4

Integration

Chapter Overview: The art of integration is a skill that all mathematicians

must possess, as integrals arise in all areas of mathematics.
Z For example, in the
dx
seemingly unrelated topic of prime numbers the integral appears.
log x
As integration is an art form, it requires plenty of practice to become proficient.
Thus students are encouraged to attempt as many of the exercise questions as
possible in the time they have available.
The work in this chapter builds on the content of the Mathematics Extension 1
course. A methodical approach is needed to study the material. In particular,
it is important to be able to recognise the different forms of integrals, and to
quickly determine which method is best used.
The first five sections are relatively straightforward, being based on algebraic
manipulation. In Section 4F the new method of integration by parts is introduced,
which is based on the product rule for differentiation. Section 4G covers various
harder types of Trignometric integrals. Section 4H introduces the concept of
integrals that can be referenced by an index, and the corresponding reduction
formulae. The chapter concludes with a set of miscellaneous questions. These
provide an opportunity to practise choosing the most efficient method to apply.

4A The Standard Integrals

Students will know that each examination is accompanied by a Reference Sheet,
which includes various integrals. Most of these have already been encountered
in the Mathematics Extension 1 course. The appendix to this chapter includes
a table of similar integrals as well as some other common integrals that will be
needed in this course. The ability to manipulate any integral formula in simple
ways is expected of all students.
Z 1
2 dx
WORKED EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate .
0 3 + 4x2
y
1
SOLUTION: Take out a factor of to get: 4 1
Z 21 Z 1 3
dx 1 2 dx
2
= √ 1
1 x
0 3 + 4x 4 0 (
3 2
) + x2 2
2
   21
1 2 −1 2x
= × √ tan √ (Reference Sheet)
4 3 3 0

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 126 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4B

1
= √ tan−1 √1
3
2 3
π
= √ .
12 3

Exercise 4A
1. Use the Integral Calculus section of the HSC Reference Sheet to determine each of these
indefinite integrals.
2
Z Z Z
4x 2 1
(a) e dx (c) sec 2 x dx (e) √ dx
x
1
Z Z Z
(b) sin 5x dx (d) dx (f) 3x dx
3x − 4
2. Use the Integral Calculus section of the Reference Sheet to find:
1 4x + 2
Z Z Z
2 x3
(a) 2
dx (c) x e dx (e) 2
dx
(2x − 1) Z x +x+1
1
Z
1
Z
(b) √ dx (d) dx (f) 2x(x2 + 1)4 dx
25 − x2 9 + x2
3. Use the Integral Calculus section of the HSC Reference Sheet to evaluate each of these
definite integrals.
Z 4 Z 4 Z −1
x 1 3
(a) e 2 dx (c) 2
dx (e) dx
0 −4 16 + x −2 2 − 3x
Z π6 Z 1 Z π4
2 1
(b) sec 2x dx (d) √
2
dx (f) cos x sin3 x dx
0 0 2 − x 0
DEVELOPMENT

4. Find:Z
1 1 1 + sec2 x
Z Z
(a) − 2 e x dx (c) x sec2 x2 dx (e) dx
x Z Z x + tan x
cos 3x ex
Z
(b) dx (d) 52x dx (f) √ dx
1 + sin 3x 1 − e2x
5. Evaluate:
Z 4 Z 1 1
dx
Z 3 dx
(a) (1 − x)3 dx (c) (e) √
1 + 3x2 4 − 9x2
Z0 1 Z0 1 0
x2 e2x
π
sec2 x
Z 4
(b) 3
dx (d) dx (f) dx
0 1+x 0 e2x + 1 0 1 + tan x
ENRICHMENT

e2
1
Z
6. Evaluate dx.
e x ln x
ln x ln x
Z
7. Use the derivative of to find dx.
x x2
1 √
3
Z
−1
2
−1 π
8. Use the derivative of x sin x to show that sin x dx = + − 1.
0 12 2
Z π
4
3
9. Use the derivative of tan x to find tan4 x dx.
0

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 4B Algebraic Manipulation 127

4B Algebraic Manipulation
Many of the integrals encountered contain fractions which require some sort of
rearrangement before proceeding. In the first worked example that follows the
numerator is almost identical to the denominator.
Z 2
x −1
WORKED EXAMPLE 2: Determine dx .
x2 + 1
SOLUTION: Noting that x2 − 1 = (x2 + 1) − 2 the fraction may be separated.
Z 2 Z 2
x −1 x +1 2
2
dx = 2
− 2 dx
x +1 Z x +1 x +1
2
= 1− 2 dx
x +1
= x − 2 tan−1 x + C .
In harder problems long division may be required. In some cases the numerator
is close to a multiple of the denominator, as in the next worked example.

4x3 − 2x2 + 1
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 3: Find dx .
2x − 1
4x3 − 2x2 + 1 2x2 (2x − 1) + 1
Z Z
SOLUTION: dx = dx
2x − 1 2x − 1
1
Z
= 2x2 + dx
2x − 1
= 32 x3 + 12 log |2x − 1| + C .

Using a Common Factor: Some rational functions are easier to deal with after
multiplication or division by a common factor. The result is a numerator which
is the derivative of the denominator.
1
e2x − 1
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate dx .
−1 e2x + 1
SOLUTION: Multiply numerator and denominator by e−x to get: y
Z 1 2x Z 1 x
e −1 e − e−x 1
2x + 1
dx = x
dx -1
−1 e −1 e + e
−x
 x
1 1 x
= log(e + e−x ) −1 -1
= log(e + e−1 ) − log(e−1 + e)
= 0. (Why is this obvious from the graph?)
Notice in the solution that the primitive log(ex + e−x ) is written without an
absolute value. This is because ex +e−x is always positive, and hence the absolute
value function is redundant. In this text, the absolute value will normally be
omitted whenever it is redundant.

Two New Integrals: The final two integrals in the appendix will be new to most
readers. The result for the last integral is proven here using a very clever trick.
Like the previous worked example, multiply through by a common factor.

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 128 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4B

√
1 (x + x2 + a2 )
Z Z
√ dx = √ √ dx
x + a2
2 x2 + a2 (x + x2 + a2 )
Z (√ x + 1)
x2 +a2
= √ dx
(x + x2 + a2 )
Z (1 + √ x )
2 2
= √ x +a dx .
(x + x + a2 )
2

Looking carefully at the last line, notice that the numerator is the derivative of
the denominator and hence
1
Z p
√ dx = log(x + x2 + a2 ) + C .
x2 + a2
The second last integral in the table may be done in a similar way, which is a
question at the end of the exercise.

Exercise 4B
1. Determine the following by rewriting
Z the numerator in terms of the
Z denominator.
x−1 x+1
Z
x
(a) dx (b) dx (c) dx
x−1 x+1 x−1
2. Evaluate the following.
Z 1 2 1
x−1 3 − x2
Z Z
x
(a) dx (b) dx (c) dx
0 x+1 0 2x + 1 0 1 + x2
3. Evaluate the following. In each case, begin by rewriting the given fraction as two fractions
by separating the terms in the numerator.
Z √23 Z 1
2x + 1
Z 1
1−x
Z 2
1+x
1−x (b) dx (c) dx (d) dx
(a) √ dx 2 2 2
0 1 − x2 0 1+x 0 1+x 0 4+x
p dy
4. (a) Let y = log(x + x2 + a2 ). Find and simplify .
dx
1
Z
(b) Hence find a formula for √ dx .
x + a2
2
Z 4
1 1
Z
(c) Use this formula to determine: (i) √ dx, (ii) √ dx
2
x +3 2
x +9
−4
DEVELOPMENT

x3
Z
5. (a) Given that x3 = x(x2 + 1) − x, determine dx.
+1 x2
(b) Given thatZx3 = (x3 + 1) − 1 and that x3 + 1 = (x + 1)(x2 − x + 1),
x3
determine dx.
x+1
(c) Use similar approaches to those shown in parts (a) and (b) to determine the following.
x3 1
Z Z
x
Z
(i) dx (iii) dx (v) √ dx
x−1 1 + ex 1−x
x4 x3
Z Z Z
x
(ii) dx (iv) √ dx (vi) dx
x2 + 1 2+x x2 + 4
6. Evaluate these by first muliplying or dividing by an appropriate factor.
Z 2 2x
e +1
Z 1
ex Z √3 1
2+
(a) 2x − 1
dx (b) x + e−x
dx (c) x
dx
1 e 0 e 1 x+ 1
x

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 4C Substitution 129

7. By using long division or otherwise, determine:

Z 2 Z 3
x +x+1 x − 2x2 + 3 (x + 1)2
Z
(a) dx (b) dx (c) dx
x+1 x−2 1 + x2
p dy
8. (a) Let y = log(x + x2 − a2 ), where x > |a|. Find and simplify .
dx
1
Z
(b) Hence find a formula for √ dx , where x > |a|.
x − a2
2
Z 3
1 1
Z
(c) Use this formula to determine: (i) √ dx (ii) √ √ dx
2
x −5 2
x −4
5
ENRICHMENT

9. Divide numerator and denominator by an appropriate factor to help determine

1
Z
√ dx .
x+ x
10. Use a similar approach to that shown in the text to prove that, for |x| > |a|,
1
Z p
√ dx = log x + x2 − a2 + C .
x2 − a2

4C Substitution
Many of the techniques used in integration are derived from differentiation. This
is not so surprising since the two processes are essentially mutually inverse. One
particularly useful technique is substitution which is the integration equivalent of
the chain rule for differentiation, and is sometimes called the reverse chain rule.

The Integral Form of the Chain Rule: Suppose that F is a function of u, which
is in turn a function of x. Further suppose that F (u) is a primitive of f (u).
Differentiating F with respect to x and applying the chain rule gives:
d dF du
F (u) = ×
dx du dx
d
so F (u) = f (u) × u0 .
dx
Integrating both sides of this result
Z   Z
d
F (u) dx = f (u) × u0 dx
dx Z
or F (u) + C = f (u) × u0 dx .
It is this last result which proves most useful for integration. Thus if an integrand
can be expressed as a product, where one factor is a chain of functions f (u) and
the other factor is u0 then the primitive can immediately be written down.

THE INTEGRAL FORM OF THE CHAIN RULE: If F (u) is a primitive of f (u) then
Z
1 f (u) × u0 dx = F (u) + C .

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 130 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4C

Substitutions: In the simplest examples, the primitive can be determined mentally.

For example, an easy integral involving the exponential function is
Z
2 2
2x ex dx = ex + C .

In harder examples a formal procedure should be followed.

x2
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 5: Determine √ dx by a suitable substitution.
x3 + 1
x2
Z
SOLUTION: Let I = √ dx and put u = x3 + 1, then
x3 + 1
du
= 3x2
dx
1 2
or 3 du = x dx (treating the derivative like a fraction.)
1
Z
Thus I= √ du
3 u
√
= 32 u + C .
p
Hence I = 32 x3 + 1 + C .
Notice that the final step of the solution is a back substitution to get the integral I
in terms of x. It is important to remember to do this.

