A diya (earthen lamp) is lighted and the groom's feet is washed by a young boy from
the bride's side. The bride, adorned in the opulent Rasleela dress, is now brought to
the altar. She carries with her the garland of fresh flowers which she has made herself.
After the garlanding, the couple takes seven circles around the tulsi plant amidst the
sounds of shehnai and kirtans. The bride enacting the role of a gopi (Lord Krishna's
beloved) moves gracefully with the rhythmic tunes of the shehnai. Following this, two
women from both families release a pair of taki fish into the water, symbolizing the
bride and the groom. It is considered a good omen if the fishes move side by side in
the water. Thereafter, a lavish meal is served to the deities so that the newlywed
couple gets their blessing in abundance. The guests are then served dakshina (token
money) and sweets for having graced the occasion. Finally, the bride leaves for her
new home with the groom and his family (Islam,2009).

Post-wedding Rituals: The next day after the wedding, the bride's parents visit their
daughter's new home to check on her well-being. Mangani chakouba is the last ritual
in a Manipuri wedding which takes place after five days of the wedding. This marks
the newlyweds' first visit to the bride's place after their wedding. Also, the entire clan
of both families along with other guests are invited for a grand feast which includes
many items of fish and other authentic Manipuri dishes. The guests also present the
newlyweds with various gifts like rice, meat, fowls, pigs, money or alcohol to mark
their new journey in life.

4.2.6 Customs and Traditions

Manipuri's famous tradition of ritual singing, drumming and dancing is Famous in all
over the world. Sankirtana of Manipuri is one of the glorious cultural activities.
According to the Academy that nominated it for world inscription, Sankirtana has two

26
main social functions today. In the setting of the home, Sankirtana is offered as prayer
at all life-cycle ceremonies, such as the ear-piercing ritual (for both males and females
in childhood), the donning of the sacred thread (for adolescent males), marriage and
the rites of passage at death. Sankirtana is linked with the important stages of a
person's life. During a marriage ceremony, the couple take their marriage vows by
going round the Sankirtana Mandala; to them, the Sankirtana represents divinity
(Khutnom, 2010). The family bond is very strong at the Manipuri community. Large
families are very common and the interaction among the families is also very smooth.
Their patriarchal society does not allow marrying a girl from the same clan and it‘s
rare to see the marriage between same clan-persons. Bride must have to stay on the
husband‘s house (Mohammad, 2009). Manipuri community have a traditional social
structure called ―Loipak‖, is the name of the highest social structure of Manipuris. But
there is some difference in according to the area. There is no state recognition of this
social structure. For this, the leaders cannot force the common people to make any
decision. That‘s why the social structure of the Manipuri community became weaker
day by day (Singh, 2009).

4.2.7 Manipuri Dress and Ornaments

Manipuri dress, garments and ornaments are also a glory of their unique culture. Their
rich culture and centuries-old tradition can also be depicted in their handloom woven
clothes and the handicrafts that they make till death. The costumes of Manipuri
women are called as Innaphi, which is wrapped like a shawl and the Phaneg is the
skirt. Leifanek is one of the special dresses made for marital occasions. The man
wears the dhoti and white Pagri or the turban. They also wear jacket. These are made
with different materials (Parson, 1949). The most popular Handicrafts of Manipur
include Hand-woven and embroidered textiles, Mats made of water reed, Manipuri
dance doll, Shawls and blankets, Manipuri bed covers of Moirangfee, Cane and
bamboo work, Wood carving. The extreme beauty of women's dress is the design of
Moirang, a special and artistic type of embroidery which is done by the weavers.
Married women wear Muror Futi or vails and take special cale of their hair. They
paste sindoor on the forehead and also wear kharou or Shakhas like the Bengali
Hindus. Their ornaments are usually made of Gold and silver, and the main designs
are - (1) Aangthi (Ring), (2) Kharau (Ring bracelet), (3) Khonanakpi (Necklace), (4)

27
Kanberi (Earing), (5) Khathisuri (A type of Gerland), etc. worn in the fingers, arms,
ears and the necks. References are found that a special kind of finger ring made up of
coconut barks (Linton, 1945).

4.2.8 Manipuri Dance and Songs

They have a glorious culture that they present to the world proudly. The love of art
and the culture of the people here is inherent among the people of Manipuri and one
will not be able to find a girl or a boy who does not know the famous Manipuri dance
or the traditional folk art and songs (Sheram, 2011). Their dane can be classified into
two stages in origin. 1. Pre-hinduism: Thabal Chongba, La harauba etc, 2. Post-
Hinduism: Jagoi, Thangta etc. the dance that is called the Thabal Chongba, performed
by both men and women is a typical dance form found here. They are famous
throughout the world for their beautiful expressive dances, which are closely tied to
their religion. Their style pf dancing is graceful and gentle and the themes are usually
centered on the life of the god Krishna. Manipuri dancing is also characterized by the
balancing technique applied by the dancers. The costumes worn by the dancers are
designed so as not to arouse any excitement of the opposite sex and the dance rhythm
involves mostly the upper part of the body so as not to appear immodest. The classical
dance of Manipuri is origin from Manipur. The best part about the dance of Manipur
is that besides the Manipuri Dance, it has retained the ancient and folk forms of
dances. The dance of Manipur essentially has religious spirit and it reveals the story
of spiritual experiences and salvation. Lai Haroba is a ritualistic dance of Manipur
which depicts the story of creation. Although Lai Haroba is not as popular as the
Manipuri dance, it is still practiced and is a living tradition. The Khamba Thoibi dance
of Manipur is a duet of a male and a female which is dedicated to the sylvan deity.
Nupa Pala also known as the Cymbal dance is a special kind of dance. This dance is
usually performed by a group of men with cymbals. Ras Lila depicts the love affair of
Lord Krishna and Radha. This dance of Manipur is usually performed in an enclosure
in the temple. Pung Cholom is actually performed to mark the invocation of the
Sankirtana and Ras Lila. It is classical form of dance of Manipur (Sheram, 2011).
Manipuri songs are usually sung in religious ceremonies, these songs are called
Bhajans. Mangkang, Kartal and Mridanga are used as musical instruments. Also,
Manipuri songs are popular in social events.

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4.2.9Food Habit
They are mainly vegetarians. Rice, vegetable, fruits and milk constitute the principal
article of food. As there are social restrictions, the Manipuris don't eat meat and eggs.
All these things are treated as unholy and totally avoided. But there is no restriction of
taking fish(Mohen, 2005). The staple food of the Manipuri people is fish and rice
along with vegetables. However, there are different dishes that have their own
cuisines and are very distinct from one another. Kabok (a traditional recipe of
Manipur, in which, rice is fried with all kinds of vegetables into it), Uti (made with
food soda, dal and lemon sour leaves), Carrot Khabi and Channa Kanghou (a
delicious dish prepared with carrot and channa), Iromba (a miscellaneous mixture of
fish, bamboo shoots and vegetables that is fermented and served), Yongchaak Singju
(a favorite with all the Manipuris), Morok Atekpa Metpa (another traditional recipe
that is an innovation of the Manipuri people), Aloo and Mangan Kanghou (a favorite
Manipuri recipe with potatoPeanut Brinjal Fry - a culinary in which brinjal is fried
with nutritious peanuts). They do not eat onions and garlic, use Zenam leaves instead
of onions and prefer low oil and low-spice boiled food such as different types of dal,
pakoras, boiled vegetables, sours, bhartas and dried fish in curries.

4.2.10 Festivals
The cultural festivals of the Manipuris based on traditional rituals. There are three
main streams relating to the public festivals. These are festivals of the Hindu origin,
and traditional Meithei customs but are influenced considerably by the Hindu
festivals. Festivals bear the characteristic of the local place. Manipur people love to
celebrate their festivals and traditions in a grand way. The people are vibrant here and
love to spend the whole year with festivities and mirth. They have a festival every
month that symbolizes their religion, culture, tradition and social aspirations. The way
of celebrating the festivals is distinct that can be easily noticed when see the way the
festivals are celebrated. The festivals are religiously celebrated with passion and love
(Ahmed, 2007).

The Cheiraoba festival commences in April and is celebrated in a traditional way.

This sacred festival is celebrated as the new year of the Manipur state with much
grandeur and is observed by whole Manipuri community. Houses are cleaned and

29
decorated to welcome the New Year. The deity is then worshipped, gifts are
exchanged and people visit their relatives to offer good wishes. Although the festival
is celebrated by Hindus, Muslims too take part in the festival asserting their religion.

Ningol Chakouba represents the unique cultural heritage and traditional ancestry,
Ningol Chakouba is celebrated by married women to revive their childhood memories
with their family of origin. A great occasion of family reunion, Ningol Chakouba is
celebrated with much enthusiasm and joy in the parent's house of married women.
The family of origin of the married women prepares mouth-watering delicacies to
welcome their daughters and her children on the special occasion of Ningol
Chakouba. One of the prominent festivals of Manipur, Ningol Chakouba is usually
celebrated in accordance with the regional calendar of the local inhabitants of the
state. Ningol Chakouba falls on the month of Hiyangei, i.e. November, on the second
new moon day.

The Kang is also a major festival of Manipuris and is observed by the Hindus. This is
known as the 'Rathyatra' and takes place in the temple of Govindjee. The Lord leaves
the temple and travels the city to bless the people in the Rath, which is a car specially
made for the Lord. The Kang or the Car is pulled by devotes and a procession is
carried out in the city with bells, drums, chants, nahal and the conch. The Lord is
offered fruits, flowers, barti by various localities and feasts are also arranged for the
people in the evening. The festival is a 10-day long celebration and people are very
excited by the entertainment and enthusiasm (Ahmed, 2007). There are various other
festivals celebrated by several communities like Chumpa, Heikru Hitongba,
Christmas, Baruni, Durga Asthami, Kwak Jatra, Jhulan Jatra, Laksmi Purnima,
Saraswati Puja, Kartik Puthi and so on.

4.3 Conclusion
Manipuri culture possesses great significance in our national culture. Manipuri dance,
dress and ornaments, food habits, wedding rituals, combined religious belief with
Hinduism and Apopka, all these cultural pattern and traits not only unique but also an
important part of Bangladeshi culture. But due to different reasons, these cultural
dimensions are under extinction. Manipuris may not be Bengali, but as a citizen of
Bangladesh, they have the right to live with their unique living pattern. The above

30
information about the culture of Manipuri people is from the available literature. In
this study, the issues concern changes with respect to time and generations. In the next
chapter, the methodology and methods of this study are discussed in detail.

31
 CHAPTER - 5: METHODOLOGY AND METHODS

5.1 Introduction
Methodology plays an important role in any research. The appropriate methodology
enables the researcher to collect valid and reliable information and to analyze the
information properly to draw a clear-cut conclusion. Research methodology has many
dimensions, and research method is a part of research methodology. Methods are
likely to include data collection, population and sample, analysis, strategy and ethical
issues (Matthews & Ross, 2010). A methodology is a system of concepts and
regularly occurring methods of organizing and structuring theoretical and realistic
activity, and additionally the concept of this system.

5.2 Philosophical Stance of the Study

Research philosophy is an important part of research methodology. Research
philosophy is classified as ontology, epistemology and axiology. These philosophical
approaches enable them to decide which approach should be adopted by the
researcher and why, which is derived from research questions (Saunders, Lewis, &
Thornhill, 2009). Research philosophy is associated with assumption, know-how and
the nature of the study. It offers with a precise way of creating knowledge. This rely
needs to be addressed because researchers may also have unique assumptions about
the nature of truth and knowledge and philosophy helps us to understand their
assumptions. In simple terms, research philosophy is faith in the approaches in which
information about a phenomenon ought to be collected, analyzed and used (Denzin
and Lincoln, 1994). Although the notion of information creation can also show up to
be profound, we are engaged in knowledge introduction as the phase of completing
our dissertation. We will gather secondary and important information and engage in
facts evaluation to reply the lookup question and this reply marks the creation of new
knowledge (Schwandt, 1994).

The choice of specific research philosophy is impacted by practical implications.

Ontology is based on the nature of reality. It is categorized on the groundwork of
objectivism and subjectivism. The first aspect of ontology, objectivism portrays the
function that social objects persist in actuality external to social actors. Secondly,

32
subjectivism is worried about the social phenomena which are emerged from the
perceptions and consequences of these social actors concerned with their existence.
Epistemology is understood as the acceptable knowledge of a particular area of study
(Crotty, 1998). It can be divided into two aspects; 1) resources researcher and 2)
feeling researcher. Constructivism is a philosophical view that says all knowledge is
constructed from human experience as opposed to discovered self-evident knowledge
(Schwandt, 1994). In simple terms, according to constructivism, all knowledge is
constructed from human experience.

In epistemological constructivism, knowledge is created by human perception and

social experience. Epistemological Constructionism is the philosophical view, as
described above, that our knowledge is "constructed" in that it is contingent on
convention, human perception and social experience. Constructionism is a paradigm
or philosophy of research in which knowledge is not regarded as an insight into some
objective reality but instead constructed by humans, partly through social interactions.
Proponents of constructionism do not strive to uncover a universal set of laws that
underpin reality (Crotty, 1998). Instead, they attempt to understand the intangible
constructions or perspectives that individuals form about local, specific places, events,
and issues. They do not evaluate whether constructions are true or false but strive to
facilitate informed and sophisticated perspectives, an ontology that is referred as to
relativism.

In addition, according to proponents of constructionism, the researchers and

participants together create the observations. That is, the observations and findings
emerge from the interaction between the researchers and participants, called
transactional epistemology (Guba & Lincoln, 2004). Indeed, constructionists feel that
constructions can be uncovered only through interactions between or among
researchers and participants. These constructionists, therefore, embrace dialectical
discussions, in which disagreements are resolved through careful rational discussion.
Generally, constructions apply qualitative, not quantitative, research methods to
investigate some issue or event.

Qualitative research is "an inquiry process of understanding" where the researcher

develops a "complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of

33
informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting" (Creswell, 1998, p. 15). In this
approach, the researcher makes knowledge claims based on the constructivist (Guba
& Lincoln, 1982) or advocacy/participatory (Mertens, 2003,) perspectives.

In qualitative research, data is collected from those immersed in the everyday life of
the study's setting. Data analysis is based on these participants' values for their world.
Ultimately, it "produces an understanding of the problem based on multiple
contextual factors" (Miller, 2000).

This study has chosen social constructivism as its epistemological stand and
subjective reality as its ontological view. These two have given the philosophical
foundation of this study.

5.3 Methods of the Study

5.3.1 The Approach or the Main Method
Ethnographic method is most suitable for researching the cultural changes of an ethnic
community. The present study has involved an ethnographic approach within a
qualitative methodological paradigm that highlights the changes of cultural aspects in
the Manipuri ethnic community. Ethnography, a descriptive study of a particular
human society, can be very effective for the present study as it is about the culture of
an ethnic group.

Contemporary ethnography is based almost entirely on fieldwork and requires the

complete immersion of the anthropologist in the culture and everyday life of the
people who are the subject of his or her study (Gour, 2021). Ethnography refers to
both the data gathering of anthropology and the development of analysis of specific
peoples, settings, or ways of life.

Ethnography, emerging from anthropology and adopted by sociologists, is a

qualitative methodology that lends itself to the study of the beliefs, social interactions
and behaviors of small societies, involving participation and observation over a period
of time, and the interpretation of the data collected (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). The
main advantage of ethnography is that it gives the researcher direct access to the
culture and practices of a group. It is a useful approach for learning first-hand about
the behavior and interactions of people within a particular context (Caulfield, 2020).

34
5.3.2 The Study Locale
The geo-social setting has been considered keeping in view with the main objectives
of the study. The main focus of this study is to know the cultural changes in the
Manipuri ethnic groups who are living in Bangladesh.

One of the characteristics of ethnographic research is to study the culture of any

community living in a place where the research sample orientation is high rather than
isolated data. Although Manipuri people live in various parts of the country including
Sylhet division, they mainly live in some specific villages of the Adampur union of
the Moulvibazar district. There are 24 small villages in Adampur Union of the
mentioned district. Four to five villages among these 24 are known to be very typical
for the Manipuris. In this regard, for the convenience of conducting the present
research (including collecting data), I have persuasively selected two villages named
Nayapattan and Bhanubil (Majhergaon). The identified villages were selected as they
were and their peoples were considered as most appropriate to address the purpose of
this research. These two villages were considered as typical areas of the Manipuri
ethnic community.

5.3.3 Population, Unit of Analysis and Sampling

The population of the study is the Manipuri ethnic people who are living in
Bangladesh. As the main focus of this study is to explore the cultural changes within
three generations in this community, I had chosen two villages as my study locale
from Moulvibazar district the country. Based on literature review and physical visit it
became clear to me that this would the best location for reaching the typical Manipuri
ethnic groups. The Manipuri people who were living in the selected villages were my
target population. However, the location was selected strategically (a method of
sampling).

All the Manipuri families (households) of the two villages were considered as units of
analysis, where each family was the single unit (of analysis). As it was decided in this
study to explore the cultural changes of the Manipuris, I decided to measure the
changes through three generations. I this regard, I had to select the families where I
could reach the respondents from three generations. It was tough to get such families,

35
however, I could manage finally. Total 24 families were included in this sampling
structure using purposive and/snowball technique(s).

I included both male and female members as respondents for ensuring gender balance.
In this context, I had to use snowball sampling technique. I included first, second and
the third-generation respondents where minimum age of the third generation was
considered 18 years. The reason behind minimum 18 years was to collect data from
the adults only. Total 72 respondents were selected from 24 families purposively an/
accidentally.

Some political, religious and community leaders, academic experts, researchers,

writers, journalists and experienced persons from different organizations who were
considered appropriate for providing data to answer the research questions of this
study, were selected as special or key informants (KIs). Total seven were included as
Key Informants in the sample structure.

5.3.4 Data Collection

5.3.4.1 Types and Sources of Data
Mainly qualitative data was collected for this study. Data were collected from the
natural sources in this regard. In this regard, interview data, observation data, and
photographs were used. Some secondary data were also collected and used. For this—
books, journals, reports, thesis, archives and various published and unpublished
documents were used.