Substitutions and Definite Integrals: It is equally important to follow this formal

procedure when definite integrals are involved, paying particular attention to the
limits of integration. However, the back substitution step is not needed.
Z π2
sin x
WORKED EXAMPLE 6: Use a suitable substitution to find 3
dx .
0 (1 + cos x)
Z π
2 sin x
SOLUTION: Let I = 3
dx and put u = 1 + cos x to get
0 (1 + cos x)
y
du
= − sin x
dx
so −du = sin x dx . 1
When x = 0, u = 2, p x
and when x= 2,π
u = 1, -1 2

Z 1
−1
thus I= du
u3
 2 1
1
=
2u2 2
1 1
= 2
− 8
3
= 8
.
The step where the limits are expressed in terms of the substitute variable is
important. Had this step not been done then the wrong answer is obtained since
Z π2  π
−1 1 2
du =
0 u3 2u2 0
which is undefined at the lower limit. Again notice that the derivative is treated
like a fraction in the third line of the solution.

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 4C Substitution 131

Harder Examples: In simple examples like those above, candidates are expected to
determine the appropriate substitution for themselves. In harder problems the
substitution will be given. Implicit differentiation may also be required.
√ 1
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 7: Use the substitution u = x to determine √ dx .
x+ x
Z
dx
SOLUTION: Let I = √ and note that u2 = x, so:
x+ x
du
2u =1
dx
or 2u du = dx .
2u du
Z
Hence I= 2
Z u +u
2 du
=
u+1
= 2 log(u + 1) + C
√
= 2 log( x + 1) + C .

Take Care with Substitutions: There are many integrals which require a careful
choice of substitution so as to avoid subsequent difficulties. For example,
√ the
correct choice of substitution in the previous worked example is u = x .
On first inspection, it would seem to make no difference to make the alternate
substitution u2 = x, however observe what happens in the denominator.
√ √
x + x = u2 + u2 = u2 + |u| .
Thus in this case a new complication has been introduced, namely the absolute
value function. In general, the best choice of substitution is of the form u = f (x).
In some instances it is more natural to use a substitution of the form x = g(u).
Then the domain of u is restricted to avoid any later complication. This is often
the case with trigonometric substitutions.
Z 1p
WORKED EXAMPLE 8: Evaluate 4 − x2 dx using a suitable substitution.
0
Z 1 p
SOLUTION: Let I = 4 − x2 dx.
0
The integrand is the upper semi-circle with radius 2, y
so put x = 2 sin θ with − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 . 2
This means that cos θ ≥ 0.
Differentiating dx = 2 cos θ dθ .
-1 1 2 x
When x = 0, θ = 0,
and when x = 1 , θ = sin−1 ( 21 ) = π6 .
Z π6 p
Thus I= 2 cos θ 4 − 4 sin2 θ dθ
Z0 π6 √
= 4 cos θ cos2 θ dθ (by the Pythagorean identity)
0
Z π6
= 4 cos2 θ dθ (since cos θ ≥ 0)
0

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 132 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4C

Z π
6
= 2(1 + cos 2θ) dθ (by the double-angle formula)
0
h i π6
= 2θ + sin 2θ
√ 0
π 3
= 3
+ 2
.
√
Notice that in the solution cos2 θ = | cos θ|, but this is further simplified to cos θ
since it is known that cos θ ≥ 0 in the specified domain. Further observe that the
same outcome would have been achieved by substituting θ = sin−1 x2 , since the
range of inverse sine is also − π2 ≤ θ ≤ π2 . A trigonometric substitution should
always be made in this manner, with the inverse function in mind.

Two Guidelines for Substitutions: The infinite variety of integrals that may be
encountered makes it impractical to give a specific recipe for choosing the correct
substitution. However the following two guidelines may help, and can be observed
in practice in the previous worked examples.
• Try to replace the part of the integral which causes difficulty, such as the
innermost function in a chain of functions. In particular, if the integral
involves square-roots of sums or differences of squares then a trigonometric
substitution is likely to work.
• It is better to use a substitution which is a function u = f (x) rather than a
relation x = g(u). If a relation must be used then it is often best to restrict
the domain in a similar manner to an inverse function.

Exercise 4C
1. Find these integrals by the reverse chain rule, then do them again using a suitable substi-
tution.
6x2
Z Z Z
2 4 x
(a) 2x(x + 1) dx (c) dx (e) √ dx
(1 + x3 )2 2
x −2
4x x3
Z Z Z
(b) 3x2(1 + x3 )6 dx (d) dx (f) √ dx
(3 − x2 )5 1 + x4
2. Use a suitable substitution where necessary to find:
cos x (ln x)2
Z Z Z
x
(a) dx (c) dx (e) dx
sin3 x x 1 + x4
√
sec2 x cos x x2
Z Z Z
(b) dx (d) √ dx (f) √ dx
(1 + tan x)2 x 1 − x6
3. Use a suitable substitution where necessary to evaluate:
Z 1 Z 4 π
x+1
Z
4
(a) x3 (1 + 3x4 )2 dx (c) √ dx (e) tan2 x sec2 x dx
0 3 x2 + 2x + 3 0
Z 1 Z π2 e2
x ln x
Z
(b) √ dx (d) sin4 x cos x dx (f) dx
0 4 − x2 0 1 x
DEVELOPMENT
Z 1
4. (a) Use a suitable substitution to help evaluate x(x − 1)5 dx .
0
(b) How could this integral have been evaluated using just algebraic manipulation?

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 4C Substitution 133

5. Use the given substitution to find:

√ √ 1
Z Z
1
(a) x x + 1 dx [put u = x + 1] (c) 1 dx [put u = x 4 ]
Z 1+x 4

1 √ 1
Z p
(b) √ dx [put u = 1 + x] (d) √ dx [put u = e2x − 1]
1+ x e2x − 1
6. In each case, use the given substitution to evaluate the integral.
Z 1 Z 4
2−x 1 √
(a) 3
dx [put u = 2 + x] (c) √ dx [put u = x]
0 (2 + x) 5+ x
Z 4 Z0 12
√ √ 1 √
(b) x 4 − x dx [put u = 4 − x] (d) √ dx [put u = x]
0 4 (4 + x) x
7. In each case, use the given substitution to determine the primitive.
1 √ √
Z Z
x
(a) √ dx [put u = x] (b) √ dx [put u = x + 1]
(1 + x) x x+1
8. In each case use the given trigonometric substitution to evaluate the integral. You may
assume that 0 ≤ θ < π2 .
1 1
Z Z
(a) 3 dx [put x = tan θ] (c) √ dx [put x = 5 cos θ]
(1 + x2 ) 2 x2 25 − x2
1
Z
x2
Z
(b) √ dx [put x = 2 sin θ] (d) √ dx [put x = tan θ]
4 − x2 x2 1 + x2
Z √2
x3
9. (a) Use a suitable substitution to help evaluate √ dx .
0 x2 + 1
(b) How could this integral have been evaluated using just algebraic manipulation?
Z 2p √
10. (a) Use a suitable substitution to show that 4 − x2 dx = 2π
3
− 2
3
.
1
(b) Redo this problem by geometric means.
Z π2
sin x
11. Let I = dx.
0 sin x + cos x
π
cos x
Z 2
π
(a) Use the substitution u = 2 − x to show that I = dx.
0 sin x + cos x
(b) By adding the two equal integrals, find the value of I.
Z π
sin x
12. (a) Show that 2
dx = π2 .
0 1 + cos x
Z π
x sin x
(b) Let I = 2
dx.
0 1 + cos x
π2
(i) Use the substitution u = π − x to show that I = 2
− I.
(ii) Hence evaluate I.
ENRICHMENT
1
x2
Z 2√
13. (a) Use a trigonometric substitution to show that π
dx = 12 − 83 .
√
0 1 − x2
(b) How could this integral have been evaluated using algebra then geometry?

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 134 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4D

Z
dx
14. Consider the indefinite integral I = √
. Clearly the domain of the integrand is
x x2 − 1
disjoint, being x > 1 or x < −1 . Thus it seems appropriate to use a different substitution
in each part of the domain.
p
(a) Find I for x > 1 by using the substitution u = x2 − 1 .
p
(b) Find I for x < −1 by using the substitution u = − x2 − 1 .
Z 4
dx
15. (a) Use a suitable substitution to determine √ , where  > 0 .
2 x2 − 4
2+ x
Z 4
dx
(b) Take the limit of this result as  → 0+ and hence find √ .
2 x2 − 4
2 x

4D Partial Fractions
In arithmetic, when given the sum of two fractions, the normal procedure is to
combine them into a single fraction using the lowest common denominator. Thus
1 1 5
+ = .
3 2 6
Unfortunately when the fractions are functions and integration is involved, this
is exactly the wrong thing to do. Whilst it is true that
3 2 5x + 1
+ = 2 ,
x+2 x−1 x +x−2
when considering the corresponding integrals,
3 2 5x + 1
Z Z
+ dx = 2
dx ,
x+2 x−1 x +x−2
it should be clear that the left hand side is far simpler to determine than the
right hand integral. So:
5x + 1 3 2
Z Z
2
dx = + dx
x +x−2 x+2 x−1
= 3 log |x + 2| + 2 log |x − 1| + C .
This example is typical of integrals of rational functions. It is easiest to first
split the fraction into its simpler components. In mathematical terminology, the
fraction is decomposed into its partial fractions.

A Theorem About Partial Fractions: Consider the rational function

P (x)
,
A(x) × B(x)
where P , A and B are polynomials, with no common factors between any pair,
and where deg P < deg A + deg B. It is always possible to write
P (x) RA (x) RB (x)
= + ,
A(x) × B(x) A(x) B(x)
where the remainders RA and RB are polynomials with deg RA < deg A and
deg RB < deg B. However, the proof is beyond the scope of this course.

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 4D Partial Fractions 135

Linear Factors: In the simplest examples, A(x) and B(x) are linear. Since the
degrees of RA and RB are less, they must be constants, yet to be found.
x+1
WORKED EXAMPLE 9: (a) Decompose into its partial fractions.
(x − 1)(x + 3)
6
x+1
Z
(b) Hence evaluate dx .
2 (x − 1)(x + 3)
x+1 A B
SOLUTION: (a) Let = + , where A and B are unknown
(x − 1)(x + 3) x−1 x+3
constants. Multiply this equation by (x − 1)(x + 3) to get:
x + 1 = A(x + 3) + B(x − 1)
or x + 1 = (A + B)x + (3A − B) .
Equating coefficients of like powers of x yields the simultaneous equations
A+B =1
3A − B = 1 .
1
These can be solved mentally to get A = 2 and B = 21 . Thus
x+1 (1) ( 1)
= 2 + 2 .
(x − 1)(x + 3) x−1 x+3
Z 6
x+1 y
(b) Hence dx
2 (x − 1)(x + 3)
Z 6
1 1
= 21 + dx
2 x − 1 x + 3 -3 1
6 x
i6
-1 2
h
= 21 log(x − 1) + log(x + 3)
 2 
1
= 2 (log 5 + log 9) − (log 1 + log 5)
= log 3 .
This method of equating coefficients of like powers of x is usually only convenient
in straightforward examples like this one.

Finding the Constants by Substitution: A more general method of finding the

unknown constants in partial fractions uses substitution. In many cases it is also
a quicker method.
3x − 5
WORKED EXAMPLE 10: Decompose into partial fractions.
(x − 3)(x + 1)
3x − 5 A B
SOLUTION: Let = + , where A and B are unknown
(x − 3)(x + 1) x−3 x+1
constants. Multiply this equation by (x − 3)(x + 1) to get:
3x − 5 = A(x + 1) + B(x − 3) .
When x = 3, 4 = 4A
so A = 1.
When x = −1, −8 = −4B
so B = 2.
3x − 5 1 2
Thus = + .
(x − 3)(x + 1) x−3 x+1

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 136 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4D

The careful reader will have noticed a point of contention with the solution. The
fraction is undefined when x = 3 and when x = −1, yet these values were used
in the substitution steps. How can this be valid? The answer is that some of the
detail of the solution has been omitted. Here is a more complete explanation.
3x − 5 A B
Since = + where x 6= −1, 3 ,
(x − 3)(x + 1) x−3 x+1
it follows that 3x − 5 = A(x + 1) + B(x − 3) where x 6= −1, 3 .
Now this last equation is true whenever x 6= −1, 3. That is, it is a linear equation
which is true for at least two other values of x. Hence it is an identity, and so it is
true for all x, including x = −1 and x = 3. Thus these values can be substituted
to determine A and B. It is not necessary to give this complete explanation as
part of a solution, but students should be aware of it.

Numerators with Higher Degree: In slightly harder problems, the degree of the
numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator. In such
cases, the fraction should be expressed as a sum of a polynomial and the partial
fractions. Long division may be used at this step, but it is often easier to use a
polynomial with unknown coefficients, as in the following worked example.

x3 + x − 3
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 11: Determine dx .
x2 − 3x + 2
x3 + x − 3 x3 + x − 3
SOLUTION: First note that = ,
x2 − 3x + 2 (x − 2)(x − 1)
x3 + x − 3 C D
so let = Ax + B + + ,
(x − 2)(x − 1) x−2 x−1
thus x3 + x − 3 = (Ax + B)(x − 2)(x − 1) + C(x − 1) + D(x − 2) .
Equating the coefficients of x3 , A = 1.
At x = 1 −1 = −D so D = 1 .
At x = 2 7=C.
At x = 0 −3 = 2B − 7 − 2
so B = 3.
3
x +x−3 7 1
Z Z
Finally 2
dx = x + 3 + + dx
x − 3x + 2 x−2 x−1
= 21 x2 + 3x + 7 log |x − 2| + log |x − 1| + C .

The Cover-up Rule: There is an even quicker method to determine the constants
of the partial fractions, provided that the original denominator is a product of
distinct linear factors, and provided that the degree of the numerator is less than
the degree of the denominator. The trick is to multiply by just one linear factor
at a time.
7 − 5x
WORKED EXAMPLE 12: Express in partial fractions form.
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3)
7 − 5x C1 C2 C3
SOLUTION: Let = + + . (∗)
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) x+1 x−2 x−3
7 − 5x C2 (x + 1) C3 (x + 1)
(∗) × (x + 1) gives = C1 + +
(x − 2)(x − 3) x−2 x−3

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 4D Partial Fractions 137

12
so at x = −1 C1 = = 1.
(−3)(−4)
7 − 5x C1 (x − 2) C3 (x − 2)
(∗) × (x − 2) gives = + C2 +
(x + 1)(x − 3) x+1 x−3
−3
so at x = 2 C2 = = 1.
3 × (−1)
7 − 5x C1 (x − 3) C2 (x − 3)
Finally = + + C3
(x + 1)(x − 2) x+1 x−2
−8
so at x = 3 C3 = = −2 .
4×1
7 − 5x 1 1 2
Hence = + − .
(x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) x+1 x−2 x−3
This method of finding the constants is sometimes called the cover-up rule. Look
carefully at how the three constants are determined. For each constant, the
matching linear factor is effectively omitted, or “covered up”. Thus for C1 , (x+1)
is left out of the original fraction. For C2 , (x − 2) is excluded, and for C3 , (x − 3)
is omitted from the original fraction. In each case, the resulting rational function
is then evaluated at the corresponding value of x. With practice, most students
should be able to determine the constants mentally using this method.

Proof of the Cover-up Rule — Extension: Here is a proof for the general case.
P (x)
Proof: Consider the rational function where deg P < deg Q, and where
Q(x)
Q(x) is a product of distinct linear factors, that is
Q(x) = C × (x − a1 ) × (x − a2 ) × . . . × (x − an )
n
Y Y
=C (x − ai ) (note the use of product notation, .)
i=1
P (x) C1 C2 Ck Cn
Let = + +...+ +...+
Q(x) x − a1 x − a2 x − ak x − an
Multiply this last equation by (x − ak ) to get
P (x)(x − ak ) C1 (x − ak ) C2 (x − ak ) Cn (x − ak )
= + + . . . + Ck + . . . + .
Q(x) x − a1 x − a2 x − an
Now take the limit as x → ak . All terms except Ck on the right hand side are
zero and so:
P (x)(x − ak )
Ck = lim
x→ak Q(x)
P (x)
= lim n (that is, cancel the kth linear factor)
x→ak Y
C (x − ai )
i=1
i6=k

P (ak )
hence Ck = n .
Y
C (ak − ai )
i=1
i6=k

The mathematical notation may seem difficult, but the result is exactly as before.
To get the kth coefficient Ck , omit the kth linear factor from the denominator
and evaluate the rest of the fraction at x = ak .

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 138 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4D

Quadratic Factors: In certain instances, the denominator of the rational function

being considered will have a quadratic factor with no real zero. For example, in
3x + 10
(x − 2)(x2 + 4)
the quadratic factor (x2 + 4) has no real zero. Thus the denominator of the
rational function cannot be expressed as a product of real linear factors.
Nevertheless, the method for finding the partial fraction decomposition remains
essentially the same. And since the only requirement is that the degree of the
numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, it follows that for any
quadratic factor the numerator can be a linear polynomial.
3x + 10
WORKED EXAMPLE 13: (a) Rewrite in its partial fractions.
(x − 2)(x2 + 4)
3x + 10
Z
(b) Hence determine dx .
(x − 2)(x2 + 4)
3x + 10 A Bx + C
SOLUTION: (a) Let 2
= + 2 , where A, B and C are
(x − 2)(x + 4) x−2 x +4
unknown constants. Then
3x + 10 = A(x2 + 4) + (Bx + C)(x − 2)
At x = 2 16 = 8A so A = 2 .
Equating coefficients of x2 yields
0 = 2 + B so B = −2 .
At x = 0 10 = 8 − 2C
so C = −1 .
3x + 10 2 2x + 1
Thus 2
= − 2 .
(x − 2)(x + 4) x−2 x +4
3x + 10 2 2x 1
Z Z
(b) Hence 2
dx = − 2 − 2 dx
(x − 2)(x + 4) x−2 x +4 x +4
= 2 log |x − 2| − log |x2 + 4| − 21 tan−1 ( x2 ) + C .

PARTIAL FRACTIONS: Here is a summary of the techniques in this section.

• Make each numerator have degree one less than its denominator.
• Use the cover up rule when there are distinct linear factors.
2 • Substitution, simultaneous equations or equating coefficients may also be used
to determine unknown constants.
• Use a polynomial with unknown coefficients or long division for numerators
with higher degree.

Repeated Factors: Recall that a polynomial factor which has degree greater than
one is called a repeated factor. For example in the denominator of the fraction
8−x
,
(x − 2)2(x + 1)
the factor (x − 2)2 is a repeated factor since its index is two. When a partial
fraction question involves repeated factors, normally the initial decomposition
is given in the question and it is simply a matter of finding the values of the
unknown constants.

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 4D Partial Fractions 139

WORKED EXAMPLE 14: (a) Find the real numbers A, B and C such that
8−x A B C
2
= + 2
+ .
(x − 2) (x + 1) x − 2 (x − 2) x+1
Z 1
8−x
(b) Hence evaluate 2
dx .
0 (x − 2) (x + 1)

SOLUTION:
(a) Now 8 − x = A(x − 2)(x + 1) + B(x + 1) + C(x − 2)2 .
At x = −1 9 = 9C so C = 1 .
At x = 2 6 = 3B so B = 2 .
At x = 3 5 = 4A + 8 + 1
so A = −1 .
Z 1
8−x
(b) Hence 2
dx y
0 (x − 2) (x + 1)
Z 1
1 2 1
= + 2
− dx
0 x + 1 (x − 2) x − 2
1
2

2
= log(x + 1) − − log |x − 2| -1
x−2 0
= (log 2 + 2 − log 1) − (log 1 + 1 − log 2) 1 2 x

= 1 + 2 log 2 .