5.3.4.2 Techniques and Tools of Data Collection

Several techniques have been used for collecting primary data. In-depth interviewing
and observation techniques were mainly used in this regard. It has also used some
other techniques side by side the main techniques.

In-depth interviews are also referred to as focused, unstructured or ethnographic

interviews. This method of interviewing ―does not use fixed questions, but aims to
engage the interviewee in conversation to elicit their understandings and
interpretations‖ (Liamputtong & Ezzy, 2005). This study used this technique.

Participant observation is the key methodological approach that is used in

ethnography. Denzin (1989) defines participant observation as ―a field strategy that
36
simultaneously combines document analysis, interviewing of respondents and
informants, direct participation and observation, and introspection‖ (Denize, 1989).
This study has used this technique.

An in-depth ethnographic interview schedule (see the appendix) and observation

checklist (see the appendix) have been prepared keeping in view with the main
objectives of the study. The in-depth ethnographic interview was semi-structured in
nature. The language of the schedule and the check-list was both Bangla and English.

Observation is a method of data collection in which the participants in research

process, the phenomena within these respondents and the other activities related with
the research process will be observed in depth with a great intention to find out
needed data or information. I lived in two families of the Manipuri community for
about a month and observed their culture and living strategies. For research purpose, I
also participated in their major religious and social festivals.

The study has additionally used KII (Key Informant Interviews) technique in
collecting data. I made conversation with some key persons such as General Secretary
of their cultural organization, political representatives, religious leaders, female
government officials and also with some old persons. That helped me to get short but
salient features of their culture.

In addition to all above techniques, I used informal conversation technique to get

some additional and complementary data for reliable findings.

As tools of data collection, I used voice recorder, note books for taking, and camera
for taking some photographs.

It has already been mentioned that participant observation and in-depth ethnographic
interviewing were the main methods of primary data collection. However, each
interview has lasted approximately 80-90 minutes. During the interview, interview
ethics have been strictly adhered to. The language of interview was Bangla. Each
interview was conducted either with the help of person who knows Bangla and the
local language of the study locale. In some cases, I could talk to them directly and
took some help from a person who knows both Bangla and the local language. So,
there was no problem for me to understand them.

37
5.3.4.3 Pilot Study
Qualitative research is also known as participatory research wherein the researcher is
supposed to act as a participant of the setting where he or she is carrying out the
research. When the researcher participates and interacts with other people of that
setting, he has to receive the responses of others carefully and give back the responses
to same meticulously. Taking and giving responses as a participant cum researcher in
the field causes numerous challenges and dilemma for an ethnographer while doing
fieldwork. Therefore, he/she visits the study area before going for the whole data
collection and makes rapport with informants. The first visit to the study area is
known as ‗pilot study‘ (Prasad et al. 2017). In this research I have conducted a pilot
study in some villages in Adampur Union of Moulvibazar District.

5.3.5 Data Analysis and Presentation

Brewer (2000) defines analysis as ―the process of bringing order to the data,
organizing what is there into patterns, categories and descriptive units, and looking for
relationships between them‖ (p. 105). Ethnographers Scott-Jones & Watt (2010) have
described ethnographic analysis as a two-stage process first involving the organizing
and ordering of your data, and then the analysis proper (Scott-Jones & Watt, 2010).

Thematic analysis can, and often is, used in ethnography. This analysis is a common
interpretive tool used by researchers to create meaning from qualitative data. In terms
of ethnography, researchers may apply a thematic analysis framework to interview
data, looking for topics, ideas, ways of speaking, repeated terms, etc. that reappear
throughout the interview data. Ethnographers can then categorize these repeated
elements under the broader umbrella of unifying themes. As such, the thematic
analysis provides a good resource for ethnographers seeking to unify their data into
meaningful, overarching ideas.

The collected data have been analyzed based on the specific objectives in the study.
Thematic analysis of data and the initial analysis have been conducted, with the
generation common theme of data from further research objectives and cross-sectional
analysis used for this study. The focus of a cross-sectional study is the qualities,
features, conditions and appearances of the phenomenon at a chosen point of time.

38
This research focused on how the phenomenon infuses various social and cultural
circumstances.

Collected data have been transcribed first. Each interview took long time to be
transcribed from voice. After the completion of transcriptions, I have read all the
transcribed documents again and again for identifying the themes linked to the
objectives. In the theme identifying process, I labeled the important parts of the text
and coded accordingly. The transcribed data have been categorized for making
meaning. Finally, I presented the result based on themes I identified. In presenting the
results I used verbatim. Respondents perceptions have been analyzed and presented
through identified meaning.

5.3.6 Ethical Consideration

Consideration of ethical issues in an ethnographic study is a significant matter to draw
trustworthy findings and conclusions for qualitative researchers. They need to be
sensitive and honest on following the principles of ethical consideration while they
are engaging in ethnographic research either in data collection or writing research
papers (Ghimire, 2021).

This study has been conducted maintaining the ethical guidelines of the social
research association. All respondents have been informed about the purpose of the
study and the researcher would be very careful about the protection of respondents‘
basic rights and other activities related to the respondent's physical and psychological
matters. The note-taking and voice recording both video and tape while collecting
information has been done with the consent of the respondents. Data have kept
anonymous and confidential.

5.4 Conclusion
A research methodology is both ―the collection of methods or rules‖ apply to
research, as well as the ―principles, theories, and values‖ that support research
approach (Somekh and Lewin, 2005). Simply put, a research paper‘s methodology
section must shed light on how the researcher was able to collect or generate his
research data and demonstrate how to analyze them (SHU Library, 2020). For novice
researchers, writing the methodology of a research paper can be an overwhelming
process, especially considering the intricate elements covered by this section (J. Ellis

39
& Levy, 2009). Essentially, a research methodology is the blueprint of a research or
study (Murthy & Bhojanna, 2009).

40
 CHAPTER - 6: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

6.1 Introduction
The Manipuri ethnic community is vibrant with shades and boasts a rich culture. Their
history and customs are likely to entice many human beings from around the globe.
Their faith and superstitions have usually charmed foreigners. They are famous for
their culture in this country and abroad, and the changes of that culture with time and
new generations are discussed in this chapter. Manipuri people are aware enough of
the ways of surviving. In a very short period of time, they have prospered in terms of
education and economy in this country and their culture has also undergone many
changes. This chapter elaborates on cultural changes through specific indicators.

Through various themes this chapter has tried to answer the research questions of this
study in the following sections of this chapter. The data have been analyzed and
findings have been shown according to the specific objectives of this study. Finally,
the results have been concluded following the knowledge gap(s) or main purpose of
the study.

6.2 Changes in Cultural Patterns within Three Generations in the Manipuri

Ethnic Community
Since observation is not possible from the presence of the three generations, the
changes in cultural patterns between the three generations of Manipuri are presented
in a thematic way based on in-depth ethnographic interviews. In this research,
analysis has been done by cross-sectional checking based on participant observation,
some books, documentaries, pictures and KII according to the interpretation of
interviews.

6.2.1 Family Pattern, Kinship and Values

Manipuris tend to live in joint families. They prefer to live in a joint family and
according to them family values are best practiced in a joint family. Mutual and
kinship relations between them are quite good and relatives visit each other's houses
on religious and social festivals. According to the 1st generation, this relationship
was stronger in their time, as it is now a single family, they used to live in a joint
family, they were obliged to accept the decisions of the elders and the head of the

41
family was an elderly man or woman. However, the basis of income and age, the
head of the family was selected, and his decision was the final decision. Most of the
relatives of Manipuris live in the area, in the cities and in the states of Assam and
Manipur. A respondent said,

In our time there were no boundaries in the houses, we knew the news of
every house, now people are aware of privacy, they want to be self-centered,
and because of that, the distance between relatives and neighbors has
increased a little. We like to live in joint and extended family, it helps to
develop our family values and education, we feel more secure when we live
together.

According to the 2nd generation, they try to maintain the joint family tradition but do
not restrict those who want to separate voluntarily. And because of the job, someone
from the family stays outside the family, there is a tendency to stay apart from there.
According to the 3rd generation, the freedom to express their opinion in the family
has increased, but they try not to be separated from the family and society, but cannot
play an active role in the family and society for study or work. Their families can
generally be divided into three groups. 1. Extended family, 2. Joint family and 3.
Nuclear family. According to the interview of the first generation, it can be said that
the extended family was once the most among them. But nowadays joint family is
most common among Manipuri people. Due to various reasons, family breakdown is
occurring, due to which the number of single families is increasing in the community,
which is not among their cultural practices. Their common idea is that in joint and
extended families everyone lives together, family values are practiced and developed,
children can learn adjustment from the family, families feel safer living together.
Manipuri community has a lot of religious and social events so members of joint and
extended family can easily celebrate the events together. They still prefer to live in
extended and joint families and feel comfort.

Changes in kinship and values are seen in the Manipuri ethnic community. According
to the first generation, since most of their relatives were located in different parts of
the country and in the provinces of India, they could easily visit each other's houses
earlier. But over time, due to passport and visa complications, they rarely meet and
interact with relatives living in India. Many people are not comfortable with video or
audio calling in modern times. Relatives in the country who stay outside the village

42
for work and study also reduce regular contact. According to Manipuri people, this
has reduced the bonding and unity between them, which the first- and second-
generation people consider as a negative change.

6.2.2 Marriage System and Rituals

Marriage of the Manipuri community is done in Manipuri style. The bride wears
Poloi, Rani Innefi and leitreng, the groom wears Dhuti and Panjabi. The bride is
adorned in Manipuri jewelry. It is not customary to feed the bridegroom in marriage.
Those who perform sankirtana in marriage wear turbans. The bridegroom's women
bring fruits and sweets in baskets on their heads. The groom is brought to the Kunja
or Mandap on an umbrella. After that Brahman reads or speak Mantra and it is the
main ceremony of marriage. There is no dowry in Manipuri marriage. Among other
cultural contexts, Manipuri marriages and rituals have also undergone changes.
During the 1st generation, the 2nd marriage or polygamy of men was seen. Which is
completely absent in 2nd and 3rd generations. In this regard, a respondent said,

My husband had a second marriage. I feel it is humiliating for a woman to be

forced to take her husband's second wife and have a family. There was a
problem in the adjustment. It was difficult to accept the first one. I am very
happy that this practice has been removed.

In the 1st generation, boys and girls were married at a relatively early age, which
increased education and employment in the 2nd and 3rd generations. In the 1st
generation, there was no divorce system at all. But in the 2nd and 3rd generations,
some divorces and separations are seen, though less. In the 1st generation, the
marriage was simple, the marriage was completed with the importance of religious
rituals and shakha, sindur was not in practice. Horoscopes were used to marry bride
and groom. 2nd generation marriages have included some Hindu culture added (eg -
Gaye Halud, Sankha, Pala and Sindur etc.). In the 3rd generation, social rituals have
increased more, taking money at the gate, makeovers, photo and videography, modern
dance songs, bachelor parties, giving brides lots of furniture and jewelry etc. has
increased. Nowadays love marriages along with family marriages also take place, and
the importance of horoscopes and days is gradually decreasing.

Generally, in the first-generation marriages were conducted according to Manipuri

norms and Maibaren played the role of Brahman in the marriage. At that time, the

43
economic prosperity of the Manipuri community was less, so the marriage ceremony
was simple. They used to serve the guests food like khai,muri, betel leaves and
sweets made by themselves. Groom and bride makeup, house decoration was simple.
However, child marriage and polygamy marriage of men were also prevalent. Hindu
rituals were rarely followed in Manipuri weddings. The wedding was a reflection of
their unique culture. In the second generation, there have been many changes in the
marriage system and rituals. The decorations, the makeup of the bride and groom
were more lavish than the first generation. The biggest change has been in the
marriage system under the influence of Hinduism. Married women started wearing
shakha, sindoor from the second generation. Wedding photography, drinking, gate
holding, etc. socialization has become involved in Manipuri weddings in their time. In
the third generation, weddings have become more magnificent, lighting the wedding
house, decorating the gate, etc. have undergone visual changes. Various events are
added to the wedding like, bachelor party, various games, video shoot etc. For
weddings, brides prefer to do modern makeup at parlors. Presently, the number of
gifts given on the occasion of marriage has increased a lot. According to many, most
of these social customs of marriage are done by families for reasons of competition
and show off.

6.2.3 Religions and Beliefs

Manipuris generally believe in multiple religions. Most of them are Hindus but also
practice the Manipuri ancient religion 'Apokpa' or Sanamahism. They believe in
Karma and reincarnation in Hinduism, and many are Vaishnavs. Although practicing
Hinduism, they are mainly devotees of Radha Krishna and Jagannath and their
household deity Sanamahi. They believe that wherever Manipuris go, Sanamahi will
always be with them. Sanamahi deity is always with every Manipuri people.
Radhakrishna, Jagannath and Shiva temples can be seen in their community. Apart
from this there are also temples of Apokpa religion in Nayapattan and Kamalganj
area. Many people are aware of the religious changes between the 1st generation and
the 3rd generation, gradually abandoning Hinduism and fully practicing Apokpa
religion. When asked the reason for this, most of the respondents and KII said that
Hinduism was forced on them around the 17th century, it was never their own
religion. With the evolution of time, they have started to believe in Hinduism, but the

44
tendency to come back to Apokpa religion is gradually increasing among them due to
caste system and Brahman problems and crises. Among them, though few in number,
some families have converted to Christianity and have a separate Church in
Nayapattan. According to Manipuri pioneers, realization has arisen among Manipuri
people about their ancient culture. Based on history, they were converted from
Apokpa religion to Hinduism through various tortures in 16th century. Currently, due
to Brahmin crisis, caste discrimination and Bishnupriya Manipuris are progressing
with equal recognition with Maitai Manipuris, they are slowly becoming aware of
their own religious practice. Basically, they hope that the ancient religion of Manipuri
will not be lost and will become their main religion again

6.2.4 Festival and Recreation

Major festivals of Manipuri have been discussed earlier. Their festivals are generally
of two types, religious and social. However, there are religious practices in social
festivals. Among the changes in festivals, people's festivals have also become grander
with the economic prosperity of the people. The respondents of the 1st generation
said about this,

Our houses, development, money have accumulated in the last 3-4 decades.
That's why earlier our festivals were modest, we organized as much as we
could. Now everyone is educated, working, so the contribution to the festival
is more.

According to the 2nd generation, earlier people from outside of the community did
not participate in their festivals. But since their time, Bengali Hindus and Muslims
also participate in their festivals. According to the 3rd generation, foreign culture has
now entered the festival. Earlier there was bhajan music on the Dashami of Durga
Puja, now there is dancing with Hindi songs on the sound box. During Durga Puja,
Raspurnima, and Saraswati Puja, youth will drink alcohol, it is very normal for them,
which is not acceptable to family and elders. Besides, the free time of the 1st
generation was spent at home spending time with family and chatting, nowadays most
of the elders practice religion in their free time. 2nd generation and 3rd generation
have completely different lifestyles. As they are busy with work and studies, they
give relatively less time to the family, moreover, they spend their free time by doing
mobile phones, social media, theater, gaming, cycling, etc.

45
Festivals have increased in splendor from the time of the first generation to the
present. Temples have been renovated. Leisure and entertainment have also changed.
The first generation mainly spends leisure time around family, religious practices and
social events and these are their means of entertainment. The entertainment and
leisure styles of the second and third generations are almost the same. They like to
spend time with the internet, friends and family. Apart from this, organizing various
programs, tours, picnics, eating at restaurants etc. are also their means of recreation.

6.2.5 Dance and Songs

Elderly women of the 1st generation can sing bhajan, sankirtana and aarti and elder
men play musical instruments. Many of poor Manipuri men have taken up singing
and playing musical instruments as an occupation in social and religious programs.
The 2nd generation is involved in organizing the festival and the 3rd generation girls
participate in the dance. Every member of Manipuri families is associated with dance
and song at some point in life. Dance, and song are mainly part of religious and
social festivals. However, boys participate in Rakhal dance and Jhulan Yatra, while
girls participate more in Rasa and Classical dance. The transition between dancing
and singing means a gradual decline in participation, and modern dance tends to be
more involved in singing. Due to the difficulty of music and dance mudras, the
tendency to learn music has decreased and the shortage of dance and music teachers is
also considered as the reason. About dance and song A KII said,

Manipuri dance and song are not primarily for entertainment. Dance and song
are prevalent in our religious rituals. At present Manipuri dance is mostly
practiced by girls. Manipuri songs are very difficult. So we have very little
interest in teaching music. Moreover, due to modern professions, the number
of dance and music teachers has decreased. Currently, various organizations
and individuals teach dance and music to the boys and girls of this community
on their own initiative.

The first and third generations are more associated with dance and song. The dance is
mainly participated and practiced by third-generation boys and girls. Music and
various musical instruments are practiced by first generation women and men.
Second generation people play a role in arranging most of the programs. Nowadays
many people are not interested in learning Manipuri dance and songs. Many practice

46
modern dance and music more. Dance and music teachers are also decreasing in this
community.

6.2.6 Language literature and Myth

As Meitei is the mother tongue of Manipuri, every generation can speak this
language. But especially the 1st and 2nd generation cannot read and write in the
alphabet of the language. When questioned about this, they said that they could not
learn to read and write because their language was not included in their formal
education and lack of community initiative. The pioneers of the 2nd generation have
learned the language and are teaching it to the 3rd and subsequent generations through
personal and communal initiatives. Of this, people are learning to write and read in
the Meitei alphabet from the 3rd generation. Since the Manipur state has decided to
use Meitei language in all their books and communication from 2023 own words, the
Manipuris of the country have become aware of and they feel that the gap created
with the Manipur state in terms of language is a threat to their community. About
language, literature and myth A KII said,

Being a member of the Manipuri community, I have personally observed our

people are going to lose our tradition, customs and culture, these crisis as a
serious threat to the existence of our culture. Due to influence of globalization
and mainstream culture, language of many small communities are
disappearing and under risk of existence. Manipuri language is one of them
which almost out of practice in written form. But this language has own
alphabet and a rich history of literature. Most of Manipuri people feel the
importance of preserving and practicing our own language, my organization
and some other organizations have taken the initiative to create Manipuri
Language Education Center.