Exercise 4D
1. Decompose the following fractions into partial fractions.
2 4x x−1
(a) (c) 2 (e)
(x − 1)(x + 1) x −9 x2+x−6
1 x 3x + 1
(b) (d) 2 (f)
(x − 4)(x − 1) x − 3x + 2 (x − 1)(x2 + 3)
2. Find:Z
2 3x − 2 4x + 5
Z Z
(a) dx (c) dx (e) dx
(x − 4)(x − 2) (x − 1)(x − 2) (2x + 3)(x + 1)
4 2x + 10 10x
Z Z Z
(b) 2
dx (d) 2
dx (f) 2
dx
x + 4x + 3 x + 2x − 3 2x − x − 3
3. Evaluate:
Z 6 5
1 11
Z
(a) 2
dx (c) dx
4 x −4 2x2+ 5x − 12
Z 4 Z2 0
3 1
(b) 2+x−2
dx (d) dx
2 x −1 3x2 − 4x + 1
4. Determine:
x2 − 2x + 5 6−x x2 + x + 3
Z Z Z
(a) dx (b) dx (c) dx
(x − 2)(x2 + 1) (2x + 1)(x2 + 3) x3 + x
5. Find the value of: √
Z 21 1 2
1 + 2x − 4x2 7−x
Z
x2 − 4
Z
(a) dx (b) dx (c) dx
2
0 (x + 1)(4x + 1) −1 (x + 3)(x2 + 1) 1 x3 + 2x

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 140 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4D

DEVELOPMENT

6. Find:Z
2x + 3 4x + 12
Z
(a) dx (b) dx
(x − 1)(x − 2)(2x − 3) x3 − 6x2 + 8x
7. Evaluate:
Z 7 2
3x + 5 13x + 6
Z
(a) dx (b) dx
2 (x − 1)(x + 2)(x + 1) 1 x3 − x2 − 6x
2
2x + 1 B C
8. (a) (i) Let =A+ + . Find the values of A, B and C.
(x − 1)(x + 2) x−1 x+2
2x2 + 1
Z
(ii) Hence find dx
(x − 1)(x + 2)
(b) Use a similar technique to part (a) in order to find:
x2 − 2x + 3 3x2 − 66
Z Z
(i) dx (ii) dx
(x + 1)(x − 2) (x + 4)(x − 5)
9. (a) (i) Find the values of A, B, C and D such that
x3 − 3x2 − 4 C D
= Ax + B + + .
(x + 1)(x − 3) x+1 x−3
Z 1 3
x − 3x2 − 4
(ii) Hence evaluate dx .
0 (x + 1)(x − 3)
Z 4 3
x + 4x2 + x − 3
(b) Use a similar method to evaluate dx .
2 (x + 2)(x − 1)
10. (a) (i) Find the values of A, B and C such that
3x2 − 10 B C
2
=A+ + .
x − 4x + 4 x − 2 (x − 2)2
3x2 − 10
Z
(ii) Hence find dx.
x2 − 4x + 4
(b) (i) Find the integers A, B, C and D such that
3x + 7 A B C D
= + + + .
(x − 1)2(x − 2)2 x − 1 (x − 1)2 x − 2 (x − 2)2
3x + 7
Z
(ii) Hence find dx .
(x − 1)2(x − 2)2
11. ShowZ that:
6 Z 2
x2 − 8 3 3 1 + 4x 1
(a) 3
dx = 2 ln 2 − 2 ln 2 . (b) 2
dx = 2
ln 20.
4 x + 4x 0 (4 − x)(x + 1)
x2 − 1 A B Cx + D
12. (a) Let 4 2
= + 2+ 2 . Find A, B, C and D.
x +x x x x +1
√
Z 3 2
x −1 √
(b) Hence show that 4 2
dx = 31 (π − 2 3).
1
√ x +x
3

13. Use appropriate methods to find:

Z 2 Z 3
x +1 x +1 x3 + 5
Z
(a) 2
dx (c) dx (e) dx
x −1 x3 + x x2 + x
Z 2
x +1 x2 x4
Z Z
(b) dx (d) dx (f) dx
x2 − x x2 − 5x + 6 x2 − 3x + 2

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 4E Denominators with Quadratics 141

ENRICHMENT

14. Use a similar approach to Question 10 for repeated factors to show that
Z 21
5x − x2
2
dx = 4 − 3 ln 3 .
− 12 (x + 1) (x − 1)

15. (a) In the notation of the text, if Q(x) is a product of distinct linear factors, one of which
P (x)(x − ak )
is (x − ak ), then Ck = lim . Use this result to prove that
x→ak Q(x)
P (ak )
Ck = .
Q0 (ak )
[Hint: What is the value of Q(ak )?]
(b) Use this formula to redo Questions 6(b) and 7(b).

4E Denominators with Quadratics

Many practical applications yield integrals with a quadratic in the denominator.
In the simplest cases it is a matter of applying the following four results:
1 1 1
Z Z
−1 x
p
2 2
dx = tan √ dx = ln x + x2 − a2
a +x a a x2 − a2

1
Z
x 1
Z  p 
√ dx = sin−1 √ dx = ln x + x2 + a2
2
a −x 2 a x2 + a2
Z
dx
Another common integral is . Although a formula exists for this, it is
− a2 x2
not part of the course. It is expected that candidates determine the primitive by
use of partial fractions whenever this type of integral is encountered.
1
4
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 15: Evaluate dx .
−1 x2 −4
4 4
SOLUTION: Now = , y
−4 x2 (x − 2)(x + 2)
4 A B
so let = + .
(x − 2)(x + 2) x−2 x+2
-2 2 x
Then by the cover-up rule A = 1 and B = −1. -1
Z 1 Z 1
4 1 1
Hence 2−4
dx = − dx
−1 x −1 x − 2 x + 2
h i1
= log |x − 2| − log(x + 2)
−1
= (log 1 − log 3) − (log 3 − log 1)
= −2 log 3 .

Quadratics with Linear Terms: Frequently the quadratic will have a linear term,
such as in 3 + 2x − x2 . In these instances the method is to complete the square
to obtain either the sum of two squares or the difference of two squares.

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 142 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4E

1
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 16: Find √dx .
3 + 2x − x2
SOLUTION: Completing the square in the denominator:
1 1
Z Z
√ dx = p dx
3 + 2x − x2 4 − (x − 1) 2

1
Z
= √ du where u = x − 1
4 − u2
= sin−1 u2 + C
= sin−1 x−1
2 +C.

Notice that the solution uses a substitution. This step may be omitted by using a
result from the Mathematics Extension 1 course. Recall that if F (x) is a primitive
of f (x) then
Z
f (ax + b) dx = a1 F (ax + b) + C .

The result is a combination of shifting and stretching along the x-axis. A shift
does not affect the area under a graph, but a stretch does, hence the factor a1 .
1 x
In Worked Example 16 above, f (x) = √ , the primitive is F (x) = sin−1 2
,
4 − x2
with a = 1 and b = 1. Thus it is permissible to write
1
Z
p dx = sin−1 x−1
2
+C,
4 − (x − 1)2
without showing any working. Here is a similar example.
1
9
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 17: Find the value of dx .
−1 7 + 4x + x2
SOLUTION: Completing the square in the denominator: y
Z 1
9
Z 1
9 3
2
dx = 2
dx
−1 7 + 4x + x −1 3 + (4 + 4x + x )
Z 1
9
= dx -2 -1 1 x
−1 3 + (2 + x)2
h i1
= √93 tan−1 x+2
√
3
√ π π
−1
=3 3 3 − 6
√
π 3
= 2
.

QUADRATICS WITH LINEAR TERMS: Complete the square, then use the result
Z
3 f (ax + b) dx = a1 F (ax + b) + C ,

where F (x) is the primitive of f (x) .

Linear Numerators: So far in all the worked examples the numerator has been a
constant. When the numerator is linear it is best to carefully split it into two
parts. The first term should be a multiple of the derivative of the quadratic in
the denominator. The second term will then be a constant.

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 4E Denominators with Quadratics 143

4x + 3
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 18: Determine dx .
x2 + 9
4x + 3 2x 3
Z Z Z
SOLUTION: 2
dx = 2 2
dx + 2
dx
x +9 x +9 x +9
= 2 log(x2 + 9) + tan−1 x3 + C .
In harder examples the quadratic will also contain a linear term. The following
is such an example and requires the last integral formula in the appendix.

0
2x + 3
Z
y
WORKED EXAMPLE 19: Evaluate √ dx .
−1 x2+ 2x + 2
2
SOLUTION: - 32
0
2x + 3
Z
√ dx -1 x
−1 x2
+ 2x + 2 -2
Z 0 Z 0
2x + 2 1
= √ dx + p dx
−1 x2 + 2x + 2 −1 (x + 1)2 + 1
h p i0 h p
i 0
= 2 x2 + 2x + 2 + log (x + 1) + (x + 1)2 + 1
√ −1
√ −1
= 2 2 − 2 + log(1 + 2) − log 1
√ √
= 2( 2 − 1) + log(1 + 2) .

LINEAR NUMERATORS: When the numerator is linear it is best to split it into a

4
multiple of the derivative of the quadratic in the denominator plus a constant.

Rationalising the Numerator: In much previous work it has been convenient to

rationalise the denominator when a surd appears. In contrast, when calculus is
involved it is often more convenient to rationalise the numerator instead.
Z s
x+1
WORKED EXAMPLE 20: Find dx .
x+7

SOLUTION: Rationalising the numerator

Z s
x+1 x+1
Z
dx = √ dx
x+7 2
x + 8x + 7
x+4 3
Z Z
= √ dx − √ dx
2
x + 8x + 7 2
x + 8x + 7
x+4 3
Z Z
= √ dx − p dx
2
x + 8x + 7 (x + 4)2 − 32
p p
= x2 + 8x + 7 − 3 log (x + 4) + (x + 4)2 − 32 + C .

Notice that in the first line of working, by rationalising, the numerator has become
linear. This is typical of the questions done in this section.

RATIONALISING THE NUMERATOR: When calculus is involved it is often convenient to

5
rationalise the numerator.

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 144 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4E

Exercise 4E
Note: Two further standard integrals are required in this exercise:
1 1
Z  p  Z p
√ 2
dx = ln x + x + a 2 and √ dx = ln x + x2 − a2
x2 + a2 x2 − a2
1. Find these integrals. Parts (e) and (f) require the two new standard integrals above.
1 1 1
Z Z Z
(a) 2
dx (c) 2−9
dx (e) √ dx
9 + x x 9 + x 2
1 1 1
Z Z Z
(b) √ dx (d) 2
dx (f) √ dx
9−x 2 9 − x 2
x −9
2. Determine the following. Parts (e) and (f) require the two new standard integrals above.
1 1 1
Z Z Z
(a) 2
dx (c) √ dx (e) √ dx
Z x + 4x + 5 9 + 8x − x2 x2 − 6x + 13
1 1 1
Z Z
(b) 2
dx (d) √ dx (f) √ dx
x − 4x + 20 20 − 8x − x2 4x2 + 8x + 6
3. Evaluate the following. Parts (e) and (f) require the two new standard integrals above.
Z 3 Z 0 Z 3
1 1 1
(a) 2 − 2x + 5
dx (c) √ dx (e) √ dx
x 3 − 2x − x 2 2
x + 2x + 10
Z1 5 −1
Z 1
−1
Z 1
4 3 2
(b) 2
dx (d) √ dx (f) √ dx
1 x − 6x + 13 0 3 + 4x − 4x2 1 x2 − x + 1 2

DEVELOPMENT

4. Find:Z
2x + 1
Z Z
x x
(a) 2
dx (c) √ dx (e) √ dx
Z x + 2x + 2 6x − x2 x2 + 2x + 10
x x+3 x+3
Z Z
(b) 2
dx (d) √ dx (f) √ dx
x + 2x + 10 4 − 2x − x2 x2 − 2x − 4
5. Find the value of:
Z 2 2 3
x+1 2x − 3 1 − 2x
Z Z
(a) dx (c) dx (e) √ dx
x2 + 4 2
x − 2x + 2 + 2x + 3 x2
Z0 2 Z1 0 −1
Z 1
x+1 x x+3
(b) 2
dx (d) √ dx (f) √ dx
1 x − 4x + 5 −1 3 − 2x − x2 0
2
x + 4x + 1
6. Determine each primitive.
Z s Z s Z s
1+x 3−x x−1
(a) dx (b) dx (c) dx
1−x 2+x x+1
7. Evaluate:s s s
Z 0 0 1
1−x x+2 x+1
Z Z
(a) dx (b) dx (c) dx
−1 x+3 −1 1−x 0 x+3
ENRICHMENT
s
Z 2
x
8. (a) Why is it not valid to evaluate dx using the techniques of this section?
0 4−x
Z 2s
x
(b) Nevertheless, show that its value is lim dx = π − 2 .
→0 +
 4−x

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 4F Integration by Parts 145

9. (a) Show that x3 + 3x2 + 5x + 1 = (x + 1)(x2 + 2x + 2) + (x − 1) .