Since most of the Manipuris in the country cannot read and write in the Maitai
alphabet, literature written in the Meitei alphabet is not prevalent among them.
However, they do the literary practice of the Meitei language written in Bengali
alphabet. There are books and magazines written in Bengali in their house. Although
there is no literary practice among the 1st generation, literary practice is increasing
gradually among the 2nd and 3rd generations. Ancient myth (Puiya) of Manipuris are
not very accessible, they practice Puranas of the Hindu religion. Myth practice is
mainly practiced by the 1st generation and the 3rd generation participates the least.
According to Kll and Apokpa Priests, research on their ancient myth is being done in
47
the state of Manipur and they are hopeful that Puiya will soon be available in
everyone's home.

6.2.7 Customs and Traditions

The role of the panchayat system in the Manipuri community is very important.
Panchayat solves various social and religious problems and determines punishment.
They exercise power through panchayats. Panchayat rules have no written form but
the constitution of panchayat committee has written form. The Panchayat system
plays an important role in their customs and social structure. Generally, they belong
to Brahmin and Kshatriya castes according to the Hindu religion. But according to
the Manipuri tradition they belong to seven clans. They marry outside their own clan.
But according to the 1st generation, the panchayat is not as strong as it used to be.
Panchayats are not able to exercise power in all areas of the community as before.
Those who are openly or secretly fully converted to Manipuri ancient religion and the
new generation are moving away from the panchayat system, taking their own
decisions. According to those who are against panchayat, there is no caste system
among Manipuris, some rules of the panchayat are superstitious, and panchayat is not
completely neutral. They consider their decision more important than that of the
Panchayat. One of the respondents said,

We do not have the practice of going to court. We solve our problems through
panchayats. Panchayats try to keep us conservative. Marrying outside our
community is prohibited. If someone does such a thing, the panchayat expels
him from the community as punishment. Panchayat is considered as an
important institution in our community even though it is not able to play its
role properly at present.

6.2.8 Food Habits and Hospitality

Among Manipuris, 1st generation Vaishnavites and widows eat a completely
vegetarian diet. Even the 1st generation likes Manipuri food more. They eat oil-free
boiled and less spicy vegetables, fish and milk, and butter. Fast food is not very
popular among them. But those who stayed in the city for employment ate eggs and
meat in hotels or restaurants. Eggs and meat are socially forbidden to cook at home.
No alcohol is prevalent among them. The 2nd generation Manipuris also eats eggs
with their meal, but eggs are not cooked if there is an elder in the family. It is
common for them to eat Bengali food and meat outside the house. 3rd generation
48
children are used to eating all kinds of food, fast food, cakes, soft drinks outside the
home. Manipuri people are very hospitable. Usually, the guests are entertained with
tea, drinks, betel nuts, biscuits, chanachur and sweets. But the combination of change
and modernity in hospitality and cuisine across the three generations is remarkable.
During the 1st generation, khai, muri, chira, sweets and betel nuts were the primary
food of hospitality. But in the 2nd and 3rd generations juices, noodles, tea and soft
drinks have been added to the hospitality. Regarding food and hospitality, one
respondent said,

We are very hospitable. We are non-vegetarians according to ancient

tradition. But after converting to Hinduism we become vegetarians, we are
only allowed to eat fish. Manipuri food is very healthy, we use less spices and
oil, eat boiled food. Currently, there is a high demand for Bengali and foreign
food among our new generation boys and girls.

6.2.9 Dress and Ornaments

Among other aspects of Manipuri culture, their dress and decoration also occupy an
important place. A brief description of Manipuri dress and ornaments has been given
earlier. Among all the other significant changes in their culture, the changes in their
clothing and ornaments are also significant. Due to the decline of family looms, high
cost of Manipuri clothes, and lack of a favorable environment, they are accustomed to
modern clothes or Bengali clothes in keeping with the mainstream society. 1st and
2nd generation men and women wear faneg, innefi, fatua, khudei, dhoti and utturiyo
at home. Women wear Manipuri jewelery on various occasions and elderly women
wear tulsi garlands and apply sandalwood on their foreheads. Almost all women of
the 1st generation could loom. 2nd generation women wove wool in the winter, but
many could loom but did so as a hobby. Maximum women of 3rd generation cannot
weave and weave wool. However, they wear modern clothes when going outside the
workplace and home. 2nd and 3rd-generation women prefer modern jewelry,
makeover, and hairstyles. A 1st generation female respondent said,

I used to weave and sell clothes myself, women's blouses were very less
popular in our time, we used to weave Innefi, but now women are educated
and working, so they are not interested in Manipuri weaving. Manipuri
weaving is very popular in the country. Less that we buy clothes from India
for events. As the price of Manipuri clothes has gone up, we wear simple

49
 cotton sarees in two pieces at home, also maxis, three-pieces, and frocks are in
vogue among us.

Men are usually used to wear shirts pants, t-shirts etc. outside and children all wear
modern clothes indoors and outdoors. A respondent said,

Our dress culture still survives for women, they still wear Manipuri clothes at
home, and men rarely wear Manipuri clothes except for social and religious
festivals.

6.2.10 Occupation and Housing Pattern

We generally know that Manipuri occupation is agriculture and weaving. At present,
there is a huge change in this situation. They claimed to be royal, so begging was
never practiced among them. Among the 24 families, only 6 families' occupation of
the first generation was agriculture. Currently, very few people of the 2nd generation
are directly involved in agriculture, most are involved in business and employment.
They have agricultural land and local Bengalis and Khasias are hired to cultivate it.
They are now very little dependent on agriculture. Almost all of the 3rd generation
are out of agriculture and are in education, job seekers or job holders. They are not
much involved in agriculture even indirectly. And Manipuri weaving is entirely
dependent on Manipuri women. According to many of the 1st generation, every
house had a loom in their time. Now only poor families chose to weave as a
livelihood occupation. Manipuri men and women are known to be very hardworking.
From early times women, as well as men, have contributed financially to the family
through agriculture, weaving or wool work, now they are established in modern
occupations. Those who are educated among them, tend to stay at home very less.

Their houses are transformed from one generation to another, from mud houses to half
buildings and from half buildings to buildings, but the pattern of the houses remains
the same. Mud houses are seen only in poor families. Besides those who have half
buildings and buildings, their sanitary system is much improved. Many houses have
ponds. Almost every house of theirs has courtyards, tulsi mandaps and balconies.
Those who can afford it have fans, sofas, etc. on the balcony. And those whose
families are still involved in weaving either commercially or privately, keep the looms
in the verandah. They allow guests to sit on the porch, entertain, gossip and gather for
social programs. Although most of their houses do not have cows, they have

50
cowsheds. Cowsheds are used in their various rituals. They protect their houses with
thatch or concrete boundaries.

Analyzing the changes in cultural patterns among the three specific generations on
specific themes, it can be seen that they are undergoing various changes under the
influence of modernization and realization, some aspects of this change are bringing
benefits to their communities, bringing back their roots and some aspects diminishing
their identity. We see both types of change in cultural patterns.

Changes in cultural patterns are supported by assimilation theory, diffusion theory,

cultural hegemony, cultural lag and cultural adaptation theory. Cultural assimilation is
the process by which different cultural groups become more and more alike. When
full assimilation is complete, there is no distinguishable difference between the
formerly different groups. Assimilation is most often discussed in terms of minority
immigrant groups coming to adopt the culture of the majority and thus becoming like
them in terms of values, ideology, behavior, and practices. This process can be forced
or spontaneous and can be rapid or gradual. the process of assimilation results in
people becoming more alike. As it proceeds, people with different cultural
backgrounds will, over time, increasingly share the same attitudes, values, sentiments,
interests, outlooks, and goals. Manipuris came to Bangladesh as migrants. Due to the
influence of Bengali and Hindu culture on their culture, their cultural pattern is
changing, taking them further away from their roots and assimilation is taking place.
Here the theory of cultural assimilation is directly affecting them. Again, as a result
of modernization and realization, they are willing to adapt the present and the ancient
culture of the Manipur state, in that case, the application of cultural adaptation theory
and their cultural change is between. Panchayat system, Manipuri pioneers trying to
maintain Manipuri identity through various measures like language education, song
and dance, punitive measures to prevent inter-community marriage etc. can be
explained by cultural hegemony theory. So, the changing Manipuri cultural patterns
roughly support the above theories.

51
6.2.11 Living Strategies of the Manipuri Ethnic Community under the
Changing Cultural Conditions
The Manipuri ethnic community hardly understands the strategy of living with
cultural change; they do not seem to understand the issue of adapting to cultural
change. One of the respondents from the 1st generation stated,

We are easy to accept and our natural characteristic is peacefulness, we want

to stay as we are, some pioneers take special measures to save the culture from
extinction, they force everyone to obey our panchayat system, we have got
used to Bengali foods and clothing, yet we try to retain religious and Manipuri
rituals, traditions, customs.

The perceptions of the respondents from both the 2nd and 3rd generation are almost
the same. They are working to sustain the culture on their own initiative. Every
family trains the children in language, dance, music and arts from a young age, they
help, participate, and communicate in various religious and social festivals throughout
the year and maintain the community bond, everyone in their community knows each
other. , they are moving forward with the Manipuri culture in tune with the times, so
understanding their living strategy is a matter of course. From a theoretical point of
view, the Cultural Adaptation Theory supports this point, because the concept used to
define the specific capacity of human beings and human societies to overcome
changes of their natural and social environment by modifications to their culture. The
scale of culture changes depends on the extent of habitat changes and could vary from
slight modifications in livelihood systems (productive and procurement activity, mode
of life, dwellings and settlements characteristics, exchange systems, clothing, and so
on) to the principal transformation of the whole cultural system, including its social,
ethnic, psychological, and ideological spheres.

6.3 Causes of Cultural Changes in Manipuri People’s Life

All three generations of Manipuris have almost the same statement as the cause of
cultural change. Participating in modern and higher education, living in different
areas for professional reasons, self-centeredness, loss of family values, technological
excellence, digitization, change in the mindset of living together, following
mainstream society etc. are considered as the main reasons for cultural change.

52
Cultural change is a concept that denotes some internal and external factors leading to
change in the cultural pattern of societies. It can be material as well as non-material in
nature. Cultural change may come from many sources but most of them come through
contact with other cultures, inventions and internal adjustment of culture. There are
three main factors of cultural change: (i) Contact: The contact between two societies
will obviously change the culture of both societies through the process of ―cultural
diffusion‖ and ―acculturation‖. (ii) Technology Evolution: Any technological
evolution in the country will bring a change to their culture also. For example,
changes in production technology, changes in the means of communication, changes
in the means of transportation, etc. (iii) The geographical and ecological factor: The
geographical and ecological factor is a natural or a physical factor. The climate or
rainfall, attitude of the place, and closeness to the sea decides the culture and lifestyle
of the people. Any change in the physical features will automatically lead to a change
in their culture, habits and way of living.

David Dressler and Donald Carns have observations with regard to the causes of
cultural changes (Dressler and Carns, 1973). They have discussed in different
contexts. Sometimes members of a society are often confronted by customs that differ
from those which they have learnt to accept. In such a situation they adopt some of
the new customs, reject others, and follow modified versions of still others. This
might be called cultural eclecticism. New customs and practices are likely to be more
readily adopted under two conditions, (i) If they represent what is viewed as socially
desirable and useful and (ii) If they do not clash with re-existed and still valued
customs and practices (Dressler and Carns, 1973). Changes in culture are always
super imposed on existing culture, especially during cultural contact. All the cultural
changes are not equally important. Some changes are introduced to culture because
they are considered necessary for human survival. Some other changes are accepted in
order to satisfy socially acquired needs not essential for survival. It is a fact of
common observation that crisis tends to produce or accelerate cultural changes. If the
changes are accepted once due to the crisis, they tend to persist. Cultural change is
cumulative in its total effect. Much is added and little is lost. It‘s growth is like the
growth of a tree that ever expands but only loses it leaves, Sometimes its limbs from
time to time, as long as it survives. Cultural change leads to a chain reaction,

53
whenever a change is incorporated into the culture and becomes defined as a ‗social
necessity‘, new needs emerge, generating the desire for still further changes to
complement or supplement the original change.

6.4 Challenges that the Manipuri People Face due to Changing Cultural
Practices
Manipuri ethnic community faces various problems in cultural practices due to their
cultural changes. There are some differences between the three generations about
this. However, the communal conflicts of the Meitei and Bishnupriya Manipuris have
repeatedly been considered as their main problem. As we know it is debatable
whether the Bishnupriyas are actually Manipuri or not. However, many respondents
claim that priyas are dominating the government facilities for Manipuri cultural
activities the most and single-handedly. They attribute this to the Bishnupriya
community's rapid assimilation into Bengali culture, simple language and progressive
attitudes. Apart from this, from the 1st generation overall perspective, Brahman
dominated society, tribal problems, inter-community problems, religious divisions,
increase in demonstrative activities, high cost of clothing, the decline in dance and
singing teachers, weakness of Panchayats, rise in dominance of Bengali culture, lack
of maintenance of cultural heritage. , lack of family values, language difficulties, and
reduced supply of clothes due to a decrease in weaving are constantly facing
problems. According to the 2nd generation, the distance between family and
neighbors, dominating all decisions due to caste, difficulty in cultural practice
between education and profession, extra-communal marriage, linguistic complexities,
leaning towards over-modernization of boys and girls, dogma and superstition, over-
restriction of panchayats, etc. to face problems.

According to the 3rd generation, non-progressiveness from superstition and

orthodoxy, some unnecessary rules of Panchayat, less time given to cultural practice,
absence of political participation, encroachment of historical places etc. are
considered as problems of cultural practice due to cultural change.

Cultural hegemony theory supports these points. Cultural hegemony refers to

domination or rule maintained through ideological or cultural means. It is usually
achieved through social institutions, which allow those in power to strongly influence
the values, norms, ideas, expectations, worldviews, and behavior of the rest of society.
54
Cultural hegemony functions by framing the worldview of the ruling class, and the
social and economic structures that embody it, as just, legitimate, and designed for the
benefit of all, even though these structures may only benefit the ruling class. This kind
of power is distinct from rule by force, as in a military dictatorship, because it allows
the ruling class to exercise authority using the "peaceful" means of ideology and
culture.

6.5 Views of the Manipuris Regarding Their Cultural Changes

Psychological perceptions of cultural change vary between different generations of
the Manipuri community. Almost every generation appreciates the tendency to go
back to their original religion, language, mythology and cultural practices after almost
three centuries. However, due to family breakdown, loss of strength in communal
ties, modernization and adoption of mainstream society and western culture,
especially the 1st generation people are very anxious about this change. A respondent
said in this regard,

It is not possible to keep our original culture for so many years, and since
change is a natural thing, I would say that the assimilation of foreign culture
into our own culture is a threat to our survival.

Some of the negative attitudes of the first generation include non-adjustment to

modernity, division due to communal conflicts, self-centredness, forgetting one's
roots, flamboyance in social customs, violent attitudes among the younger generation
(e.g. drinking in festivals, which is forbidden in Manipuri customs) is significant.
They do not or cannot support these. But at the same time, some respondents of the
1st generation also spoke positively. One said, "present generation is aware and
trying to sustain the culture, we are hopeful, through them we can get closer to our
roots, our lost heritage will be restored."

They are becoming quite independent in terms of education and the economy. That's
why taking higher education, going beyond the original profession and accepting
modern profession is also thinking of positive change.

The attitudes of the second generation towards cultural change are as mixed as those
of the first generation. They have highlighted both positive and negative aspects.
They are also becoming culturally aware, and economically prosperous, participating

55
in higher education and professions with the next generation in mainstream society,
therefore they see the change as positive. However, they expressed apprehensions
that their weaving industry would become extinct. They are also willing to embrace
cultural change while maintaining identity. A respondent said in this regard,

There has been a positive change in response to the protection of language,

religion and heritage. But we ourselves are the most responsible for the
negative changes. I consider loss of identity as a sacrifice for our overall
development, something to be gained, something to be lost. To keep pace
with the world, development is essential, and if development occurs, culture
will change.

Most of the 3rd generation respondents view cultural change positively. Among
them, there is a tendency to accept modernity and move towards the city, linguistic
clarity is also notable among them. They don't want to be left behind because of
culture. But they are also in favor of retaining inter-communal ties, and joint family
values. Many of them themselves have taken the initiative of language learning.

These changes can be explained by cultural lag theory and assimilation theory. As the
cultural lag theory talks about the rapid change in material culture, the Manipuri
community is experiencing a rapid change in material culture starting from their
housing patterns. And the theory of assimilation also supports this objective, because
mainstream culture and modernization are causing their cultures to mix.

Many feel that cultural change is playing a significant role in their development.
They maintain various rules and regulations to maintain the identity of their
community. They are quite aware of their culture and cultural changes. They
consider modernity as a tool for development. The influence of modernity is evident
in their houses, roads, communication, social events and daily life. And most families
and Manipuri pioneers see their cultural change in a positive light. There are good
reasons for that too. The change in them over the last two and a half decades is
noticeable. Among them, there is a tendency to lean towards the previous religion,
language and literary practice. They are looking at these things positively. But
especially the 1st generation expressed concern about their social practices or
ceremonies, joint families breaking up into single families and inter-communal ties

56
gradually diminishing due to modernization, and the 2nd and 3rd generations are
trying to take steps to ensure that these things do not disappear.

6.6 Discussion of the Results

The aim of this study was to identify the cultural changes among the three generations
of Manipuri ethnic community, the causes of the changes, the problems caused by the
cultural changes, their living strategies during the changes and their attitudes as a
result of the cultural changes. For this, in-depth ethnographic interviews of 3
generations were conducted on 24 families of two villages. In-depth Interview, KII
and participant observation were used as significant data collection techniques. Their
non-materialistic culture is almost intact since they migrated to Bangladesh. But their
infrastructural or material culture has undergone incredible changes. Manipuri's
primary occupation is agriculture and their involvement in it is radically declining.
Once every house had a loom, their weaving industry is on the way to destruction.
They used to do nothing outside the panchayat system, now the panchayats have
become weak, their customs, traditions, food, clothing and jewelry are dominated by
Bengali and Hindu culture. Their environment and housing patterns are changing
with urbanization and modernization. Manipuri mud houses are rarely seen today. The
impression of modernity is evident in their festivals and entertainment.