(b) Hence or otherwise show that
Z 0 3
x + 3x2 + 5x + 1 √ √
√ dx = 31 (5 2 − 4) − 2 ln(1 + 2 ) .
−1 x2 + 2x + 2

4F Integration by Parts
Whilst there are well known and relatively simple formulae for the derivatives of
products and quotients of functions, there are no such general formulae for the
integrals of products and quotients. Nevertheless, as was found in the previous
two sections, certain quotients can be integrated relatively easily. In this section,
a method of integration is developed that can be applied to certain types of
products. It begins with the product rule for differentiation.
d
Now (uv) = u0 v + u v 0 .
dx
Swapping sides and integrating yields
Z Z
u0 v dx + u v 0 dx = uv ,
Z Z
hence u v dx = uv − u0 v dx .
0

This last equation provides a way to rearrange an integral of one product into an
integral of a different product. The formula is applied with the aim that the new
integral is in some way simpler. The process is called integration by parts.
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 21: Use integration by parts to find xex dx .

SOLUTION: Z
Let I= xex dx
Z
= u v 0 dx ,
where u=x and v 0 = ex
so u0 = 1 and v = ex .
Z
Hence I = uv − u0 v dx
Z
= xex − ex dx
= xex − ex + C
or I = ex (x − 1) + C .
Notice the lack of any constant of integration until the process is finished.

INTEGRATION BY PARTS: The integral of the product u v 0 can be rearranged using

integration by parts, viz:
6 Z Z
u v 0 dx = uv − u0 v dx .

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 146 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4F

Reducing Polynomials: When one of the factors of the integrand is a polynomial,

it is common to let u be that polynomial. In that way the new integral, which
depends on u0 , will contain a polynomial of lesser degree. That is, the aim is to
reduce the degree of the polynomial.
Z π y
WORKED EXAMPLE 22: Evaluate (x + 1) sin x dx .
0

SOLUTION: Z π
-1 p x
Let I= (x + 1) sin x dx
Z0 π
= u v 0 dx ,
0
where u = (x + 1) and v 0 = sin x
so u0 = 1 and v = − cos x .
h iπ Z π
Thus I = uv − u0 v dx
0 0
h iπ Z π
= − (x + 1) cos x + cos x dx
h 0 iπ 0
= (π + 1) + 1 + sin x ,
0
hence I = π + 2 .

REDUCING POLYNOMIALS: Integration by parts may be used to reduce the degree of

7
a polynomial. Let u be that polynomial and v 0 the other factor.

Repeated Applications: It may be necessary to apply integration by parts more

than once in order to complete the process of integration. In simpler examples it
may be possible to do some of the steps mentally.

Z 1
WORKED EXAMPLE 23: Evaluate x2 e−x dx .
0

SOLUTION:Z y
1
2 −x
Let I= x e dx
0
and put u = x2 and v 0 = e−x
0
so u = 2x and v = −e−x . 1
h i1 Z 1 e
Then I = − x2 e−x + 2xe−x
dx (by parts.) 1 x
0 0
The second term is another integral of a product.
So put u = 2x and v 0 = e−x
with u0 = 2 and v = −e−x .
h i1 Z 1 
Thus I = −e−1 + − 2xe−x + 2e−x dx (by parts again)
0
h i1 0
−1 −1 −x
= −e − 2e − 2e
0
= 2 − 5e−1 .

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 4F Integration by Parts 147

Exceptions with Polynomials: Although it is common to reduce the degree of a

polynomial using integration by parts, there are many exceptions. In this course
these exceptions typically involve the logarithm function.
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 24: Determine x log x dx .

SOLUTION:Z
Let I= x log x dx
and put u = log x and v0 = x
so u0 = x1 and v = 21 x2 .
Z
1 2 1 2 1
Thus I = 2
x log x − 2
x × x
dx (by parts)
Z
= 21 x2 log x − 1
2
x dx

= 21 x2 log x − 41 x2 + C
or I = 41 x2 (2 log x − 1) + C .

Integrands where v 0 = 1: The prime number 5 has only two distinct factors,
namely 1 × 5 . A function may be treated like a prime in a similar way:
sin−1 x = 1 × sin−1 x .
This somewhat artificial form of factoring is applied to facilitate integration by
parts. It is then usual to put u equal to the function and v 0 = 1 .
Z 1
2
WORKED EXAMPLE 25: Find the value of sin−1 x dx .
0

SOLUTION: y
Z 21 p
2
Let I = sin−1 x dx
0 p
Z 1 6
2
= 1 × sin−1 x dx . -1 1
1 x
0 2

Put u = sin−1 x and v 0 = 1

1 - p2
so u0 = √ and v = x.
1 − x2
h i 21 Z 21 x
−1
Thus I = x sin x − √ dx (by parts)
0 0 1 − x2
h p i21

= x sin−1 x + 1 − x2
 0
q 
1 π 3
= 2 × 6 + 4 − (0 + 1)
√
π 3
= 12
+ 2
−1.
The careful reader will have seen that there is a much simpler way to do this
integral. The key is in the diagram. The area shaded is the difference between
the areas of the rectangle, width 21 and height π6 , and the unshaded portion. That
unshaded portion involves a very simple integral along the y-axis.

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 148 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4F

This example highlights the importance of a diagram to see the most efficient
solution. In this case, it would be better to integrate along the y-axis than to use
integration by parts. It is left as an exercise to show the result is the same.

A Recurrence of the Integral: Integration by parts may lead to a recurrence of

the original integral. It is then simply a matter of collecting like terms.

WORKED EXAMPLE 26: Find a primitive of ex sin x .

SOLUTION: Z
Let I = ex sin x dx
and put u = sin x and v 0 = ex
so u0 = cos x and v = ex .
Z
x
Then I = e sin x − ex cos x dx (by parts)
Now put u = cos x and v 0 = ex
so 0
u = − sin x and v = ex .
 Z 
x x x
Thus I = e sin x − e cos x + e sin x dx (by parts again)
= ex (sin x − cos x) − I
or 2I = ex (sin x − cos x)
hence I = 21 ex (sin x − cos x) + C is the general primitive.
In this example it was important to apply the method consistently. Notice that u
was always the trigonometric function and v 0 was always the exponential function.
As an exercise to highlight the significance of these choices, repeat the worked
exercise but put u = ex and v 0 = cos x at the second integration by parts.
As a final note, there is no constant of integration in the second last line of the
solution to Worked Example 26, yet the last line includes a constant. There is
nothing to be alarmed about here. The process has led to a specific primitive
I = 21 ex (sin x − cos x) and, as with any indefinite integral, the general primitive
is then obtained by simply adding a constant at the last step.

Exercise 4F
1. Find:Z Z Z
(a) xex dx (c) (x + 1)e3x dx (e) (x − 1) sin 2x dx
Z Z Z
(b) xe−x dx (d) x cos x dx (f) (2x − 3) sec2 x dx

2. Evaluate:
Z π Z π Z 1
4
(a) x sin x dx (c) x sec2 x dx (e) (1 − x)e−x dx
0
Z π2 Z0 1 Z0 0
(b) x cos x dx (d) xe2x dx (f) (x + 2)ex dx
0 0 −2

3. Use Zintegration by parts with v 0 = Z1 to find: Z

(a) ln x dx (b) ln(x2 ) dx (c) cos−1 x dx

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 4F Integration by Parts 149

4. FindZthe value of:

e e
1 √
Z Z
(a) tan−1 x dx (b) ln x dx (c) ln x dx
0 1 1
5. In each
Z case use integration by parts
Z to increase the power of x. Z
ln x
(a) x ln x dx (b) x2 ln x dx (c) dx
x2
DEVELOPMENT

6. Use Zrepeated applications of integration

Z by parts in order to find:Z
2 x 2
(a) x e dx (b) x cos x dx (c) (ln x)2 dx

7. These integrals are more naturally done by substitution. However, they can also be done
by parts. Use integration by parts and then redo each integral using a suitable substitution,
in order to compare the efficiency and ease of each method.
Z 1 Z 1 Z 4
5
√ √
(a) x(x − 1) dx (Q4) (b) x x + 1 dx (c) x 4 − x dx (Q6b)
0 0 0
Z Z
8. Determine: (a) ex cos x dx (b) e−x sin x dx
Z π Z π
2 4
2x
9. Evaluate: (a) e cos x dx (b) ex sin 2x dx
0 0
10. Use integration by parts to evaluate: √
Z √23 Z 23 Z 1

(a) −1
sin x dx (b) −1 (c) 4x tan−1 x dx
√ cos x dx
0 − 3 0
2

11. ShowZ that:

π Z e
(a) x2 cos 2x dx = π2 (c) sin(ln x) dx = 21 e(sin 1 − cos 1) + 21
Z0 π Z1 e
2 1
(b) x sin 2 x dx = 8π − 16 (d) cos(ln x) dx = 21 e(sin 1 + cos 1) − 21
0 1
Z Z
12. (a) Determine x ln x dx. (b) Hence find x(ln x)2 dx.

13. Use trigonometric identities and then integration by parts to show that:
Z π2 Z π4
2
(a) x sin x cos x dx = 8π
(c) x tan2 x dx = π4 − π32 − 12 ln 2
0 Z0 π
Z π
2
(b) x sin2 x dx = 161
(π 2 + 4) (d) x2 (cos2 x − sin2 x) dx = π2
0 0
ENRICHMENT

Z p formulae for the following:

14. Determine Z Z
p p
(a) 2 2
a − x dx (b) ln(x + x2 + a2 ) dx (c) ln(x + x2 − a2 ) dx

15. Determine:
Z Z Z
(a) x sin x cos 3x dx (b) x cos 2x cos x dx (c) ex sin 2x cos x dx
1
Z 2
Z 1
16. Evaluate: (a) x sin−1 x dx (b) x2 tan−1 x dx
0 0
N
1
Z
17. Let s be a positive constant. Show that lim te−st dt = .
N →∞ 0 s2

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 150 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4G

4G Trigonometric Integrals
Trigonometric integrals arise frequently in practical applications. This section
contains those integrals more commonly encountered, and is grouped by type.

Powers of Cosine and Sine: There are two methods for the integral
Z
cosm x sinn x dx

depending on whether the constants m and n are odd or even. If both are even
then it is best to use the double angle identities.
Z π
2
WORKED EXAMPLE 27: Evaluate 4 cos2 x sin2 x dx
0

SOLUTION: Apply the double angle formula for sine to get: y

Z π
2
4 cos2 x sin2 x dx
0 1
Z π2
= sin2 2x dx -p - p2 p
2 p x
0
Z π2
1
=2 1 − cos 4x dx (cosine double angle formula)
h0 i π2
= 21 x − 14 sin 4x
0
π
= 4
.

In the second method one or both of m and n is odd. Work with cosine if m
is odd, otherwise work with sine. The odd index of the chosen trigonometric
function can be reduced to 1 via the Pythagorean identity, cos2 x + sin2 x = 1. It
is then a matter of making a substitution for the other trigonometric function.
The result is a polynomial integral.
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 28: Determine cos3 x sin2 x dx .

SOLUTION: Z
Let I= cos3 x sin2 x dx
Z
= cos x(1 − sin2 x) sin2 x dx (by Pythagoras.)
Put u = sin x ,
so that du = cos x dx ,
Z
then I = (1 − u2 )u2 du
Z
= u2 − u4 du

= 31 u3 − 15 u5 + C
= 1
3
sin3 x − 1
5
sin5 x + C .

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 4G Trigonometric Integrals 151

Z
POWERS OF COSINE AND SINE: Given an integral of the form cosm x sinn x dx:
8
• if m and n are both even then use the double angle identities,
• if either m or n is odd then use the Pythagorean identity and a substitution.

Powers of Secant and Tangent: There are three general methods for the integral
Z
secm x tann x dx ,

again depending on whether the constants m and n are odd or even. There are
also two special cases which should be dealt with first.
When m = 0 and n = 1 the situation is trivial, viz:
sin x
Z Z
tan x dx = dx
cos x
= − log | cos x| + C .
A very clever trick is required for the other special case when m = 1 and n = 0.
sec x(sec x + tan x)
Z Z
sec x dx = dx
(sec x + tan x)
sec x tan x + sec2 x
Z
= dx
sec x + tan x
= log | sec x + tan x| + C .
Notice that in both special cases the result is a logarithmic function since the
numerator of the integrand is the derivative of the denominator.

THE INTEGRALS OF THE TANGENT AND SECANT FUNCTIONS:

Z
tan x dx = − log | cos x| + C
9 Z
sec x dx = log | sec x + tan x| + C

Now for the general cases. If m and n are both even then separate out a factor
of sec2 x and substitute u = tan x to get a polynomial integral. The Pythagorean
identity 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x may be required, particularly when m = 0.
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 29: Find tan4 x dx .

SOLUTION:
Z Z Z
4 2 2
tan x dx = tan x sec x dx − tan2 x dx (by Pythagoras)
Z Z
= tan2 x sec2 x dx − sec2 x − 1 dx (by Pythagoras again)
Z Z Z
= u2 du − sec2 x dx + 1 dx where u = tan x

= 31 u3 − tan x + x + C
= 1
3 tan3 x − tan x + x + C .

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 152 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4G

Z π
4
WORKED EXAMPLE 30: Show that sec4 x tan2 x dx = 8
15
.
0
Z π
4
SOLUTION: Let I = sec4 x tan2 x dx
0
Z π4
so I= sec2 x (tan2 x + 1) tan2 x dx (by Pythagoras.)
0
Put u = tan x , y
Z 1
then I= (u2 + 1)u2 du 4
Z0 1
= u4 + u2 du
h0 i1
= 51 u5 + 13 u3 - p2 p
4
p
2
x
0
8
= 15 .

If n is odd then factor out the term sec x tan x and substitute u = sec x to obtain
a polynomial integral. The Pythagorean identity may be required.
Z π
3
WORKED EXAMPLE 31: Determine the value of sec3 x tan x dx .
0
Z π
3
SOLUTION: Let I = sec3 x tan x dx , y
0
Z π

so I=
3
sec2 x × sec x tan x dx . 8Ö3
0
Put u = sec x , - p2 p
3
p
2
x
Z 2
then I = u2 du
1
h i2
= 31 u3
1
7
= 3
.

Whenever m is odd and n is even it is best to integrate by parts. Once again the
Pythagorean identity may be required.
Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 32: Find sec3 x dx .

SOLUTION: Z
Let I = sec3 x dx
Z
= sec2 x × sec x dx .
Put u = sec x and v 0 = sec2 x
so u0 = sec x tan x and v = tan x .
Z
Then I = sec x tan x − sec x tan2 x dx (by parts)
Z
= sec x tan x − sec x(sec2 x − 1) dx (by Pythagoras.)

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 4G Trigonometric Integrals 153

Z Z
Thus I = sec x tan x − sec3 x dx + sec x dx ,
so I = sec x tan x − I + log | sec x + tan x| (from the special case)
or 2I = sec x tan x + log | sec x + tan x| ,
hence I = 21 sec x tan x + log | sec x + tan x| + C .

Z
POWERS OF SECANT AND TANGENT: Given an integral of the form secm x tann x dx:

10 • if m and n are both even then factor out sec2 x and substitute u = tan x
• if n is odd then factor out the term sec x tan x and substitute u = sec x
• if m is odd and n is even then use integration by parts

Products to Sums: There are three standard formulae for converting products of
trigonometric functions to sums. These will be familiar to some readers and are
easily proved by expanding each right hand side.

PRODUCTS TO SUMS:
1


sin A cos B = 2
sin(A − B) + sin(A + B)
11 cos A cos B = 1
cos(A − B) + cos(A + B)


2
1


sin A sin B = 2
cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)

These formulae can be applied to simplify an integral, as in the following example.

Z
WORKED EXAMPLE 33: Find cos 3x cos 2x dx .
Z Z
1
SOLUTION: cos 3x cos 2x dx = 2 cos x + cos 5x dx (products to sums)
1 1
= 2 sin x + 10 sin 5x + C .

The t-substitution: The t-substitution, namely t = tan x2 , should be well known to

all readers, being part of the Mathematics Extension 1 course. The aim here is
to transform a trigonometric integrand into a rational function.
π
4
Z 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 34: Show that dx = log 3 .
0 3 + 5 cos x
π
4
Z 2
SOLUTION: Let I = dx . y
0 3 + 5 cos x
Put t = tan x2 4
1
3 cos-1(- 35 )
dt
then = 12 sec2 x2 2
dx p x
2
= 21 (1 + t2 ) .
2 dt
So dx = ,
1 + t2
1 − t2
with cos x = .
1 + t2

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 154 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4G

1
4 2 dt
Z
Thus I= ×
1−t2 1 + t2
3+50
1+t2
1
8
Z
= 2
dt
0 8 − 2t
Z 1
4
= dt .
0 4 − t2
4 A B
Let = + (partial fractions)
(2 + t)(2 − t) 2+t 2−t
then A=1 and B = 1 (by the cover-up method.)
Z 1
1 1
Hence I= + dt
0 2+t 2−t
h i1
= log(2 + t) − log(2 − t)
0
= log 3 .

THE t -SUBSTITUTION: Use this to transform a trigonometric integrand into a rational

function. Let t = tan x2 , then:
12 2t 1 − t2 2t 2 dt
tan x = cos x = sin x = with dx =
1 − t2 1 + t2 1 + t2 1 + t2

Exercise 4G
1. Find:Z Z Z Z
(a) cos x dx (b) sin x dx (c) tan x dx (d) cot x dx

2. Find each of the following integrals by substituting either u = sin x or u = cos x. You may
also need to apply the Pythagorean identity cos2 x + sin2 x = 1.
Z Z Z
2 3
(a) cos x sin x dx (c) sin x dx (e) cos5 x dx
Z Z Z
(b) cos2 x sin x dx (d) cos3 x dx (f) sin3 x cos3 x dx

3. Use the double angle formulae to evaluate:

Z π2 Z π3 Z π
(a) sin2
x dx (b) cos2 x dx (c) sin2 x cos2 x dx
0 π 0
6

4. Use the substitution u = tan x to find the following. You may also need to apply the
Pythagorean identity 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x.
Z Z Z Z
2 2 4
(a) sec x dx (b) tan x dx (c) sec x dx (d) tan4 x dx

DEVELOPMENT

5. Evaluate:
Z π Z π Z π
2 3
(a) cos3 x sin x dx (c) 3
sin x cos x dx (e) sin3 x cos2 x dx
0 0 0
Z π6 Z π Z π
3 4

(b) cos3 x dx (d) 5

sin x dx (f) sin2 x cos3 x dx
0 0 0

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 4G Trigonometric Integrals 155

6. Determine:
Z Z Z
(a) cos4 x dx (b) 4
sin x dx (c) sin4 x cos4 x dx

7. ShowZ that:
π π
3 √ Z 4
(a) sec2 x tan2 x dx = 3 (c) sec4 x tan x dx = 3
4
0 0
Z π Z π
3 4
(b) sec2 x tan3 x dx = 2 92 (d) tan5 x dx = 41 (2 ln 2 − 1)
−π
6 0

8. Use Ztheπ t-substitution to evaluate: Z π π

1 1 1
2 2
Z 2
(a) dx (b) dx (c) dx
0 1 + sin x 0 4 + 5 cos x −π
2
5 + 3 sin x
9. In each case use a suitable trigonometric substitution to evaluate the integral.
Z 1p Z 1 p Z 1 p
3
(a) 2
1 − x dx (b) x 1 + x dx2 (c) x2 1 − x2 dx
0 0 0
Z
10. Let I = sin x cos x dx .
(a) Find I using a suitable substitution. (b) Find I by the double angle formulae.
(c) Show that the answers to parts (a) and (b) are equivalent.
11. Evaluate:
Z π4 Z π
3
tan3 x + tan x dx cos x − cos3 x dx



(a) (b)
0 − π3

12. Evaluate:
Z π Z π
3 3
(a) sin3 x sec2 x dx (b) sin3 x sec4 x dx
0 0
13. FindZthese integrals by first converting
Z the products to sums. Z
(a) sin 3x cos x dx (b) cos 3x sin x dx (c) cos 6x cos 2x dx