Bangladeshi Manipuris are a peace-loving, self-reliant and hardworking community

with high sense of self dignity, who maintain imitable kind of civic and aesthetic
sense. In their community life the social cohesion that they maintain is something that
many of the developed and forerunner societies have only recently started to
conceptualize (Alam, 2010). The study also supports this research on the communal
mentality of the Manipuri community. Another study about the Manipuri community
said that agriculture is the main and traditional livelihood, however today, many
Manipuri people involve themselves in different livelihoods such as; carpentry, gold
making, small business, paid employment etc. Despite living closer in proximity to
the majority population of Bangladesh, Manipuri people are still maintaining a
distinctive and diverse socio-cultural system. Although they do not face all of the
problems encountered by most indigenous people of Bangladesh, the problems they
do face are serious and consistently increasing in terms of type and impact. Poverty,
unemployment, low incomes, the burden of loans restricts most of the Manipuri

57
people from arranging (Ahmmed and Singha, 2006). But now a days they are
economically empowered and for higher education and qouta system they get
opportunities for jobs and in this study maximum respondent are job holders and
affordability is seen in their housing and their elegance and the number of poor people
among them is very less.

Another two study on the housing to house hold architecture that means an
architectural exploration that helps to establish the distinct identity of the Bangladeshi
Manipuri community and represent them locally, nationally and internationally (Dey
and Debnath, 2021) and traditional settlement and dwelling culture of the Manipuri
diaspora (Saha and Choudhury, 2021) explain Manipuri housing pattern, which are
related to this study. modernization is observable in the Manipuri society. Due to the
engagement and close contact of their members to different education, and
occupation, the driving force of their modernization is focused on their own
education, profession and treatment. Although, as influence of the modern capitalist
social system, modernization is visible in Manipuri society (Chowdhury, 2021). The
people of Manipuri society are now in a transition period with the modern process of
the material world and colorful ultra-modern life, and the impetus of new economic
forces has been forcing activities that are not authorized by the community law
(Singha, 2019). The causes of cultural changes in this study are similar to these two
studies.

Since there is no previous significant research on the cultural changes of the Manipuri
ethnic community, from the available literature and findings, culture is always
dynamic and changing, Manipuri ethnic culture is no exception. However, the
realization of Manipuri's own culture from generation to generation is very important
despite the influence of higher education, urbanization, modernization and
mainstream society, which has still managed to sustain their identity.

6.7 Summary of the Findings

The findings described in the above chapter depict and analyze the overall landscape
of the cultural changes in Manipuri ethnic community. Among them, the strict rules of
culture and community are somewhat reduced. Manipuri people are family oriented
and have always lived in joint and extended families. But nowadays they also prefer

58
nuclear family. Practice of family values and contact with relatives is relatively
reduced. Earlier their marriage system was only according to Manipuri rules.
Currently marriages are performed in Hindu and Manipuri mixed rituals. Child
marriage and polygamy have disappeared among them. Manipuri people are used to
practicing multiple religions. In the religious sphere, the realization of Manipuri's
own ancient religion has come to many. Many Manipuri families follow Sanamahism
or Apokpa religion only. Today there is an impact of internet and modernization on
their leisure and entertainment. Even though there is no change in the basic aspects of
the social and religious festivals, the festivals are celebrated with much grandeur.
There is no significant change in Manipuri music and dance, but now the new
generation is not interested in learning music. Only women practice music and dance
regularly. There is no direct participation of the second generation in dancing and
singing. Although Manipuri literature is very ancient and rich, literature is almost not
practiced among them in this country because most of the people of Manipuri
community are fully educated but cannot read and write in their own language.

Also the written documents, books of their Apokpa or Sanamahi religion are not
available to Manipuri people. They are hindered in practicing religion due to lack of
these books. Many people are not interested in learning Manipuri songs and dances
as they are very difficult and time consuming. Linguistic change of Manipuri gives
positive reflection. Where they were almost forgetting the written form of the
language, the practice of the written form of the language has been brought back
entirely by private and community initiative without government initiative. They still
follow panchayat system and caste system. There is no change in this section. But
the influence of modernity and Bengali culture is noticeable in their food habit and
hospitality. In their religion and society certain foods (eg - onions, garlic, meat, eggs)
and drinks are forbidden. But most Manipuri people are used to having those
mentioned food outside of their home. Manipuri people are by nature hardworking
and self-reliant people. They are gradually moving out of agriculture and Manipuri
textile industries and into modern occupations.

Reasons for change in their family pattern, values, marriage system, customs,
Manipuri art are mainly modernity, influence of mainstream society, modern
profession, education and economic expansion. The main reason for religious and

59
linguistic change is the realization among Manipuris about culture and need to adjust
to these changes with the state of Manipur. They think middlemen are responsible for
extinction of agriculture and textile industries among them. However, the demand to
be established in the modern profession has also been found as one of the reasons.
Manipuris live peacefully. The main problem they face in the changing culture is the
conflict between the Vishnupriya and Meitai communities, the Meitai never recognize
the Vishnupriyas as Manipuri and the Vishnipriya Manipuri being comparatively
progressive than the Meitai community, get more government and other facilities.
Manipuris have mixed reactions and perceptions towards cultural change. They want
to embrace change while retaining the genuineness of their culture. In this aspect they
are also successful to a large extent.

6.8 Conclusion
To know about the culture and cultural changes of a community, it is necessary to
know the practices, roles etc. of various important elements of a culture. In this study,
all the important indicators of Manipuri culture have been discussed and analyzed in
the perspective of three generations and the cultural change of Manipuri community
has been brought out. Here some changes are visual, while some changes are
immaterial. This change has affected the Manipuri community both positively and
negatively. Manipuris are prominent and aware of their culture. They are trying to
keep culture practiced and intact from their position. Based on the results obtained in
this chapter, recommendations and way forward are discussed in the next chapter.

60
 CHAPTER-7: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

7.1 Introduction
Manipuri culture possesses a great significance in our national culture. Manipuri
dance, dress and ornaments, food habit, wedding rituals, combined religious belief
with Hinduism and Apopka, all these cultural patterns and traits not only unique but
also an important part of Bangladeshi culture. But due to different reasons, the study
found these cultural dimensions are under extinction. For example, I found very few
families who have their own weaved looms for making dress which was a
mentionable aspect of their own culture. They also are not also fostering greatly their
tradition of dancing which was famous all over the world. So obviously they need
great care and attention to keep alive their own glory of culture in the era of
digitalization and globalization. Motivation should go on to increase the literacy rate
among the Manipuri and especially of Manipuri women. More importantly, the rate of
higher education has become important for Manipuri women where they are still
lacking a great deal. The government needs to come forward on this issue. However,
the introduction of Manipuri language for specific period of time would be a great
step as the Manipuri children face problems with language in schools.

7.2 Recommendations
The current research only deals with cultural change (with respect to certain themes)
between three generations. This study does not deal with education, politics, inter-
communal conflicts, health, government and NGO activities of the Manipuri ethnic
community. These issues can be addressed in future studies.

This study focuses only on the cultural change of the Manipuri ethnic community.
Hence no solution method is worked out here. However, the results of this study
should be treated with caution due to the small sample unit and the lack of details
regarding the participants‘ characteristics and also for lack of time. Future research
could further examine the educational, political and conflict between two sub
community (Meitei and Vishnu priya). It could also contribute to a deeper
understanding of this communities‘ cultural activities and practices. Lack of time was
a major challenge for participant observation in this research.

61
It was difficult to get three generations above eighteen years in one family due to
their family pattern change and health issues. In that case, it is necessary to take the
data of the extended families. Linguistic difficulties arise when communicating with
many elders. In that case, those who were there as translators could not express it
accurately some times. Some recommendations are given to overcome the limitations
mentioned in this research experience.

1) The government of Bangladesh has, however, started teaching in their own

language books in primary schools to preserve the languages of the ethnic
communities on a small scale. But the people here are still deprived of this
opportunity in the primary schools of the area mentioned in this study. As Maitai
(Manipuri) is a rich language and this community is concerned to preserve that
language, the government should take some initiatives for their language.
2) Many of Manipuri's own ancient historical structures (palaces and temples) are
falling into disrepair due to lack of renovation and are being occupied by the
dominant. The authorities should take proper initiative in this regard.
3) Manipuri weaving is one of the textile industries of Bangladesh. But the Manipuri
weavers are slowly giving up their occupation as they are not getting fair wages
for the mechanized looms and middlemen, which is a threat to the Manipuri
handloom industry. Since this matter is part of the national tradition, it is
necessary to take a proper role. Government should take steps for the development
of handicraft. It is much popular on the one hand and also plays an important role
to our economy.
4) In order to retain the identity of the Manipuris, their cultural activities should be
encouraged and their indigenous religion (Apokpa or Sanamahism) should be
introduced into the mainstream society.
5) Long-term research is needed to know in detail about Manipuri culture and
cultural changes.

7.3 Conclusion
Culture flows like a river, it is very natural that culture changes with the change of
time. Currently, various factors are considered to be the influence of cultural change.
Change of era, modernization, urbanization, information and technological
excellence, tendency to accept different cultures etc. Manipuri culture as an ethnic

62
community culture is also similar. Rather, minority cultures tend to blend into
mainstream culture. As a community evolves it loses some of its ancient cultures.
This loss of identity is difficult to quantify. It is a matter of feeling or perceiving and
observing. In this study, the cultural change of the Manipuri ethnic community was
measured between three generations. Their psychological aspects, perceptions, their
speech, daily life and external affairs are taken into consideration. Both positive and
negative changes are noticeable. But they are in the middle of a transit period, they
have realized their original culture. They are moving forward in matching their own
culture with modernity. Manipuri ethnic community is a prominent community, their
community bond is still quite strong. The initiative they are taking individually or
collectively to preserve cultural identity in keeping with the times is truly
commendable.

63
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 Appendix-I: Interview Schedule

Research Title: Cultural Changes in The Manipuri Ethnic Community: An Ethnographic

Study on Two Villages of Moulvibazar District in Bangladesh

Institute of Social Welfare and Research

University of Dhaka

(This is an academic research interview guideline. The information collected from you will be
used for academic purposes only. You are assured that the information provided by you will
be secure and used anonymously/pseudonymously. Thank you in advance for your
cooperation with the information.)

Interview Questions

Schedule No: Date:

Interviewer:

A. Personal information

1. Name: 2. Family Surname:

3. Age: 4. Gender:

5. Community: 6. Profession:

7. Present Address: 8. Permanent Address:

9. Educational Qualification: 10. Marital Status: Married / Single / Divorce / Separation

B . Family, relationship and marriage related information

1. What kind of family do you live in? (single, joint, extended)

2. Who is the head of your family? How is the head of household determined? Who/who
participates in family decisions?

3. Type of family system prevailing in the past (eg matriarchal/patriarchal/single/joint)

4. Your opinion about changes in family type?

5. Do relatives live near you or in the same area? When do relatives usually meet?

6. Your opinion on family values and its changes….

7. What kinds of changes do you see in relationships (social interactions)?

8. Tell about Manipuri wedding formalities (what is the program, rituals, tithi, etc.).

67
9. At what age do men and women get married? In marriage, the opinion of the bride and
groom is taken or not? How is it taken if taken?

10. Is there a practice of dowry/gifts during the marriage? If yes, what kind?

11. Where do wedding ceremonies usually take place (home or community)? Is the
community center available for weddings?

12. Where do the husband and wife live after marriage? (Residence)

13. Is there a divorce/separation arrangement? If yes, how is it?

14. What is the prevalence of out-of-community marriages?

15. What are your views on the changes that have taken place in the marriage system?

C. Religious ritual related

1. Tell us about your religious practices and beliefs.

2. Do you have a caste system like Hindus?

3. Tell about religious rituals related to birth and death...

4. Tell about other ceremonies that follow the scriptural ritual.

5. Is there any distinctive feature that differentiates you from Bishnupriya/Maitai

Manipuris? If yes, please specify.

6. Where is your religious place of tample? Are they different from the original Hindu
society?

7. Faced with any problems in performing religious rituals with the original Hindu society?

8. What kind of changes do you think are taking place in the religious field in the above
matters?

d. Festivals, entertainment and leisure

1. Tell about major religious festivals.

2. Is there any organization for celebrating religious festivals? If yes, mention the name.

3. Tell about changes related to festivals and entertainment.

4. What do you usually do as a means of entertainment?

5. How is leisure time spent? How did you spend before?

E. Food habit and hospitality related

68
1. What kind of food do you usually eat? Tell about daily food and
drink.(Vegetarian/Vegetarian)

2. What foods and drinks are common on festivals, hospitality and special days? Name
some special food and drink.

3. Tell about traditional and popular foods and drinks.

4. What is your opinion about modern food (pizza,burger,sandwich,chinese,soft drink etc)?

What is the prevalence and popularity of these foods?

5. What kind of changes have come in terms of food and drink? Your opinion...

6. Tell us about Manipuri hospitality.

F. Clothes and decorations

1. Describe everyday and festive or special day clothing and accessories.

2. Do you make your own clothes?

3. How is the trend of modern clothes (three-piece, shirt, pants, western) and decoration
(hairband, makeover, make-up) among you?

4. Talk about changes in clothing and decor.

F (1) Manipuri clothing

1. Name the common Manipuri dress for boys and girls.

2. Do you make these clothes on your own loom?

G. Information about Adi Manipuri culture

1. Can you write, read and speak Manipuri?

2. How did you learn Manipuri language?

3. What kind of changes have come in the field of language?

4. How is the new generation interested in learning Manipuri language?

5. What is the opportunity of education in own language in primary institutional education?

What is the trend of Bengali or English language learning compared to their own language?

6. Do you have any books in your own language? Do you read or collect those books?

7. Tell about Manipuri literature and literary practice.

8. Facing any kind of obstacle in language learning? If so, please specify.

9. Do you practice mythology? Tell me if you know any mythological story.

69
10. Does anyone in your family practice Manipuri arts (eg dance, music, painting, drawing
and use of instruments)?

11. How are modern cultural practices affecting your own culture? Leave a comment...

12. Tell about cultural traditions and structures.

13. Is your community taking any steps to protect cultural heritage?

14. Your community used to have a monarchy. Do you know any history about this?

G. Information about Manipuri Dance

1. Tell me about Manipuri dance (name, style)? Does everyone in the family practice this
dance?

2. Tell about Manipuri dance costumes.

3. Family members learn this dance from an institution or from family tradition?

(2) Manipuri music

1. Can you sing Manipuri songs? If yes, where or from whom did you learn music?

2. Are there any institutes for learning manipuri music? If yes, mention the name.

3. What types of musical instruments are commonly used in Manipuri songs now? What
kind of equipment was used before?

4. When is the Manipuri song session?

5. Tell about Manipuri music genres (eg Modern / Bhajan Sangeet).

h. Related to structure

1. Do you have any rules of your own?

2. Who is the head of the tribe? On what basis is the tribal chief elected?

3. Where are group problems resolved?

4. What is the attitude of the main society towards you? How was it before?

5. Manipuri have their own organization? If yes, give the name of the organization and
details of its work.

H. Occupation and profession related

1. What is your family occupation? What kind of changes have occurred in agriculture and
textile industry?

70
2. Tell us about Manipuri weaving.

3. How is the tendency to be established in the modern profession?

J. related to education

1. How is the level of education in your family?

2. Tell about the participation of Manipuri children in mainstream education and higher
education.

3. Have you faced any problems in education as a minority group?

4. How is the importance of modern education as a process of socio-cultural change?

l. Housing and house structure

1. You live together in different neighborhoods. Why?

2. Is your house on its own land?

3. Talk about changes in housing and household structure.

I. Others

1. Your views on cultural change….

2. What do you think about Manipuri cultural identity being reduced or disappearing?

3. State the positive and negative effects of involvement with parent societies.

4. Tell us about the main problems and threats for you in cultural practices.

5. How are you adapting to cultural change? give feedback

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 সাক্ষাৎকার অনুসূচচ

গবেষণা চিররানাম: মচন঩ুরী নৃতাত্ত্বিক জনরগাষ্ঠীর সাাংস্কৃচতক ঩চরবততন:

মেৌলভিোজার মজলার দুটি গ্রাবের উ঩র একটট নৃতাত্ত্বিক গরবষণা

সমাজকল্যাণ ও গরবষণা ইনচিটটউট

ঢাকা চবশ্বচবদযাল্য়

(এটি একটি একাডেমভক গডফলণা ঳াক্ষাৎকায মনডদে ম঱কা। আ঩নায কাছ থথডক ঳ংগৃ঴ীত তথয
শুধুভাত্র একাডেমভক উডেড঱য ফযফ঴ায কযা ঴ডফ। আ঩নাডক আশ্বস্ত কযমছ থম আ঩নায
প্রদত্ত তথয ঳ুযমক্ষত এফং থফনাডভ /ছদ্মনাডভ ফযফ঴ায কযা ঴ডফ। তথয মদডে ঳঴ডমামগতা কযায
জনয আ঩নাডক অমিভ ধনযফাদ।)

সাক্ষাৎকার প্রশ্নমাল্া

অনু঳ূচী নং: তামযখ:

঳াক্ষাৎি঴ণকাযী:

ক. বযাত্ত্বিগত তথযাচদ

১. নাভ: ২.঩ামযফামযক ঩দফী:

৩. ফে঳: ৪. মরঙ্গ:

৫. ঳ম্প্রদাে: ৬. থ঩঱া:

৭. ফতেভান টিকানা: ৮. স্থােী টিকানা:

৯. ম঱ক্ষাগত থমাগযতা: ১০. বফফাম঴ক অফস্থা: মফফাম঴ত /অমফফাম঴ত /মেডবা঳ /থ঳঩াডয঱ন

ে

খ. ঩চরবার, জ্ঞাচতসম্পকত ও চববাহ সম্পচকতত তথযাবচল্

১. আ঩মন থম ধযডণয ঩মযফাডয ফা঳ কডযন? ( একক,থম৏থ,একান্নফতী)

২. আ঩নায ঩মযফায প্রধান থক? ঩মযফায প্রধান মকবাডফ মনধামযত

ে ঴ে? ঩ামযফামযক ম঳দ্ধাডে
থক/কাযা অং঱ি঴ণ কডয?