14. Evaluate these definite integrals by first converting the products to sums.
Z π4 Z π4 Z π3
(a) sin 3x sin x dx (b) cos 4x cos 2x dx (c) sin 4x cos 2x dx
0 0 0
x
15. Use the substitution t = tan to determine:2
1 1 1
Z Z Z
(a) dx (b) dx (c) dx
1 + cos x 1 + sin x − cos x 3 sin x + 4 cos x
1 + tan x2
Z
16. (a) Use the t-substitution to show that sec x dx = ln +C
1 − tan x2
(b) Show that the primitive in (a) is equivalent to ln |sec x + tan x| + C.
ENRICHMENT
3
17. In the chapter on
Z complex numbers it was shown that (cis θ) = cis 3θ. Use this result to
help determine cos3 θ dθ.
Z
18. Use integration by parts and the fact that sec x dx = ln |sec x + tan x| + C to show that
π
Z 4  √ 
sec3 x dx = √1
2
+ 1
2
ln 1 + 2 .
0

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 156 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4H

4H Reduction Formulae
Readers will be familiar with sequences and series, such as the odd numbers,
1, 3, 5, 7, . . . or un = 2n − 1 ,
or the powers of 2,
1, 2, 4, 8, . . . or un = 2n−1 .
In this section, sequences of integrals are considered, such as the sequence
Z π2 Z π2 Z π2 Z π2
2 3
sin x dx , sin x dx , sin x dx , . . . or In = sinn x dx .
0 0 0 0
Of particular interest are the equations which relate the terms of the sequence.
Continuing with this example, it can be shown that
n−1
In = n
× In−2 for n ≥ 2.
Such equations are called reduction formulae, because they enable the index to
be reduced, in this case from n to n − 2. In practical terms, this means that
if one of the integrals in the sequence is known then other terms can be simply
calculated from it without the need for further integration. Returning to the
example above, since
Z π2
I1 = sin x dx = 1 ,
0
2 2
it follows that I3 = I
3 1
= 3
,
4 8
and I5 = = 5 I3 15 .
This is obviously a significant saving of effort since it was not necessary to find
the primitives of sin3 x and sin5 x in order to evaluate I3 and I5 . It should be
clear from this that reduction formulae are of particular importance.
Note that the convention is to evaluate the sequence index before the integral is
evaluated. Thus, once again using the same example,
Z π2
I0 = 1 dx
0
π
= 2 .

Identities: In a few cases the reduction formula can be generated by use of an identity,
as in the following example.
Z π
4
WORKED EXAMPLE 35: Let In = tann x dx .
0
1
(a) Show that In = − In−2 for n ≥ 2 .
n−1
(b) Evaluate I1 and hence find I5 .
SOLUTION: Z π
4
(a) In = tann−2 x (sec2 x − 1) dx (by Pythagoras, for n ≥ 2)
Z0 π4 Z π4
n−2 2
= tan x sec x dx − tann−2 x dx
0 0

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 4H Reduction Formulae 157

π
tann−1 x 4

thus In = − In−2
n−1 0
1
= − In−2 for n ≥ 2 .
n−1
Z π
4
(b) I1 = tan x dx y
0
h i π4 y = (tan x)5
= − log(cos x) 1
0
1
= 2
log 2 . - p p p x
1
2
-1 4 2

Thus I3 = 2 − I1
1 1
= 2
− 2
log 2 ,
1
and I5 = 4
− I3
1 1
= 2 log 2 − 4 .

By Parts: Many examples of reduction formulae use integration by parts.

Z e
WORKED EXAMPLE 36: Let In = (log x)n dx
1
(a) Show that In = e − nIn−1 for n ≥ 1.
(b) Hence show that I3 = 6 − 2e .

SOLUTION: Z e
(a) In = 1 × (log x)n dx
h1 ie Z e
n
= x(log x) − x × nx (log x)n−1 dx (by parts)
1
Z e 1
= (e − 0) − n (log x)n−1 dx
1
= e − nIn−1 .
Z e
(b) I0 = 1 dx
1
y
= e−1. y = (log x)3
Thus I1 = e − I0
= 1, 1
I2 = e − 2I1 1 e x
= e−2,
and I3 = e − 3I2
= 6 − 2e .

By Parts with an Identity: Some examples use integration by parts and an identity.
Z 1
WORKED EXAMPLE 37: Let In = x2 (1 − x2 )n dx .
0
(a) Use the identity x2 ≡ 1 − (1 − x2 ) to show that In = 2n
2n+3 In−1 for n ≥ 1.
(b) Evaluate I0 and hence find I3 .

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 158 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4H

SOLUTION:
(a) Apply integration by parts first to get:
Z 1
In = x2 (1 − x2 )n dx
0
h i1 Z 1
= 31 x3 (1 − x2 )n − 1 3
3
x × (−2nx)(1 − x2 )n−1 dx
0 0
Z 1
2n
=0+ 3 x × x (1 − x2 )n−1 dx
2 2

Z 1 0
= 2n
3
x2 (1 − x2 )n−1 − x2 (1 − x2 )n dx (by the identity)
0
2n
so In = 3
I n−1 − 2n I .
3 n
2n+3 2n
thus 3
In = I
3 n−1
2n
or In = I
2n+3 n−1
for n ≥ 1.
Z 1
y
(b) I0 = x2 dx
0 1
= 31 . 4 ( 12 , 256
27
)
-1
Thus I1 = 52 I0
2
1 x
= 15
,
4
I2 = I
7 1 y = x2(1 - x2)3
8
= 105 ,
6
and I3 = I
9 2
16
= 315
.

Exercise 4H
tann−1 x
Z
1. (a) Given that In = tann x dx, prove that In =
− In−2 for n ≥ 2.
n−1
(b) Hence show that I6 = 51 tan5 x − 31 tan3 x + tan x − x + C
Z
2. (a) If In = xn ex dx, show that In = xn ex − nIn−1 for n ≥ 1.
Z
(b) Hence show that x3 ex dx = (x3 − 3x2 + 6x − 6)ex + C .
Z e
3. (a) If In = x(ln x)n dx, show that In = 21 e2 − 12 nIn−1 for n ≥ 1.
1
(b) Find I0 and hence show that I4 = 41 (e2 − 3) .
Z π
2
4. Let un = cosn x dx .
0

(a) Use integration by parts with v 0 = cos x to show that

Z π
2
un = (n − 1) sin2 x cosn−2 x dx for n ≥ 2.
0
(b) Hence show that un = (n − 1)(un−2 − un ).
(c) Deduce that un = n−1
n un−2 for n ≥ 2, and hence evaluate u5 .

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 4H Reduction Formulae 159

DEVELOPMENT
Z π
4
5. Let Tn = secn x dx .
0 √
( 2)n−2 n − 2
(a) Show that Tn = + Tn−2 for n ≥ 2.
n−1 n−1
You will need to use integration by parts and a trigonometric identity.
28
(b) Deduce that T6 = 15 .
Z π
2
6. Let Cn = xn cos x dx , where n ≥ 0 .
0
(a) Prove that Cn = ( π2 )n − n(n − 1)Cn−2 , for n ≥ 2 . (b) Hence evaluate C6 .
xn
Z
7. Suppose that In = dx.
1 + x2
xn−1
(a) Use algebraic manipulation to show that In = − In−2 .
n−1
x5
Z
(b) Hence find dx.
1 + x2
Z 1
2n
8. (a) If In = (1 − x2 )n dx, show that In = In−1 for n ≥ 1.
0 2n + 1
(b) Evaluate I0 and hence find I4 .
Z 1
3n
9. (a) If un = x(1 − x3 )n dx , show that un = un−1 for n ≥ 1.
0 3n +2
(b) Show that u0 = 21 and hence evaluate u4 .
xn
Z
10. Suppose that Jn = √ dx .
1 − x 2
 p 
(a) Show that Jn = n1 (n − 1)Jn−2 − xn−1 1 − x2 for n ≥ 2.
x
[Hint: Do this by parts with u = xn−1 and v 0 = √ .]
1 − x2
x2
Z
(b) Hence determine √ dx .
1 − x2
Z π
2
11. Let un = sinn x cos2 x dx.
0  
n−1
(a) Show that un = n+2 un−2 , for n ≥ 2 .
[Hint: Do this by parts with u = sinn−1 x and v 0 = sin x cos2 x.]
π
(b) Hence show that u4 = 32 .
Z 1
xn
12. Consider the integral In = √ dx .
0 1+x
√
(a) Show that I0 = 2 2 − 2 .
Z 1
√
(b) Show that In−1 + In = xn−1 1 + x dx for n ≥ 1.
0 √
2 2 − 2nIn−1
(c) Use integration by parts to show that In = for n ≥ 1.
2n + 1
(d) Hence evaluate I2 .

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 160 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4I

13. (a) Show that (1 + t2 )n−1 + t2 (1 + t2 )n−1 = (1 + t2 )n .

Z x

n
(b) Put Pn = 1 + t2 dt . Use integration by parts and part (a) to show that
0

n 
Pn = 1
2n+1
1 + x2 x + 2nPn−1 for n ≥ 1.

(c) Hence determine P4 :

(i) by the reduction formula, (ii) by using the binomial theorem.
4 2 6 4 4 6
(d) Hence write 1 + + 3
x 5
x + 7
x + 19 x8 in powers of (1 + x2 ).
Z 1
√
14. Let Tn = xn 1 − x dx .
0
2n
(a) Deduce the reduction formula Tn = Tn−1 for n ≥ 1.
2n + 3
32
(b) Show that T3 = 315 .
n!(n + 1)! n+1
(c) Use the reduction formula to help prove by induction that Tn = 4 .
(2n + 3)!
ENRICHMENT
Z 1 Z 1
15. Let In = (1 − x2 )n dx and Jn = x2 (1 − x2 )n dx .
0 0
(a) Apply integration by parts to In to show that In = 2n Jn−1 for n ≥ 1.
2n
(b) Hence show that In = In−1 for n ≥ 1.
2n + 1
1
(c) Show that Jn = In − In+1 , and hence deduce that Jn = In .
2n + 3
(d) Hence write down a reduction formula for Jn in terms of Jn−1 .
Z π4
16. For n = 0, 1, 2, . . . let In = tann θ dθ .
0
1
(a) Show that I1 = 2
ln 2 .
1
(b) Show that, for n ≥ 2 , In + In−2 = .
n−1
(c) For n ≥ 2 , explain why In < In−2 , and deduce that
1 1
< In < .
2(n + 1) 2(n − 1)
2 3
(d) Use the reduction formula in part (b) to find I5 , and hence deduce that 3
< ln 2 < 4
.
Z π
3
17. Suppose that In = cos nx sec x dx.
0
2 (n − 1)π
(a) Prove that In = sin − In−2 for n ≥ 2.
n−1 3
[Hint: Write nx as (n − 2)x + 2x.]
Z π3
(b) Evaluate cos 5x sec x dx.
0

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 4I Miscellaneous Integrals 161

4I Miscellaneous Integrals
As was stated in the chapter overview, integration is an art form and requires
much practice. In particular, it is important to be able to recognise the different
forms of integrals, and to quickly determine which method is best used. To that
end, this section has been included. The exercise contains a mixture of all integral
types. Some questions can be done by more than one method. It is up to the
reader to determine which method is the most efficient.

Exercise 4I
1. Evaluate:
Z 1 π
3
x2 2x + 2
Z
3 cos x
Z 2
(a) dx (c) dx (e) dx
−1 (5 + x )
3 2
2 (x + 3)(x − 1) π
4
sin4 x
Z π 2 1
x−1
Z
1
Z 3
(b) x sin x dx (d) dx (f) √ dx
0 0 x+1 0 4 − 9x2
2. Find:Z
1 1
Z Z
x
(a) √ dx (d) 2
dx (g) dx
1 + x2 Z 2x + 3x + 1 Z x2 + 6x + 25
1+x
Z
(b) dx (e) x3 ln x dx (h) 3x cos 3x dx
1 + x2 Z Z
x
Z
(c) sin x cos4 x dx (f) sin3 2x dx (i) √ dx
4+x
3. ShowZ that:
1 Z 4
x
(a) x2 e−x dx = 2 − e5 (f) √ dx = 3π
0 6x − 8 − x2
Z π2 Z2 1 √
x
(b) sin3 x cos5 x dx = 24
1
(g) dx = 21 (4 − π)
0 1+x
Z0 1 √
3
x
Z
(c) 2
dx = 81 (π − 2 ln 2) (h) tan−1 x dx = π
√ − ln 2
0 (x + 1)(x + 1) 0
3
Z 21 π
3
Z 4 √
(d) (1 − x2 )− 2 dx = √13 (i) sin 2x cos 3x dx = 1
10 (3 2 − 4)
Z0 1 Z0 π
1 − x2
(e) 2
dx = π2 − 1 (j) e−x cos x dx = 21 (1 + e−π )
0 1 + x 0
DEVELOPMENT

4. (a) Find the rational numbers A, B and C such that

x−1 A Bx + C
3
= + 2 .
x +1 x+1 x −x+1
Z 1 3
x +x
(b) Hence show that 3+1
dx = 1 − 32 ln 2.
0 x
Z
2 2
5. Use integration by parts to show that x3 e−x dx = − 21 e−x (1 + x2 ) + C .
Z π
3
6. (a) Evaluate sec4 x dx .
0
Z π3
(b) Hence evaluate sec6 x dx .
0

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 162 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4I

7. In each case let t = tan x2 in order to show that:

Z π Z π
2 1 1
2 1 π
(a) dx = 4 ln 3 (b) dx = 4
0 3 + 5 cos x 0 cos x − 2 sin x + 3

8. (a) Find the values of A, B, C and D such that

4t
A B Ct + D
+ = + .
(1 + t)2 (1 + t2 )
1 + t (1 + t) 2 1 + t2
Z π2
sin x
(b) Hence use the t-substitution to evaluate dx .
0 1 + sin x
Z 64
√ 1
9. Use the substitution u = 6 x to show that √ √ dx = 11 − 6 ln 23 .
1 x + 3
x
Z p
10. Find a2 − x2 dx using:

(a) the substitution θ = sin−1 ax , (b) integration by parts.

Z 1
5 − 5x2
11. (a) Show that 2)
dx = 21 (π + ln 16
27
).
0 (1 + 2x)(1 + x
Z π2
cos x
(b) Hence find dx using the substitution t = tan x2 .
0 1 + cos x + 2 sin x
12. (a) Find integers P and Q such that
8 sin x + cos x − 2 = P (3 sin x + 2 cos x − 1) + Q(3 cos x − 2 sin x) .
8 sin x + cos x − 2
Z
(b) Hence find dx .
3 sin x + 2 cos x − 1
Z π
13. (a) If Tn = sinn x dx, show that Tn = n−1 n
Tn−2 for n ≥ 2.
0
(b) Hence show that T5 T6 = π3 .
Z e
14. (a) Let In = (ln x)n dx and show that In = e − nIn−1 for n ≥ 1.
1
(b) Hence evaluate I3 .
ENRICHMENT
1
xn−1
Z
15. Let In = n
dx , for n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
0 (x + 1)
(a) Show that I1 = ln 2 .
1
(b) Use integration by parts to show that In+1 = In − .
n 2n
x
(c) The maximum value of , for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 , is 21 .
x+1
Use this fact to show that In+1 < 21 In .
1
(d) Deduce that In < .
n 2n−1
(e) Use the reduction formula in part (b) and the inequality in part (d) to show that
2 17
3
< ln 2 < 24
.

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 4I Miscellaneous Integrals 163

π π
1 cos x + 2 sin x
Z Z
π 1
16. Given that dx = 4 , show that dx = 12 (16 ln 2 − π) .
0 5 + 3 cos x 0 5 + 3 cos x
1 + t2 √ 2
Z
2(t −1)
−1
17. (a) Use the substitution u = t − t to show that dt = √1 tan−1 +C.
1 + t4 2 2t
√
(b) Alternatively, use the result (1 + t4 ) = (1 + t2 )2 − ( 2 t)2 and partial fractions to show
Z
1 + t2 √ √
that dt = √1 tan−1 ( 2 t + 1) + √1 tan−1 ( 2 t − 1) + C .
1 + t4 2 2
Z q
1 + t2
(c) The formulae in parts (a) and (b) agree when applied to the integral 4
dt
p 1+t
provided pq > 0. When pq ≤ 0 the formula in (a) is incorrect. Why might that be?
18. Consider the two new functions cosh x = 21 (ex + e−x ) and sinh x = 21 (ex − e−x ) .
Z ln 2
1
Show that dx = 21 tan−1 31 .
0 5 cosh x − 3 sinh x
Z 1
ln(1 + x)
19. Suppose that I = dx.
0 1 + x2
Z π
4
(a) Use the substitution x = tan θ to show that I = ln(1 + tan θ) dθ.
0
Z π4  
π 2
(b) Next, use the substitution u = 4 − θ to show that I = ln dθ.
0 1 + tan θ
(c) Finally, deduce that I = 81 π ln 2.

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 164 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4J

4J Chapter Review Exercise

Exercise 4J
1. Find:Z
4x
Z Z
2
2 5
(a) xex dx (c) x(1 + x ) dx (e) dx
x2 − 2x − 3
3x
Z Z Z
3
(b) 2
dx (d) cos x sin x dx (f) xe−2x dx
x +1
2. Find:Z
1 x+2
Z Z
2
(a) tan x dx (c) 2
dx (e) dx
Z x + 2x + 5 x+1
3x2 + 2
Z
x
Z
(b) √ dx (d) x cos 31 x dx (f) dx
3+x x3 + x
3. Use Zthe given substitution to find:
1 1 √
Z
(a) 3 dx [put x = 2 sin θ] (c) √ dx [put u = x]
2
(4 − x ) 2 2+ x
1
Z
ex
Z
(b) dx [put u = ex ] (d) dx [put t = tan 21 x]
2x
e −1 5 + 4 cos x
4. Evaluate:
Z 2 p Z π3 Z 1
2
√
(a) 3
x x + 1 dx (c) 3
sin x dx (e) x2 1 − x dx
0
Z0 1
−1
Z 5 Z π4
2x 8x
(b) 2
dx (d) dx (f) sin 5x cos 3x dx
4 x − 4x + 3 0 3 + 4x 0
5. Evaluate:
Z π 3
x2 + x + 18
Z
3
(a) x sin 3x dx (d) 3 2
dx
0 0 x + 9x + 9x + 81
Z 2 Z 4p
3 − 7x
(b) √ dx (e) 16 − x2 dx
0 4x − x2 2
Z π2 Z 1
2
(c) sin2 x cos3 x dx (f) e2x sin πx dx
0 0
6. Use the given substitution to find:
Z 15
1 √
(a) √ dx [put u = x + 1]
8 (x − 3) x + 1
Z π3
1
(b) 2 dx [put t = tan x]
0 9 − 8 sin x
Z 2p
(c) x(4 − x) dx [put x = 4 sin2 θ]
0
Z π3
1
(d) dx [put t = tan 21 x]
0 cos x
Z 1
7. (a) Given that In = xn ex dx, prove that In = e − nIn−1 .
0
(b) Hence show that I5 = 120 − 44e.
Z
8. (a) Derive a reduction formula for In in terms of In−1 given In = x3 (ln x)n dx.
 
1 4
Z
(b) Hence show that x3 (ln x)3 dx = x 32(ln x)3 − 24(ln x)2 + 12 ln x − 3 + C.
128

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 4J Chapter Review Exercise 165

π
2n − 1
Z 2
9. (a) If I2n = sin2n x dx, prove that I2n = I2n−2 .
0 2n
Z π
2
(b) Hence find sin6 x dx.
0
Z 1
10. (a) If In = (1 + x2 )n dx, prove that (2n + 1)In = 2n + 2nIn−1 .
0
Z π
4
(b) If Jn = sec2n θ dθ, show that Jn = In−1 and hence find a reduction formula for Jn .
0
Z π
4
(c) Evaluate sec6 θ dθ.
0
sin 2nx 2
Z
11. (a) Given that In = dx, prove that In = sin(2n − 1)x + In−1 .
sin x 2n − 1
Z π2
sin 6x
(b) Hence find dx.
0 sin x
Z a Z a
12. (a) Use the substitution u = a − x to prove that f (x) dx = f (a − x) dx.
Z π 0 0
x sin x π ln 3
(b) Hence show that 2
dx = .
0 3 + sin x 4

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 166 CHAPTER 4: Integration 4K

Appendix: A Short Table of Integrals

Here is a short table of integrals. Each integral in the first group is a simplified
form of one found in the examination Reference Sheet. Students may find this
table helpful whilst studying this chapter, but should aim to become proficient
at using the examination Reference Sheet as soon as possible.
The group of three extra integrals at the bottom are only occasionally needed
in Mathematics Extension 2, and do not appear in the examination Reference
Sheet. Students are expected to be able to apply unfamiliar integral formulae
like these when they are given.

COMMON INTEGRALS

(ax + b)n+1
Z
(ax + b)n dx = +C
a(n + 1)

1 ax+b
Z
eax+b dx = e +C
a

f 0 (x)
Z
dx = ln f (x) + C
f (x)

1
Z
sin(ax + b) dx = − cos(ax + b) + C
a

1
Z
cos(ax + b) dx = sin(ax + b) + C
a

1
Z
sec2 (ax + b) dx = tan(ax + b) + C
a

1
Z
x
√ dx = sin−1 + C
a2 −x 2 a

1 1
Z
x
dx = tan−1 + C
a2 +x 2 a a
OTHER INTEGRALS
1
Z
sec ax tan ax dx = sec ax + C , a 6= 0
a

1
Z  p 
√ dx = ln x + x2 − a2 + C , x>a>0
x2 − a2

1
Z  p 
√ dx = ln x + x2 + a2 + C
x2 + a2

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