ে ধযডনয ঩মযফায প্রথা প্রচমরত মছডরা (থমভন ভাতৃতামিক / ম঩তৃতামিক / একক/থম৏থ)

৩. ঩ূডফ থম

৪. ঩াযমফফামযক ধযডণয ঩মযফতেন ঳ম্পডকে আ঩নায ভতাভত?

৫. আত্মীেযা মক আ঩নাডদয ঩া঱া঩াম঱ ফা একই এরাকাে অফস্থান কডয? আত্মীেযা ঳াধাযণত

কখন মভমরত ঴ে?

৬. ঩ামযফামযক ভূরযডফাধ ঑ তায ঩মযফতেন মনডে আ঩নায ভতাভত....

৭. ঩াযস্পমযক ঳ম্পডকেয (঳াভাজজক মভথজিো) থক্ষডত্র মক ধযডণয ঩মযফতেন থদখডত ঩ান?

72
৮. ভমন঩ুযী মফডেয আনুষ্ঠামনকতা ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন (মক মক থপ্রািাভ, মযচুোর঳, মতথী,ইতযামদ)।

৯. থছডর থভডেডদয মফডে ঳াধাযণত থকান ফেড঳ ঴ডে থাডক?. মফডেডত ঩াত্র঩াত্রীয ভতাভত থনো ঴ে
মক না? থনো ঴ডর মকবাডফ থনো ঴ে?

১০. মফডেয ঳ভে থম৏তু ক/উ঩ড ৏কন এয প্রচরন আডছ মক? থাকডর তা মক ধযডণয?

১১. মফডেয অনুষ্ঠান ঳াধাযণত থকাথাে ঴ে(ফাম঵ ফা এরাকাে)? মফডে উ঩রডক্ষয কমভউমনটি
থ঳ন্টাডযয ফযফ঴ায যডেডছ মক?

১২. মফডেয ঩য স্বাভী-স্ত্রী থকাথাে ফ঳ফা঳ কডযন? (ভাতৃ/ম঩তৃ/নোফা঳)

১৩. মেডবা঳/থ঳঩াডয঱ডনয
ে ফযফস্থা আডছ মক? থাকডর তা থকভন?

১৪. ঳ম্প্রদাে ফম঴বূ ত

ে মফফাড঴য প্রচরন থদখা মাে মক?

১৫. মফফা঴ফযফস্থাে থম ধযডণয ঩মযফতেন ঴ডেডছ তা ঳ম্পডকে আ঩নায ভতাভত.....

গ. ধম,ত চবশ্বাস, জন্ম ও মৃতযয, অন্নপ্রািন ও অনযানয অনুষ্ঠান সাংক্রান্ত িাস্ত্রীয় আচার
সম্পচকতত

১. আ঩নাডদয ধভীে যীমত ঑ মফশ্বা঳ ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

২.ম঴ন্দুূূডদয ভডতা আ঩নাডদয ঳ম্প্রদাডে ফণপ্রথা

ে আডছ মক?

৩. জন্ম ঑ ভৃতুয ঳ম্পমকেত ধভীে আচায অনুষ্ঠান ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন...

৪. অনযানয আয কী কী অনুষ্ঠান যডেডছ মা ঱াস্ত্রীে আচায থভডন চডর,তা ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

৫. মফষ্ণুমপ্রো/বভতত ভমন঩ুযীডদয থথডক আ঩নাডদয ঩াথডকযয

ে থকাডনা স্বতি বফম঱ষ্ট্য আডছ? থাকডর
উডেখ করুন।

৬. আ঩নাডদয ধভীে উ঩া঳নারে থকাথাে থকাথাে যডেডছ? থ঳গুডরা মক ভূর ম঴ন্দু ঳ভাডজয থথডক
আরাদা?

৭. ভূর ম঴ন্দু ঳ভাডজয ঳াডথ ধভীে আচায ঩ারন কযডত থকাডনা ঳ভ঳যায ঳ম্মুখীন ঴ডেডছন?

৮. উ঩ডযাক্ত মফলেগুডরাডত ধভীে থক্ষডত্র মক ধযডণয ঩মযফতেন ঴ডে ফডর আ঩মন ভডন কডযন।

ঘ. উৎসব, চবরনাদন এবাং অবসর

১. প্রধান ধভীে উৎ঳ফগুডরা ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

২. ধভীে উৎ঳ফ ঩ারডনয জনয থকাডনা ঳ংগিন আডছ? থাকডর নাভ উডেখ করুন।

৩. উৎ঳ফ ঑ মফডনাদন ঳ম্পমকেত ঩মযফতেন ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

৪. ঳াধাযণত মফডনাদডনয ভাধযভ ম঴ড঳ডফ মক মক কডযন?(টিমব থদখা/থখরা/আড্ডা/থঘাযাঘুময

কযা/঳াভাজজক থমাগাডমাগ ভাধযভ)

73
৫. অফ঳য ঳ভে মকবাডফ কািাডনা ঴ে? আডগ মকবাডফ কািাডতন?

ঙ. খাবার ও ঩ানীয় সম্পচকতত

১. আ঩নাযা ঳াধাযণত মক ধযডনয খাফায থখডে থাডকন? বদনজন্দন খাফায ঑ ঩ানীে ঳ম্পডকে
ফরুন।(আমভল/মনযামভলডবাজী)

২. উৎ঳ফ, আমতমথডেতা ঑ মফড঱ল মদডন মক মক খাফায ঑ ঩ানীে প্রচমরত? মকছু থস্প঱ার খাফায ঑
঩ানীডেয নাভ ফরুন।

৩. ঐমত঴যফা঴ী ঑ জনমপ্রে খাফায এফং ঩ানীে ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

৪. আধুমনক খাফায ( ম঩জ্জা,ফাগায,঳যান্

ে েুইচ,চাইমনজ, থকাভর ঩ানীে ইতযামদ) ঳ম্পডকে আ঩নায
ভতাভত? এ঳ফ খাফাডযয প্রচরন ঑ জনমপ্রেতা থকভন?

৫. খাফায এফং ঩ানীে এয থক্ষডত্র মক ধযডণয ঩মযফতেন এড঳ডছ? আ঩নায ভতাভত....

৬. ভমন঩ুযীডদয আমতমথডেতা ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

চ.প঩ািাক এবাং সাজসজ্জা

১. বদনজন্দন এফং উৎ঳ফ ফা মফড঱ল মদডনয থ঩া঱াক ঑ ঳াজ঳জ্জায মফফযণ মদন।

২. আ঩নাযা মনডজডদয থ঩া঱াক মক মনডজযাই বতযী কডযন?

৩. আ঩নাডদয ভাডঝ আধুমনক থ঩া঱াক (মিম঩঳, ঱ািে ,঩যান্ট,঑ডেস্টান)ে ঑ ঳াজ঳জ্জায

(চুরফাাঁধা,থভইক঑বায, রূ঩চচো)প্রচরন থকভন?

৪. থ঩া঱াক ঑ ঳াজ঳জ্জায ঩মযফতেন ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

চ(১) মচন঩ুরী প঩ািাক

১. থছডর ঑ থভডেডদয জনয প্রচমরত ভমন঩ুযী থ঩া঱াডকয নাভ ফরুন।

২. এ঳ফ থ঩া঱াক মক আ঩নাযা মনডজডদয তাাঁডত বতময কডযন?

ছ. আচদ মচন঩ুরী সাংস্কৃচত সাংক্রান্ত তথয

১. আ঩মন মক ভমন঩ুযী বালাে মরখডত, ঩঵ডত ঑ ফরডত ঩াডযন?

২. আ঩মন ভমন঩ুযী বালা মকবাডফ ম঱ডখডছন?

৩. বালায থক্ষডত্র মক ধযডণয ঩মযফতেন এড঳ডছ?

৪. নতু ন প্রজডন্ময ভমন঩ুযী বালা থ঱খায প্রমত আি঴ থকভন?

৫. প্রাথমভক প্রামতষ্ঠামনক ম঱ক্ষাে মনজস্ব বালাে ম঱ক্ষায ঳ুডমাগ থকভন? .মনজস্ব বালায তু রনাে
ফাংরা ফা ইংডযজজ বালাম঱ক্ষায প্রফণতা থকভন?

৬. আ঩নাডদয মনজস্ব বালাে থকাডনা ফই আডছ? আ঩নাযা মক থ঳঳ফ ফই ঩ড঵ন ফা ঳ংিড঴ যাডখন?

74
৭. ভমন঩ুযী ঳াম঴তয এফং ঳াম঴তয চচো ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

৮. বালাচচোে থকাডনা ধযডনয ফাধায ঳ম্মুখীন ঴ডেন? ঴ডর উডেখ করুন।

৯. থ঩৏যামণক চচো কডযন মক? থ঩৏যামণক থকাডনা কাম঴মন জানা থাকডর ফরুন।

১০. আ঩নায ঩মযফাডযয থকউ মক ভমন঩ুযী ম঱ল্পকরা (থমভন- নাচ,গান,ছমফ,নক঱া ঑ মি঩ামতয

ফযফ঴ায) চচো কডয?

১১. আধুমনক ঳াংস্কৃমতক চচো আ঩নাডদয মনজস্ব ঳ংস্কৃমতডত থকভন প্রবাফ থপরডছ? ভতাভত মদন...

১২. ঳াংস্কৃমতক ঐমত঴য ঑ স্থা঩না ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

১৩. আ঩নায ঳ম্প্রদাে ঳াংস্কৃমতক ঐমত঴য যক্ষাে থকাডনা ঩দডক্ষ঩ ি঴ণ কযডছ?

১৪. আ঩নাডদয ঳ম্প্রদাডে ঩ূডফ যাজতি

ে মছডরা। এ঳ম্পডকে আ঩মন থকাডনা ইমত঴া঳ জাডনন?

ছ(১) মচন঩ুরী নৃতয সম্পচকতত তথয

১. ভমন঩ুযী নৃতয ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন (নাভ,ধযণ)? ঩মযফাডযয ঳ফাই মক এ নাডচয অনু঱ীরন কডযন?

২. ভমন঩ুযী নৃডতযয ঳াজ঳জ্জা ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

৩. ঩মযফাডযয ঳দ঳যযা এ নাচ থকাডনা প্রমতষ্ঠান থথডক ম঱ডখ থাডক নামক ঩ামযফামযক ঩যম্পযা
থথডক?

ছ(২) মচন঩ুরী সঙ্গীত

১. আ঩মন ভমন঩ুযী গান গাইডত ঩াডযন? উত্তয ঴যাাঁ ঴ডর, আ঩মন গান থকাথাে ফা কায কাডছ
ম঱ডখডছন।

২. ভমন঩ুযী ঳ঙ্গীত থ঱খায জনয থকাডনা প্রামতষ্ঠান আডছ? থাকডর নাভ উডেখ করুন।

৩. ভমন঩ুযী গাডন ঳াধাযণত মক ধযডণয গাডনয মি঩ামত ফযাফ঴ায কযা ঴ে এখন। আডগ থকান
ধযডনয মি঩ামত ফযফ঴ায ঴ডতা।

৪. ভমন঩ুযী গাডনয আ঳য কখন ফড঳।

৫. ভমন঩ুযী গাডনয ধযন( থমভন আধুমনক /বজন঳ঙ্গীত) ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

জ. কাঠারমা সম্পচকতত

১. আ঩নাডদয মনজস্ব থকাডনা মনেভ-নীমত আডছ মক?

২. থগাত্রপ্রধান থক? মকড঳য মবমত্তডত থগাত্রপ্রধান মনফামচত

ে ঴ে?

৩. থগাষ্ঠীগত ঳ভ঳যা থকাথাে মনষ্পমত্ত ঴ে?

৪. আ঩নাডদয প্রমত ভূর ঳ভাডজয দৃটষ্ট্বমঙ্গ থকভন? আডগ থকভন মছডরা?

75
৫. ভমন঩ুযীডদয মনজস্ব থকাডনা ঳ংগিন আডছ মক? থাকডর ঳ংগিন এয নাভ ঑ কাডজয মফফযণ
মদন।

ঝ. বৃচি ও প঩িা সম্পচকতত

১. আ঩নায ঩ামযফামযক থ঩঱া মক? কৃমল এফং তাাঁতম঱ডল্প মক ধযডণয ঩মযফতেন ঴ডেডছ?

২. ভমন঩ুযী তাাঁতম঱ল্প মনডে ফরুন।

৩. ফতেভাডন আধুমনক থ঩঱াে প্রমতটষ্ঠত ঴঑োয প্রফণতা থকভন?থ঩঱ায তামগডদ স্থান ঩মযফতেন
কযায প্রফণতা থকভন?

ঞ. চিক্ষা সম্পচকতত

১. আ঩নায ঩মযফাডয ম঱ক্ষায ঴ায থকভন?

২. ভূরধাযা ম঱ক্ষা ঑ উচ্চম঱ক্ষাে ভমন঩ুযী থছডরডভডেডদয অং঱ি঴ণ ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

৩. ক্ষুদ্র নৃডগাষ্ঠী ম঴ড঳ডফ ম঱ক্ষায থক্ষডত্র থকাডনা ঳ভ঳যায ঳ম্মুখীন ঴ডেডছন মক?

৪. ঳াভাজজক ঳াংস্কৃমতক ঩মযফতেডনয প্রজিো ম঴ড঳ডফ আধুমনক ম঱ক্ষায গুরুত্ব থকভন?

ঠ. বাসস্থান ও ঘরবাচ঺র কাঠারমা

১. আ঩নাযা মফমবন্ন ঩া঵াে থজাি ঴ডে ফ঳ফা঳ কডযন। থকডনা?

২. আ঩নায ফাম঵ মক মনজস্ব জমভডত?

৩. ফা঳স্থান ঑ ঘযফাম঵ কািাডভায ঩মযফতেন ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

ড. অনযানয

১. ঳াংস্কৃমতক ঩মযফতেন ঳ম্পডকে আ঩নায ভতাভত....

২. ভমন঩ুযী ঳াংস্কৃমতক স্বকীেতা হ্রা঳ ফা মফরুপ্ত ঴ডে, এ ঳ম্পডকে আ঩মন মক বাডফন?

৩. ভূর ঳ভাডজয ঳াডথ ঳ম্পৃক্ততায ইমতফাচক ঑ থনমতফাচক প্রবাফ ফরুন।

৪. ঳াংস্কৃমতক চচোে আ঩নাডদয জনয প্রধান ঳ভ঳যা ঑ ঴ুভমকগুডরা ঳ম্পডকে ফরুন।

৫. ঳াংস্কৃমতক ঩মযফতেডনয ঳াডথ আ঩নাযা মনডজডদয মকবাডফ ভামনডে মনডেন? ভতাভত মদন।

76
 Appendix-II: Observation Checklist

Subject of observation

 Family, relationship and marriage related observation

 Relation and interaction with family and neighbors
 Participation of women and men in family work
 Socialization, Behavior, Marriage System
 A religious ritual related observation
 Regarding religion, faith, birth, death and other rituals
 Temples and religious functions
 Birth and death ceremonies
 Religious functions
 Festivals, entertainment and leisure related observation
 Festivals, entertainment and leisure
 Food habit and hospitality related observation
 Food and drink
 Food habit and hospitality
 Dress and Ornaments related observation
 Clothing and accessories
 General and special clothing and accessories
 Regarding the ancient Manipuri culture
 Books, Literature, Language, Myth
 Music, instruments, dance
 Cultural awareness and participation
 Historical buildings
 Involvement with mainstream society
 Occupation and profession related observation
 Handloom inspection
 Others
 Fluency in Bengali speaking
 Use of modernity
 Inspection of textile industry
 House pattern, environment
 Customs and hospitality
 Social interaction
 Cultural awareness
 Cultural Heritage

77
 ঩র্রবক্ষণ
ত পচকচল্ি

঩র্রবক্ষরণর
ত চবষয়

 ঩চরবার, জ্ঞাচতসম্পকত ও চববাহ সম্পচকতত

 ঩মযফায ঑ প্রমতডফম঱ডদয ঳াডথ ঳ম্পকে,মভথজিো
 ঩াযমফফামযক কাডজ নাযী ঑ ঩ুরুডলয অং঱ি঴ণ
 ঳াভাজজকীকযণ
 আচযণ ঑ ফযফ঴ায
 মফফা঴
 ধম, ত চবশ্বাস,জন্ম, মৃতযয ও অনযানয িাস্ত্রীয় আচার সাংক্রান্ত
 উ঩া঳নারে ঑ ধভীে কামাফরী
ে
 জন্ম,ভৃতুযয আনুষ্ঠামনকতা

 উৎসব, চবরনাদন ও অবসর সাংক্রান্ত
 উৎ঳ফ উদমা঩ন
 অফ঳য ঑ মফডনাদন প্রজিো
 খাবার ও ঩ানীয়
 খাদযাবযা঳ ঑ খাফাডযয মনেভাফমর, আমতমথডেতা
 প঩ািাক ও সাজসজ্জা
 ঳াধাযণ ঑ মফড঱ল থ঩া঱াক এফং ঳াজ঳জ্জা
 আচদ মচন঩ুরী সাংস্কৃচত সাংক্রান্ত
 ফই঩ত্র, ঳াম঴তয, বালা,মভথ
 গান,ইনস্ট্রুডভন্ট, নাচ
 ঳াংস্কৃমতক ঳ডচতনতা ঑ অং঱ি঴ণ
 ঐমত঴াম঳ক স্থা঩না
 প্রথা
 ভূর ঳ভাডজয ঳াডথ ঳ম্পৃক্ততা
 কাঠারমা সম্পচকতত
 বৃচি ও প঩িা সম্পচকতত
 তাাঁত ঩মযদ঱নে
 ফাংরা বালাে কথা ফরায স্পষ্ট্তা
 ঘযফাম঵য ঩যািান,঩মযডফ঱
ে
 আধুমনকতায ফযফ঴ায
 তাাঁতম঱ল্প ঩মযদ঱নে
 অেসর ও ভেবনাদন
 ঳াভাজজক মভথজিো
 ঳াংস্কৃমতক ঳ডচতনতা
 সাাংস্কৃ ভিক অনুশীলন মকন্দ্র
 সাভহিয

78
 Appendix-III: The Respondents’ Family & the Key Informants (KI)

Family 01: This is the first sample unit of this study. The family is of extended type. The
total number of members is 13, among them 5 men and 8 women. The family's earlier
occupation was agriculture, and now they are involved in modern occupations. They have
migrated from Manipur state and currently reside permanently in Nayapattan village.

Family 02: It is characteristically a joint family, the family consists of 9 members, among
them 8 reside permanently in Bhanubil village and one resides in Sylhet city on business
basis. The family is well educated and economically advanced. They are involved in various
Manipuri cultural activities.

Family 03: This family is special from other families in Manipuri village. This is a priest's
family. Manipuris give a special status to the priest, therefore the family has a special status
in the village. It is an extended family, and the total number of members is 13. Other elder
members of the family are associated with government and private sector jobs.

Family 04: The family is an educated, stable family. They live permanently in Bhanubil
(Mazhergao) village. They make many donations for Manipuri, Khasia and Bengali children
in the area to participate in education. They donated land for a school, now there is a
government primary school. The family is very conscious of education and culture.

Family 05: The family settled jointly and permanently in Nayapattan village. Earlier,
agriculture was the main occupation of the family. They now live in half buildings from mud
houses. Everyone in the family is dependent on income except the children. They have to
work hard to reach their current position. There are Manipuri dance and music teachers in
this family.

Family 06: The family is of extended type, consisting of 12 members and they are
permanently settled in Nayapattan village. The family was involved in weaving industry.
Currently studying and working. A woman in the family sings in Ras Utsav and participated
in this year's Ras Utsav.

Family 07: This family is permanently settled in Bhanubil (Majher Gao) village and is a joint
family of 8 members. Although the family occupation of the family is agriculture, they are
now associated with modern occupations. Children of the family are trained to read and write
Manipuri language. One of them participated in this year's Ras dance.

79
Family 08: This family is completely settled in Nayapattan village. The household has total
seven members. Some of them are involved in cultural activities. Most of the individuals are
working in Sylhet and Dhaka cities. They meet together in a number of social and spiritual
festivals.

Family 09: The family lives jointly in Nayapattan village. Three generations exist among
their 11 members, the head of the family being an old man and his son. Manipuri dance and
music are practiced in the family.

Family 10: The family lives in Nayapattan village. It is an extended family. 3 members of
the family stay outside the village and country for work and studies. Cloth is woven by loom
in this family. All members except children make financial contribution to the family.

Family 11: It is a middle-class joint family. Two members of the family have formed a
nuclear family and are living separately away from home. The rest of the family members are
living together and trying to maintain family relationships and values.

Family 12: The family migrated from a neighboring village and settled permanently in
Bhanubil village. It is a joint and financially independent family. Members practice
Manipuri dance and music and are involved in various organizations working for the
development of the Manipuri community.

Family 13: It is a joint family and they live in Bhanubil Mahergao village. Elderly woman of
the family used to perform Manipuri music on BBC Bangla Radio. Her daughter-in-law and
grandchildren are involved in Manipuri dance and singing. Most of the family members are
established in modern professions.

Family 14: This family is the family of the Priest although none of them currently perform the
duties of the Priest. Generally, Manipuris give special respect to priest's family and Manipuri
community has more opportunities to exercise their rights. The family resides permanently in
Bhanubil village.

Family 15: This family has recently broken down from an extended family to a joint family.
The family of 7 members are followers of Hinduism and Apokpa religion and reside in
Nayapattan village. One member of the family was in the Panchayat Committee for a certain
period.

Family 16: The family is joint and permanently settled in Bhanubil village. The family is
involved in cultural activities. The head of the family currently teaches musical instruments,
in which he and other members participate in the Rasa festival.
80
Family 17: This family is completely settled in Bhanubil (Majher Gao) village and is a joint
household of eight members. Although the family occupation was agriculture, they are now
associated with current professions.

Family 18: The family is educated and joint family with ten members. Among the members,
three are in government service and two are studying in reputed public universities of the
country. The members of the family practiced progressivism, literature and theatre.

Family 19: This Manipuri family lives permanently in Bhanubil (Majhergao) village. It is an
extended family. They total 14 members live together, but two family members stay in Dhaka
for work and studies. They have two separate houses side by side.

Family 20: This family settled permanently in Nayapattan village. They are a joint family
with 9 members. Most of their family members are established in modern professions. Their
relatives live in different parts of Bangladesh and India. Many of them are directly associated
with cultural activities.

Family 21: This family is permanently settled in Bhanubil (Mazhergao) village. The family
has total seven members. None of them are involved in cultural activities. Most of the
members are working in Sylhet and Dhaka cities. They meet together in various social and
religious festivals.

Family 22: This family is an educated and well established joint family with nine members.
They settled permanently in Nayapattan village. Most of their family members are involved
in various cultural organizations. The family also contributes to the Raas festival. A member
of this family is in the present Panchayat Committee.

Family 23: This family is permanently settled in Bhanubil (Middle Gao) village and is a joint
family of 8 members. Although the family occupation of the family is agriculture, they are
now associated with modern occupations. Children of the family are trained to read and write
Manipuri language. One of them participated in this year's Ras dance.

Family 24: This family is the last family to participate in this study. It is a joint family of
eight members, they are permanently settled in Nayapattan village. They originally came to
Tejgao area of Dhaka as migrants from India. Later settled in Moulvibazar district. Although
they are engaged in modern occupations, they are still indirectly involved in agricultural
work.

KII 01: Sheymal Singha (pseudonym) is one of the most famous pioneers of the Manipuri
ethnic community in Bangladesh, and has authored several scholarly books on the Manipuri
81
community. He translated some Manipuri literature into Bengali for the readers of this
community. His contribution to popularization of Manipuri language education is immense.

KII 02: Bishwajit Shingha (pseudonym) founded an NGO for the preservation and
development of Manipuri community culture. He is a writer and researcher on the Manipuri
community. His NGO has established language education centers in many Manipuri villages
and Paras in the country.

KII 03: Niranjan Chatterjee (pseudonym) is a Manipuri priest. He is a Brahmin from a local
Manipuri temple. He mainly performed Hindu pujas and Manipuri weddings.

KII 04: Atanu Singh (pseudonym) is a Community Based Tourism Business Entrepreneur.
Through his business, he introduces tourists to the culture of Manipuri food, dress, tradition,
dance, music etc.

KII 05: Rama Sinha (pseudonym) is a Manipuri administrative officer. She lives in Adampur
Union. She is associated with various Manipuri organizations.

KII 06: Shanta Leima (pseudonym) is a follower of Apokpa religion. She studied about
Apokpa religion and Manipuri history, she had some rare photographs and documents which
are important for this research.

KII 07: Niketan Singh (pseudonym) is a Manipuri dance teacher. He currently teaches
Manipuri dance to many students; he also teaches music and musical instruments. He used to
sing in Manipuri on a popular radio in the country.

82
 Appendix-IV: Basic Information of the Researched Respondents

Serial No Age Gender Educational Occupation/ Address Marital

Family Qualification Profession Status
Family 01 72 Female Primary Home Maker Nayapattan Widow
54 Male Degree Govt. Job Nayapattan Married
23 Male Hon's Student Nayapattan Unmarried
(continuing)
Family 02 68 Female Standard 8 House Wife Bhanubil Married

43 Female Graduate Teacher Bhanubil Unmarried

24 Female M.A running Student Bhanubil Unmarried
Family 03 82 Male Higher Priest Bhanubil Married
Secondary
48 Male M.A Job holder Bhanubil Married
27 Female M.Sc Job seeker Bhanubil Unmarried
Family 04 84 Male Diploma Retired Officer Bhanubil Married

48 Female M.A Teacher Bhanubil Married

27 Male M.A Job holder Bhanubil Unmarried
Family 05 76 Male Primary Agriculture Nayapattan Married
53 Male Degree Bank job Nayapattan Married
24 Female Hon's 4th year Student Nayapttan Unmarried
Family 06 71 Female Primary Housewife Nayapattan Married
Completed
56 Male Higher Business Nayapattan Married
Secondary
23 Male Student Student Nayapattan Unmarried
Family 07 68 Female Primary Houseswife Nayapattan Married

49 Male B.A Business Nayapattan Married

25 Male Hon's Business Nayapattan Unmarried

Family 08 70 Female Primary Housewife Nayapattan Married
50 Male Diploma Goldsmith Nayapattan Married
20 Male Higher Student Nayapattan Unmarried
Secondary
Family 09 70 Female Primary Housewife Nayapattan Married
53 Male M.A Job Nayapattan Married
25 Female MSS Student Nayapattan Unmarried

Family 10 79 Female Primary Housewife Nayapattan Married

43 Female B.A Job Married

83
 25 Female Masters Student Nayapattan Unmarried
Family 11 68 Female Secondary House wife Bhanubil Married

47 Male Degree Business Bhanubil Married

26 Male M.Sc Student Bhanubil Unmarried
Family 12 70 Female Primary Housewife Bhanubil Married
55 Male Higher Business Bhanubil Married
Secondary
23 Male Hon's 3rd year Student Bhanubil Unmarried

Family 13 77 Female Primary Housewife Bhanubil Married

42 Female Higher Housewife Bhanubil Married
Secondary
29 Male B.A Job Bhanubil Unmarried
Family 14 80 Male Diploma Village doctor Bhanubil Married

57 Female Degree Teacher Bhanubil Married

24 Male Hon's Student Bhanubil Unmarried
Family 15 80 Female Primary House wife Nayapattan Married

48 Female B.A Teacher Nayapattan Married

25 Male Masters Student Nayapattan Unmarried
Family 16 80 Male Diploma Retired Bhanubil Married
57 Female Degree Teacher Bhanubil Married

24 Male Hon's Student Bhanubil Unmarried

Family 17 75 Male Primary Agriculture Nayapattan Married

55 Male Degree Job Nayapattan Married
30 Male B.A Job Nayapattan Unmarried
Family 18 84 Male Higher Retired job Bhanubil Married
Secondary holder
52 Male M.A First Class Bhanubil Married
officer
23 Male Hon's running Student Bhanubil Unmarried

Family 19 80 Female Higher Retired Bhanubil Married

Secondary

57 Male M.A Job Bhanubil Married

25 Female Hon's Student Bhanubil Unmarried
Family 20 76 Male Diploma Retired Nayapattan Married
54 Female B.A Job Nayapattan Marriage

32 Female M.A Job Nayapattan Married

84
 Serial No Age Gender Educational Occupation/ Address Marital
Family Qualification Profession Status

Family 21 83 Male Primary Agricultural Bhanubil Married

49 Female Degree Business Bhanubil Married

32 Female B.A Business Bhanubil Married
Family 22 75 Male Degree Retired Nayapattan Married

48 Female M.A Job Nayapattan Married

26 Female M.Sc Student Nayapattan Unmarried
Family 23 86 Female Primary Agriculture Bhanubil Married
58 Female B.A Job Bhanubil Unmarried
25 Male Hon's Student Bhanubil Unmarried

Family 24 80 Male Secondary Agriculture Nayapattan Married

58 Male B.A Job Nayapattan Married
27 Female M.A Job Nayapattan Unmarried

85
 Appendix-V: Sample Analysis Charts

Serial Family pattern, kinship Marriage Religion Fastivals Dance and Songs
No and values system and and beliefs and
Family Rituals Recreatio
n

Family R1: Extended , relatives Marriages Vaishnava Tradition I can dance. I sing
01 live in Bangladesh and were not religion, al during Aarti in the
India. The decision of fancy, the worship temple.
elders was final, decorated household of Hindu
harmony with neighbors with kumkum, deity is religion
and boundaryless sandalwood. Sanamahi Parvan,
relations Married at a Raslila,
young age, Punthi
men lived with path.
multiple Waist
wives. weaving,
giving
time to
family.
joint family Relatives in The practice Hindu Various I can dance, but I can't
India are not often met. of shakha religion, religious sing, I used to rakhal
Elders make decisions. sindoor comes Manipuri and dance as a child.
from our time. Apokpa social
No dowry. religion festivals.
There are Friends,
some grand colleague
weddings. s,
The age of internet,
bride and books.
groom has
increased in
marriage.
There are joint and Gorgeous Hinduism Social Dance learned in
single family. Adults wedding, and media, childhood from Guru,
participate in family lighting, Apokpa games, no practice. Singing is
decisions precious gifts, religion. studies. difficult. I rarely go to
modern Shakti is temple so I can't.
decorations not
worshiped
(except
Durga

86
 Puja).

Family Joint family Relatives Marriages Hinduism Religious Learning dance, song
02 live in localities and were held in and and was compulsory. In
unions. Values used to Mandap. The Apokpa social religious ritual we
be relatively high. Now elder wife was festivals. dance and sing
isolation is increasing. younger. Child Punthi is
marriage was recited in
common. the
month of
Kartika.R
eligious
activities
during
free time.
Households are Food was not Hinduism Religious Learned in childhood,
dominated by income common, and and do not practice. Songs
and age. Relatives are bride used to Apokpa social and dances are
met at various festivals. walk to her festivals. performed in religious
Patriarchal family. husband's With and wedding
house. the family ceremonies.
use of Sakha and
and Sindur friends.
began.
There is a good Marriage is Apokpa. Religious Girls are more involved
relationship with the based on But I and in this, I learned at a
neighbors, but the opinion, participate social young age.
houses are separate, divorce is less in Hindu festivals.
slowly creating common. worship. With
boundaries. Which also Makeup, family
creates distance videography and
mentally. can be seen. friends
and
social
media.
Family joint family . Values are Manipuri Apokpa Celebrate I can sing.Practice
03 currently less practiced. marriage was the everyday
People are not as social very simple festival of
as they used to be. It was Apokpa
unimaginable to oppose religion
the decisions of family
elders or to live
separately.

87
 Due to the generation Divorce is very Apokpa Celebrate I can dance, but I can't
gap, disagreements, less. There are the sing, I used to rakhal
family values, mutual events like festival of dance as a child.
relations and kinship are mangalachara Apokpa
some distance and n, hechipada religion
changes are noticeable. and 5 days
return journey
in marriage.
We still prefer the joint Marriages are Apokpa social I practice dancing
family, the benefits are grand, media
more, children get the relatively old.
opportunity to live
together, learn
adjustment. Therefore,
later in their life, there is
less trouble. The head of
the family is selected
based on income and
age. But everyone
participates in the
decision.
Family completely dependent Marriage was Hinduism Family, I sing in the temple.
04 on the head of the done only in and Internet,
family. Relatives used to Manipuri Apokpa TV
come frequently for style. watching
functions. Neighbors
help, mutual relations
are also good.
Being away from family Manipuri and Hinduism with I can dance, but I can't
for work. Number of Hindu mixed and family sing, I used to rakhal
single family has Apokpa and dance as a child.
increased. Family values friends
are more developed in
single family. Relatives
do not visit home except
for big programs for
engagement.
Uncles, grandparents Marriage is Hinduism social A member of the
lead the family, but we based on and media, theatre. Practice
can also give opinions. opinion, Apokpa gaming dancing and singing.
The relationship with the divorce is less
neighbors is good. But common.
before they were like our
own family.

88
Family Extended family. My Child Hinduism Spend Performed Rakhal
05 nephew and I are the marriage, and time in dance and Rasa dance.
head of the family. opinion was Apokpa temple I have given up dance
Earlier people were less, not taken and practice
there was unity. Any family
program was done with
the help of relatives and
neighbors.
Elders participate in A second Hinduism TV, Manipuri songs are very
family decisions. Self- marriage and YouTube, difficult. I can't, I wasn't
centeredness tends to occurs when Apokpa family interested in learning
increase in relationships. the spouse music
dies, but
rarely
Like to maintain privacy Going to Hinduism Friends, I can sing modern songs
along with modernity. parlors, and music, in Manipuri language. I
Negative changes are games, Apokpa social have a music band
seen in family values. bachelor media group in this area.
parties
Family There was extended Marriage was Hinduism Tradition I sing in the temple.
06 family. Now joint. Earlier done only in and al
the relationship was Manipuri Apokpa worship
close. In joint family one style. of Hindu
learns to live together, religion
which is not in single Parvan,
family. Raslila,
Punthi
path.
Waist
weaving,
giving
time to
family.
Women's participation in Decorated Hinduism Spend I can dance, but I can't
family decision-making is Mandap, and time in sing, I used to rakhal
increasing. Communal Satpak, Kunj. Apokpa temple dance as a child.
ties are very strong, but Playing and
isolated disturbances mridanga, family
also occur.
Family breakdown is Modern Apokpa Family, Performed Rakhal
seen. Single family is on makeup and Internet, dance and Rasa dance.
the rise. People like to decoration, TV I have given up dance
be alone. cost more watching practice now

89
Family We like to be together. Child Hindu and Religious I can, I don't practice
07 No outsiders are needed marriage, Apokpa and because of illness.
in any event. Values are opinion was social.
relatively more practiced not taken Gomar
by living together. weaves
Everyone is helpful. looms,
Elders are the head of worships,
the family. wool.
Many stay outside for Divorce is very Being fully Religious I don't practice dancing
study and work. They less. There are initiated and and singing after
have a tendency and events like into social marriage
desire to separate. mangalachara Apokpa festivals
n, hechipada religion last 12
and 5 days months.
return journey Internet,
in marriage. TV,
family
Relations with relatives It has become Being fully Social Girls at home are eager
are good, they are out of customary to initiated media, to learn. Learned dance
this union, city and give more into family, and music from the
country. Due to long stay gifts. Many Apokpa friends,or Gurugriha.
in India, not everyone is are forced. religion g.
close to me. Wedding
ceremony
videography
Family Based on age and Marriage was Sanamahis Tradition I sing in the temple,
08 income. We used to done only in m and al rasa festival.
accept the decisions of Manipuri Hinduism worship
the men of the family. style. of Hindu
Participate in all events. religion
If someone had a Parvan,
problem, he would easily Raslila,
ask for help, everyone Punthi
knew about everyone's path.
family. Waist
weaving,
giving
time to
family.
There is no devotion like Decorated Sanamahis Social Learned to dance as a
before. Many things Mandap, m and and child. I don't practice.
have changed. My own Satpak, Kunj. Hinduism religious
brother has separated to Playing festivals
form a single family. mridanga,

90
 Everyone participates. If Sanamahis Family, Can't practice dancing
the decision is logical, m and Internet, and singing due to
accept it, otherwise Hinduism TV busyness.
don't accept it. Most of watching
my peers study in the
city. Meet at festivals.
Family extended. My father-in- Child Apokpa Spend I sing in bhajans and
09 law was the head of the marriage, and time in aarti
family. Even if we opinion was hinduism temple
cooked something good not taken and
at home, we would family
invite the neighbors.
There was no privacy.
Women often visit Divorce is very Being fully Social I do not practice
father's house. We have less. There are initiated and dancing and singing.
separated the houses. events like into religious Professional people
However, due to being in mangalachara Apokpa festivals come to dance and sing
a village and temple- n, hechipada religion in weddings or festivals.
centred, we meet daily. and 5 days
return journey
in marriage.
Takes opinion, like family Marriage is Being fully Internet , participate in festivals.
about university change based on initiated family,
and my opinion differ, opinion, into friends
finally they accept my divorce is less Apokpa
opinion. common. religion
Family joint family. Husband So many gifts Sanamahis Family, I sing in the temple.
10 and sons are the head of were not m and Internet,
the family. Less given, no one Hinduism TV
consensus than before. married by watching
Conflicts are increasing. spending too
much.
Values are less practiced, In Manipuri Sanamahis TV, hang Not practiced due to
single family is on the custom, the m and out with jobs and busyness
rise. change over time. marriage is Hinduism family, go
done to fairs
according to and
the tithi and events.
calendar.
Relations with neighbors Manipuri and Sanamahis Hindu Participate in different
are good. Relatives live Hindu rituals m and and programmes.
in this village. Many Hinduism manipuri
separate for studies and festivals,

91
 jobs. internet,
friends
Family I used to consider the Marriage was Sanamahis Tradition I sing in bhajans and
11 decision of the elders of done only in m and al aarti
the family ideal, respect Manipuri Hinduism worship
and devotion were high. style. of Hindu
religion
Parvan,
Raslila,
Punthi
path.
Waist
weaving,
giving
time to
family.
Becoming lonely. Stays Decorated Sanamahis Spend Jhulan Yatra and
close to family. Mandap, m and time in cultural Academy.
Participates in decisions. Satpak, Kunj. Hinduism temple
Relatives are scattered, Playing and
not in regular contact. mridanga, family
We live together. Even if Modern Sanamahis Social now I can't due to lack
the religion is different, makeup and m and and of practice
there is no problem. decoration, Hinduism religious
cost more festivals
Family Respect society. The So many gifts Apokpa Watching I can sing bhajan music.
12 head of the family was a were not and TV, I attend in Temple
man. joint family. given, no one hinduism spending occasionally.
Relatives are moving married by time with
away spending too grandchil
much. dren
joint family. We live Manipuri and Apokpa Temple, Rakhal dance, Jhulan
together. There is no Hindu rituals and worship, yatra.
habit of living alone. hinduism family
Have freedom of Manipuri, Sanamahis Religious participate in festivals.
opinion. Try to practice hindu and m and and
family values. Mutual modern. Hinduism social
relations are good. festivals,
Many do not follow the family
rules.
Family Staying outside the area My husband Vaishnavas Maghipur I can sing, I used to sing
13 and abroad. Everyone has two and nima, on the radio. I can't now
meets in social and marriages. I Krishna Durgapuj because of illness.

92
 religious festivals. am cohabiting devotees a,
with his 2nd Jhulan,Ra
wife. sa
Changing with time. Decorated Apokpa Kangkhel Learned dance music
Extended families are Mandap, a from Guru. I sang in
less common, with Satpak, Kunj. Natunkuri.
elders participating in Playing
decision-making mridanga,
circumambula
ting the groom
with glasses of
water and
flowers.
people were docile and Elder sister or Apokpa Free time I can't sing classical
patient. Women lived sister-in-law and is spent music, but I have
with husband's other asks. Girls can Hinduism with the learned modern music.
wives. We are not like take back gifts child.
that. during
separation. I
married by
choice.
Family joint family Relatives The groom's Apokpa Social I sing in the temple.
14 live in different places. family visits and and
Meet in social festivals. the bride. If Hinduism religious
the astrologer festivals,
matches the Watching
future of the TV,
bride and spending
groom, than time with
the rest of the grandchil
marriage work dren
is completed.
The panchayat used to If the Apokpa Rathyatra I did Rakhal and Jhulan
give solutions to family horoscope and dance. But now I don't
problems. Now we take does not Hinduism practice.
suggestions from the match,
panchayat. Decisions are marriage is
made by all the family not possible,
together. earlier
marriage was
compulsory in
the month of
Falgun to
Baisakh

93
 Still a joint family. Adults Marriage is Apokpa Social Can't sing, practice
participate in major based on and and modern dance
decisions. Changes in opinion, Hinduism religious
family values are relative divorce is less festivals
from family to family common.
Family Male head of family. The married at a Radha, Watching I play musical
15 son leads the family. young age. Krishna, TV, instruments and sing in
Relatives live separately. polygamy. Jagannath spending the temple.
However, everyone time with
meets at the event. grandchil
dren
Families are getting Rituals are Apokpa, TV, hang I was involved in
smaller as a result of many. Added hindu out with dancing and singing
loosening norms and lighting and family, go before marriage.
changing values. Due to decorations. to fairs
busyness, Hindu rituals and
communication and are being events.
seeing each other is less. mixed.
A joint family has three Marriage is Apokpa Makar I did Rakhal and Jhulan
generations. based on Sankranti dance. But now I don't
Grandfather lives with opinion, , Guru- practice.
us. Uncles are separated. divorce is less kirtana,
common. spend
time with
family
Family We still practice the old The marriage Radha, Social Worship, smoke with
16 family values. Due to is performed Krishna, and friends, give time to
work and other busyness with Manipuri Jagannath religious family.
we do not meet relatives rituals and festivals
often Hindu
mantras. Few
gifts were
given in
marriage.
From our generation, Wedding Apokpa Tour, I did Rakhal and Jhulan
everyone is getting the expenses have Facebook dance. But now I don't
opportunity to increased. , Movie, practice.
participate in the Girls hold Series
opinions and decisions. vermilion and.
Adults should reflect the
opinions of all. People
used to be conservative
but generous in

94
 relationships.

I participate in family Modern Radha, Social Modern music and

decisions. But I obey makeup and Krishna, and dance. We have our
seniors. I cannot play an decoration, Jagannath religious own music band.
active role in society for cost more festivals
studying.
Family The decision of the head married at a Apokpa + Family, I did Rakhal and Jhulan
17 of the family was final. young age. hindu Internet, dance. But now I don't
Women did not polygamy. TV practice.
participate much in watching
these matters. The
relationship was good.
Everyone has an opinion. Rituals are Krishna There is a I play musical
Due to many opinions, many. Hindu and puja instruments and sing in
there is trouble in the rituals are Jagannath. committe the temple.
family sometimes. being mixed. Apokpa is e for
Relatives are not the house religious
together like before. deity. events. I
watch
programs
on TV
We don't do what we Marriage is Apokpa with Can't sing, practice
want. Take family based on modernit modern dance
permission before doing opinion, y. Giving
anything. divorce is less time at
common. home
and
theater
Family Not all families stay Child Radha, Watching I sing in the temple.
18 together. Some are out marriage, Krishna, TV,
for work and studies. opinion was Jagannath spending
We don't talk about our not taken time with
troubles outside the grandchil
community, we try to dren
stay together.
Father and I are the head Marriage is Apokpa, Makar I did Rakhal and Jhulan
of the family. We live in based on hinduism Sankranti dance. But now I don't
the family till the end of opinion, , Guru- practice.
life. No old age home. divorce is less kirtana,
Elders are respected. common. spend
time with
family

95
 Joint family is breaking Modern Apokpa TV, hang Can't sing, practice
up and becoming single. makeup and out with modern dance
It does not have a close decoration, family, go
relationship with cost more to fairs
everyone as before. and
Participate in opinions. events.
Family Joint family practice. Hindu and Hindu and Watching I could. But now I don't
19 Change has come. Even Manipuri Apokpa. TV, practice.
if we had a problem of mixed. spending
understanding, we time with
would still be together. grandchil
dren
Respecting everyone. Splendor, Hindu and We all I did Rakhal and Jhulan
Trying to keep ourselves change of age. Apokpa. watch TV dance. But now I don't
together. Trying to hold together. practice.
values. On
mobile,
we use
YouTube
and
Facebook
.
being separate For No dowry. Hindu and Attendin I participate in theater
privacy and But there are Apokpa. g various and cultural events. I
privacy.Participate in gifts. events. practice Manipuri dance
opinions. Spending less.
time on
our own,
social
media
Family Nuclear. has changed Marriage Apokpa I perform I can. Ras education
20 The respect of elders has according to have not puja with takes place in temples.
decreased. Earlier, elders some Hindu left donation No one engages in
were less educated, so norms. The Hinduism s. I watch singing and dancing for
the current generation right match of completely dance education.
does not value them that the bride and . I worship songs. I
much. groom was according listen to
made. to the the radio,
calendar. Imphal
station.
Family and relatives are Divorce is less, Apokpa. Celebrate No one engages in
not given time due to age is Not social singing and dancing for
work and busyness. increased, Brahmin and education.

96
 some Hindu ruled. No religious
rituals are caste festivals
followed in system. together.
marriage. There are
temples at
Nayapatta
n and
Homerjan.
Earlier there were Maibaren Apokpa. football, No one engages in
frequent trips to completes the Much like social singing and dancing for
relatives' houses. Now marriage. No Islam. No media education.
these are festival-centric. Satpak as per caste
Apokpa. system.
Registration
started as per
Hindu rules.
Consent is
taken.
Family joint family . Mother and It was a simple Hindu and Ras, I practice singing in the
21 son head the family. marriage. Apokpa. Jhulan temple.
Manipuri's Yatra.
marriage Give time
customs are to family.
different.
Due to social and Marriage is a Hindu and I I don't practice, but
financial status there commitment Apokpa. contribut many people dance and
was joint family. to society, so e to Ras sing here because of
Agriculture was done divorce is less. festival. business.
jointly. Now due to Lighting, extra Give time
education and job they cost. to
live separately. business.
Single family has Registry Hindu and Social I can dance, sing and
increased a lot. marriage, love Apokpa. Media. practice.
marriage,
marriage is
done
according to
the Apokpa
rules.
Family Even if the neighbor's It was a simple Hindu and New I can dance, sing and
22 house was far away, we marriage. The Apokpa. Year, practice.
met every day. We used cost would woolen
to chat in the afternoon. also be less knitting,

97
 We used to get all kinds watching
of help at social events. serials on
TV.
Boundary given to each The marriage Hindu and TV, hang I can dance and sing,
house according to took place Apokpa. out with but I don't practice due
capacity. It alienates with the family, go to lack of time
everyone. All the consent of the to fairs
members are not in the family. The and
house, things are not bride was not events.
crowded like before. taken to the
parlor. And
pictures were
taken.
See everyone at the Both men and Hindu and Tour,Inte I can dance, sing and
festival. We like to be women marry Apokpa. rnet practice. I have danced
together. after getting a several times in the
job or getting Raas festival.
established.
The age of
marriage is
relatively high.
Nowadays,
wedding
ceremonies
are grand.
Family I am the head of the Our opinion Hindu and Go to Everyone can. I practice
23 family and my son. I give was not taken. Apokpa. India, singing in the temple.
my opinion. Families Marriage was Prefer spend
seek advice and counsel done Hinduism. time in
as elders. according to temples,
the family. watch
There was no TV.
chance of love
marriage.
I also prefer women's There are Hindu and Picnics, I sing wedding and
opinions. Relatives live changes in Apokpa. visits to bhajan songs
everywhere. Get along. gifts, bride Prefer parks and
and groom's Hinduism. tea
age, gardens
decorations
and food.
Women also participate Divorce and Hindu and with can dance. Learned
in family decisions. out-of- Apokpa. modernit modern music.

98
 Many are separated due community Prefer y. Giving
to quarrels. marriages are Hinduism. time at
rare. home
and
theater.
Family joint family I am the There were Apokpa Ningol Although I can dance
24 head of the family. polygamous and hindu chakouba and sing, I do not
Earlier all the families in families. If ,Bujhawr practice because of
each house were joint. married at a a illness.
young age.
Shakha and
Sindoor was
not necessary.
Being away for work. Opinions are Apokpa Makar I practice Manipuri and
Dissociation attitude is taken in and hindu Sankranti modern music.
high. But joint family is marriage now. , Guru-
much needed for family Divorce is very kirtana,
values. less. There are spend
events like time with
mangalachara family
n, hechipada
and 5 days
return journey
in marriage.
Due to social and Polygamy is Apokpa TV, I practice Manipuri and
financial status there not accepted and hindu Mobile, modern dance songs.
was joint family. in society. Maratha
Agriculture was done Love marriage
jointly. Now due to is not
education and job they recognized by
live separately. society
immediately

99
 Serial No Language, Customs and Food Habit and Dress, Occupation
literature and Social Structure hospitality garments and and housing
Family Myth ornaments

Family 01 Can't read Panchayat system non-vegetarian Different Agriculture,

and write. Alcohol is Jewellery, Weaving. mud
Myths are prohibited. The Manipuri house
practiced. guests were Dress
given betel
leaves, betel
nuts and sweets.

Can't read Panchayat system Manipuri, Manipuri Govt job,

and write. but no written Bengali, foreign dresses are tinshed house.
rules. mixed worn during
festivals and
summers

Can't read Panchayats are Eat meat, fast Manipuri and Job
and write. losing some food outside. Modern Seekers.Half
authority due to Building
Act

Family 02 Can't read Panchayat system vegetarian Manipuri and Agriculture,

and Modern mud houses.
write.Myths
are practiced.

Can't read Panchayat system I don't eat eggs Different Teacher, Half
and write and meat at Jewellery, Building
home Manipuri
Dress

can write clan and cast Manipuri, Manipuri Student, Half

system Bengali, foreign dresses are building
mixed worn during
festivals

Family 03 Can't read Panchayat system vegetarian Modern and Priest, mud
and Manipuri house
write.Myths dress

100
 are practiced.

Can't read Panchayat vegetarian Manipuri and Job, half

and write administers Modern building
punishment and
settles disputes

Panchayat system vegetarian Manipuri and Student, half

Modern building

Family 04 Myths are Panchayat system Manipuri, Manipuri Retired,

practiced. Bengali, foreign traditional tinshed house
mixed dress

Can't read Panchayat Manipuri and Manipuri and Doctor, half

and write system,Panchayat Bengali mix Modern building
administers
punishment and
settles disputes

Can read and Panchayat system Eat meat, fast Manipuri and Teacher, half
write, food outside. Modern.Feel building
literature is comfortable
not practiced in modern
clothes.

Family 05 Can't read Panchayat system non-vegetarian women of the Agriculture,

and write Eggs and meat house made mud houses.
are not eaten at clothes,
home.

Can't read Panchayat system Manipuri, Manipuri and Business,

and write Bengali Bengali mix building

I'm learning Panchayat Manipuri and Manipuri and Student,

the language. administers Bengali Modern building
punishment and
settles disputes

Family 06 Can't read Panchayat system Manipuri, Veg. Different House wife,
and write Jewellery, tin-shed.
Manipuri

101
 Dress

I'm learning Panchayats are Manipuri, Manipuri and Business, half

the language. not playing their Bengali Modern. Feel building
role properly comfortable
in modern
clothes.

Can read and Panchayat system Eat meat, fast Manipuri and Student, half
write, food outside. Modern building
literature is
not practiced

Family 07 Can't read Panchayat system non-vegetarian There were Home maker,
and write Eggs and meat no blouses in Tin-shed
are not eaten at our time.
home. Innefi, Faneg.

Can't read Panchayat Manipuri and Manipuri and Business, half

and write administers Bengali Modern building
punishment and
settles disputes

Can't read Panchayats are Meat and egg Manipuri and Student, half
and write not playing their are not allow. Modern building
role properly

Family 08 Can't read Panchayat system vegetarian Manipuri Housewife, half

and write dresses are building
worn during
festivals

Can't read Panchayats are non-vegetarian Different Goldsmith,

and write not playing their Eggs and meat Jewellery, building
role properly are not eaten at Manipuri
home. Dress

Can read and Panchayat Eat meat, fast Manipuri and Student,
write, administers food outside. Modern Building
literature is punishment and
not practiced settles disputes

102
Family 09 Hindu Panchayat system vegetarian women of the Housewife, tin-
mythology house made shed
practice clothes,

Can't read Caste system and non-vegetarian I Manipuri Housewife, half

and write clan like fast food. dresses are building
worn during
festivals

Can't read Panchayats are Eat meat, fast Manipuri and Student, half
and write not playing their food outside. Modern building
role properly

Family 10 Can't read Panchayat system non-vegetarian I Manipuri Agriculture, tin-

and write like fast food. clothes at shed
home.

Can't read Caste system and Manipuri and Manipuri and Business, half
and write clan Bengali Modern building

I'm learning All types of food Manipuri and Student, half

the language. Modern building

Family 11 Can't read Panchayat system non-vegetarian women of the Agriculture,

and write Eggs and meat house made mud house
are not eaten at clothes,
home.

Can't read Panchayat system non-vegetarian I Manipuri Business, tin-

and write like fast food. dresses are shed
worn during
festivals

Can read and Panchayats are Eat meat, fast Manipuri and Student, tin-
write. not playing their food outside. Modern shed
Learned from role properly
organization.
Literature is
practiced.

Family 12 Hindu Panchayat system vegetarian Different Housewife,

mythology is Jewellery, mud house
Manipuri

103
 practiced Dress

Can't read Panchayat system non-vegetarian Manipuri Business, half

and write Eggs and meat dresses are building
are not eaten at worn during
home. festivals

Can read and Caste system and Eat meat, fast Manipuri and Student, half
write. clan food outside. Modern building
Learned from
organization.
Literature is
practiced.

Family 13 Can't read Panchayats are non-vegetarian women of the Agriculture,

and write not playing their Eggs and meat house made mud house
role properly are not eaten at clothes,
home.

Can't read Panchayat system Manipuri job, half

and write dresses are building
worn during
festivals

Can read and Panchayat system non-vegetarian Manipuri and Student, half
write. Eggs and meat Modern building
Learned from are not eaten at
organization. home.
Literature is
practiced.
The practice
of Puthipath
decreased.

Family 14 Can't read Panchayat system non-vegetarian. Manipuri Agriculture,

and write I dont't like fast dresses are mud house
food. worn during
festivals

Can't read Caste system and Manipuri job, half

and write clan clothes at building

104
 home.

Can't read Panchayat system non-vegetarian I Manipuri Student, half

and write like fast food. dresses for building
home and
festivals.
Modern dress
for outside

Family 15 Can't read Panchayat system non-vegetarian. Manipuri Agriculture,

and write I dont't like fast dresses are mud house
food. worn during
festivals

Can't read Caste system and non-vegetarian I Manipuri job, half

and write clan like fast food. dresses for building
home and
festivals.
Modern dress
for outside

I'm learning Panchayat system Eat meat, fast Manipuri and Student, half
the language. food outside. Bengali building

Family 16 Can't read Panchayat system Manipuri, Manipuri job, retired ,

and write Bengali, foreign clothes at half building
mixed home.

Can't read Panchayat system Manipuri job, half

and write dresses for building
home and
festivals.
Modern dress
for outside

Can read and Caste system and non-vegetarian Manipuri Student, half
write. clan Eggs and meat dresses are building
Learned from are not eaten at worn during
organization. home. festivals
Literature is
practiced.

105
 The practice
of Puthipath
decreased.

Family 17 Can't read Panchayat system Veg. women of the Agriculture,

and write house made mud houses.
clothes,

Can't read Panchayat system Eat meat, fast Manipuri Job, tinshed
and write food outside. clothes at house
home.

I can read and Panchayat system Eat meat, fast Manipuri Job, half
write. There food outside. dresses for building
are separate home and
books festivals.
Modern dress
for outside

Family 18 Can't read Panchayat system non-vegetarian Feel Business, half

and write Eggs and meat comfortable building
are not eaten at in modern
home. clothes.

Can't read Panchayat system Manipuri, Manipuri Business,

and write Bengali, foreign dresses are building
mixed worn during
festivals

Can't read Panchayat system Eat meat, fast Feel Student,

and write food outside. comfortable building
in modern
clothes.

Family 19 Can't read We follow eat fish. Men's Agriculture.

and write, tradition. Vegetarian food clothing is Mud houses
literature is Panchayat rules is eaten on modern
not practiced. religious
festivals.

Can't read Panchayat eat all food The I feel Job.Half

and write, hospitality. has a comfortable building
literature is touch of in modern

106
 not practiced. modernity. clothes.

Can't read Panchayat Modern food is Manipuri and Student .Half

and write, more trending. modern Building
literature is
not practiced
for busyness.

Family 20 can only say. Ruled by Eating meat and Dhoti, Laboratory
The tone has Brahmins. There eggs is Punjabi. Technician.
changed. are panchayats. prohibited. i Modern Tinshade
Disputes are smoke. Eat milk wear. house.
settled through and fish.
arbitration.

The Manipuri One cannot speak Eat meat and Manipuri govt. Job. Half
language of against the eggs outside dress for building
this country decision of the festivals.
has become Panchayat. Normal
like a dialect modern
with the clothes.
combination Manipuri
of Bengali. clothes at
home.

I can read and Panchayats are Eat modern food Manipuri Job. Half
write. There not as strong as outside. dress for building.
are separate they used to be. festivals.
books. Normal
modern
clothes.
Manipuri
clothes at
home.

Family 21 Can't read Panchayat Manipuri food. Dhoti, farming . Half

and write Punjabi, building
towel

Can't read Panchayat Manipuri and Manipuri and entrepreneur.

and write modern modern building

107
 can read Panchayat Manipuri and Manipuri and business .
modern modern building

Family 22 Can't read, Panchayat. I don't like I earn by housewife, tin-

literature is modern food. making shed house.
not practiced. Eats vegetarian Manipuri
Listen to and fish. clothes. I
Kirtan and wear fanegs
chant. and sarees.

can read. Panchayat. non-vegetarian I can do Job, Half

Hindu Eat bread cake weaving. building
mythology is paratha. Saree and
read. Faneg.

I can write a Panchayat. Eat Bengali and Manipuri and Student , Half
little. Read Manipuri food at modern. building
Manipuri home and
stories in hostel.
Bengali
characters.

Family 23 Can't read Panchayat Used to home Women could Agriculture.

and write, punishments made food. I weave. They Tinshed, mud
read and were very severe. don't like did not do it house.
listen to Gita We Obayed the modern food. for education
and Vedas. Panchayat out of and
fear. employment.

Can't read Panchayats are non-vegetarian Manipuri and Job, Half

and write, considered social eat eggs Try to modern building
read and administrations. eat less outside
listen to Gita food.
and Vedas.

I know There are clans. Fuchka, burgers, Manipuri and Student , Half
letters, I have Normal caste sandwiches. modern building
to practice. identity is not Manipuri Bharta.
used without
marriage.

108
Family 24 can say. I use Panchayat system Vegetarian, do Earlier I used dance teacher.
more Bengali not eat modern to wear Tinshade
words in my food. Manipuri house.
speech. I read handloom
Gita, Vedas. clothes made
by myself

Can read and Panchayat Kansai, Dal, Manipuri and Job, Half
write. system, no Chakempomba. modern building
Learned from participation of
organization. women.
Literature is
practiced.
The practice
of Puthipath
decreased.

Can read and Panchayat system Modern dishes Manipuri and Job, Half
write. are also modern building
preferred, such
as variety of
fries.

109
 Serial No Cases of cultural changes Problems Views
Family

Family 01 Financial and social linguistic complexity. Disintegration of

development Tribal discrimination joint family, loss of
identity is the thread
for us.
Higher Education, Loss of unity have been able to
modern profession resume the practice
of language and
religion. This is a
positive change.
Modernity, not holding There are certain Change is inherent.
own culture dogmas and It is natural that
superstitions among there will be some
the community changes from
generation to
generation
Family 02 A tendency to blend into Agriculture and Cohabitation is
the original society weaving are decreasing.
considered Forgetting the roots.
dishonorable by the
people. We are
discouraged by this.
Get used to the Bengali Conflict with A generation gap has
culture after getting Vishnupriyas developed. The
separated from the job changes over two
and a half decades
are remarkable
Touch of modernity, Not active in cultural Superstitions and
urban orientation activities like restrictions are
Bishnupriyas, not decreasing.
progressive Realization is
happening.
Family 03 Individualism, urbanism Family breakdown Good way to go back
to ancient religion.
Caste system will
disappear.
Economic prosperity, Not interested in Language and
influence of original preserving tradition, literature were
Bengali society communal conflicts. disappearing. We
have taken steps.

110
 Progresiveness Additional Reduced complexity.
restrictions. Class
conflict
Family 04 Declining number of Tribal problem Social events have
Brahman changed, which is
unnecessary
Modernity It is difficult to If we forget our
practice one's own roots, we will not
culture between exist
studies and work.
Modernity Marriage outside of Change is impossible
the community to hold back. should
be taken freely.
Family 05 Lack of practice of family Uncertainty about seems negative.
values different aspects of
culture
Tendency to stay Social structure and Not all change is
separate Brahman crisis bad. Initiatives are
problem good.
Transformation of food linguistic complexity This changes was
and clothing necessary for us
Family 06 Get rid of superstitions, linguistic complexity, We are improving.
get educated conflict That's a good thing.

Lack of work in the Crisis of language Modernization has

village, moving to the teaching center complicated our
city culture.
Increasing competition, Complexity of generation gap or
generation gap, Panchayat mindset change is
mentality normal
Family 07 Stay abroad for studies. Religious Returning to ancient
differences. conflict religions and
languages is a
positive aspect.
Separation for Separation. Living Loss of identity
employment scattered seems like a sacrifice
for overall
development.
Modernity Religious If we cannot keep up
converting , with modernity, we
adopting Western will remain
culture as ideal. backdated.

111
Family 08 Modern age.Separate Clothing is
Education and
house overpriced, we wear
economic changes,
more Bengali clothes
women's freedom
as they are cheap.
are definitely
positive aspects.
Understanding from Family breakdown, We are peaceful, try
history, time, separation to adjust.
environment
Awareness, freedom of Opportunities to Must blend into the
opinion learn Manipuri mainstream.
language are limited. Otherwise everyone
will use the
opportunity given to
us like Bishnupriya.
Family 09 Education, the practice Conflict, change of Accepting foreign
of bad culture. religion. culture while
forgetting our own
culture is a threat to
us.
Time. Attitude changes Men's clothing does Everyone knows us
not suit the modern through Manipuri
society. That's why dance. But this
this practice is dance and song is in
disappearing. crisis of existence.
Lack of own cultural Conflict Doesn't look bad
practices from my point of
view.
Family 10 One's own thoughts Conflict, change of Some changes are
about religion, religion harmful to society
abandoning religion and us.
Lack of values practice Tribal problem Mindset is different,
generation gap.
Family break down We are seen as a Change must be
subgroup. accepted.
Family 11 Modern era, Nuclear Communal conflicts Economic and
family educational
development,
recognition in the
world is a positive
change for us.
Realization Family breakdown. Accept the good
Isolation. Not aspects of
accepting change. modernity.

112
 Modernity We don't get seems positive
government facilities
because of conflicts
Family 12 Transformation in Growing nuclear It is not good for us
clothing and thinking family. Influence of to give Panchayat
Bengali culture less respect. The
rules should be kept
strict.
Modern Education Dogma and We are careful to
superstition minimize the
downsides of
change.
Following mainstream Some unnecessary Some change must
culture rules of Panchayat be accepted, or
progress is not
possible.
Family 13 Families break up to Blend of Bengali There is no
avoid trouble. Disobey culture strictness of rules,
the rules that's why problems
arise
Education, self- Clash of languages It is better not to
centered,conflict change these things
Modernity, influence of Predominance of Modernity does not
Bengali culture modern education, fit everywhere
neglecting cultural
education
Family 14 Not being able to learn Trouble among It is difficult to cope
from tradition ourselves up.

Hobbies, personality, Middlemen are Manipuri's

digitalization ruining Manipuri opportunities for
weaving industry, cultural practice in
they are ruining our the city are
market by selling diminishing.
duplicate cheap
cloth.
Technology, Updates, We are bullied, Our friends who
Privacy mocked about know the language
language and body teach through the
structure. organization. We
are aware of the
core culture.

113
Family 15 Distance for Class and communal Change in language
modernization, conflict and religion is
urbanization, jobs positive. Besides,
economic
development is also
positive.
Communication and Children face Modernity should
language problems. problems in school not be avoided.
Elimination of in terms of language Culture will change
prejudices. with time.
Depreciation as a Lack of political Changes feels good.
minority, being modern power leads to Life is easier than
administrative ever.
problems. Heritage
has been taken over
by Hindus.
Family 16 family troubles, As busyness We have to be
Disagreement increases, cultural progressive.
practices decrease. Otherwise
everything will be
taken over by the
Vishnupriya
community.
Evaluation of Education, Disappearance of have to keep up with
Practicing the Rights of looms, rise in price the times. The more
Brahmans. of Manipuri clothing. negative changes
can be avoided, the
better.
Not being active in Can't enjoy We have a tendency
various programs of the government to back the ancient
community for opportunities due to Manipuri cultural
employment, studies. communal conflict practices.
Family 17 Family break down, Historical heritage is The new generation
on the verge of is very aware,
extinction hopefully something
good will happen.
Educational and Gap with Manipur We have to
occupational change, State understand that all
modernity, all
changes are not
acceptable.
Religious conflict, Communal conflict I appreciate the
restrictions changes. We

114
 cannot continue
without science and
technology,
restrictions have
reduced, that's why
we are everywhere.
Family 18 Self oriented mentality Separation, loss of I don't like family
appreciation of breakdown.
culture Conflicts are holding
us back.
Overcoming Religious and social There is a lot of
superstitions, education, divisions pageant
influence of mainstream competition. Think
society about the economy
and the global
situation.
Modernity, economic Lack of cultural Our genuine culture
development practice is intact. So I don't
environment think so.
Family 19 Reluctance to stay with Communal conflict Development is
family, reluctance to good while retaining
share opportunities own identity
Education, security, time No such problem The standard of
living has increased.
This is a good thing.
A change in mindset Marriage in another I think awareness
community about education and
language is a
positive change.
Family 20 Bengali environment, Tribal and linguistic Accept what is good
education, jobs problems even if it is
forbidden in the
society.
Bengali environment, Destruction of Living like a Bengali
education, jobs cultural heritage reduces
individuality.
Modernity No such problem I think positive.

Family 21 Increase in education Tribal problem Some things should

rate be avoided.
Desire to be Communal conflict Modernity is
independent definitely needed.

115
 Self-centeredness, low Language A sense of self-
self-esteem communication preservation is
problems developing, which is
a good thing.
Family 22 Modernity communication I have objection to
problems this change.
Increase distance and Communal conflict Gradually our
engagement culture is
disappearing
Competition and Religious bigotry I think this is a
technological positive change
development
Family 23 Modern environment Dance and music I am not in favor of
artists/teachers are accepting all.
decreasing
Weakness of Panchayat Decrease puthi If we do not
practice . embrace modernity,
we will fall behind
Brahman crisis, Conflict, Weakness Genuine matters
progressivism,time of Panchayat should not be
altered
Family 24 Family breakdown Differences in Both positive and
lifestyle negative changes
are happening in
culture.
Higher study,job There is trouble for 3/4 generation gap
Vishnupriya or mindset change is
community normal
Brahman crisis, Superstitions and Adaptation to all
progressivism unnecessary rules environments is
realistic

116
 Appendix-VI: Informed Consent and Related Sheets

University of Dhaka

Letter of Invitation

Mehjabin Yesmin
Researcher, Master‟s Thesis
Institute of Social Welfare and Research, University of Dhaka
Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh
Tel: 01209883802 (Cell)
Email: [email protected]

Dear Participant,

You are invited to participate in a study conducted by Mehjabin Yesmin Master‟s student,
Institute of Social Welfare and Research, University of Dhaka. Further detail of the study
can be found in the attached Participant Information Sheet.

Participation in the study is voluntary. If you would like to participate, please meet with me
when I am in your place, or you can contact me to volunteer your participation for fixing a
convenient time and place. I would be happy meet you in any of your convenience.

My contact details have been put on the top of this letter as well as in the Participant
Consent Form. Please do not hesitate to contact me, if you have any query.

With Thanks

Mehjabin Yesmin

117
 Participant Information Sheet (General)

Who is carrying out this study?

This research is conducted by Mehjabin Yesmin a master‟s student of the Institute of Social
Welfare and Research, University of Dhaka, under the supervision of Professor Dr. A.A.A
of the same Institute.
What is the study about?

The purpose of this study is to understand the cultural changes in the Manipuri ethnic
community in Bangladesh. This study will guide government organizations, policy makers,
NGOs and beneficiaries to understand the changes in culture in Manipuri ethnic community.
The knowledge gap includes pattern and causes of changes, observed problems due to
changes, changes in living strategies and the views of the Manipuri people regarding the
chance..

Who can take part in this study as respondents?

As the main focus of this study is to explore the cultural changes in the Manipuri
community , I have chosen two villages —Bhanubil(Majhergao) and Nayapattan— from
Moulvibazar District as my study locale. The members of the Manipuri community who are
above 18 will be able to participate in this study. The main respondents will general people
from the Manipuri families. However, some political, religious and community leaders,
academic experts, researchers, writers, journalists and the experienced persons from
different organizations that work in the fields related to my research problem can
participate as special informants (as knowledgeable persons).

How will the data be collected?

Interview and observation will be the main techniques of data collection. Accordingly, a
semi-structured in-depth ethnographic interview schedule and a participant observation
guide will be used as tools. Voice of the respondents will be recorded and some
photographs and videos (if needed) will be taken. However, notes will be taken if required.

What about confidentiality?

Your confidentiality will be strictly maintained.

What if I have a complaint?

If you have any complaint, please inform my supervisor .................................................

.................. Any issue you raise will be treated in confidence and you will be of the
outcome.

If you agree to participate in this study, please sign the participant consent form.

118
 Participant Consent Form

Nature of Project: Master‟s Thesis.

I, ……………………………………………….., consent to participate in the

research project titled “Cultural Changes in Manipuri Ethnic Community : A Study
in Sylhet Division”.

I acknowledge that:

I have read the participant information sheet [or where appropriate, „have had read to me‟]
and have been given the opportunity to discuss the information and my involvement in the
project with the researcher/s.

The procedure required for the project and time involved have been explained to me, and
any questions I have about the project have been answered to my satisfaction.

I consent to be involved in a semi-structured and/ other type of interview and I have no

objection regarding the use of audio/ video taping for recording the interview.

I understand that my involvement is confidential and that the information gained during the
study may be published but no information about me will be used in any way that reveals
my identity.

I agree that my data may be used at a later date for a different research project or another
purpose. I also agree that the information collected from me may be made available for
third party or another project.

I understand that I can withdraw from the study at any time, without affecting my
relationship with the researcher/s now or in the future.

Signature Name Date

Return Contact (if needed):

nd
Mehjabin Yesmin MSS 2 Semester Student (Thesis), Session: 2020-21, Exam Roll: 81074, Institute of
Social Welfare and Research, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1205, Bangladesh, Tel: 01209883804 (Cell),
Email: [email protected]

If you have any complaints or reservations about the ethical conduct of this research, you may contact my
thesis supervisor Prof. Dr. AAA, Cell no. 1990087766 E: [email protected]). Any issues you raise will be
treated in confidence and investigated fully, and you will be informed of the outcome.

119
 Appendix-VII: Important Photographs

Rasa Dance Rasa Dance

Rasa Dance Jagannath Temple

Weaving machine Rasa Dance

120
 Jagannath Temple Manipuri Doll

Church Manipuri Doll

Manipuri Doll Manipuri Cultural Academy

Manipuri Jewellery Manipuri Jewellery

Monipuri Ornaments

121
 Apokpa God and Goddess Sanamahi Symbol

Sanamahi Symbol

Manipuri Wedding

Manipuri Cultural Complex

122