Tarnish Tarnish is a surface discoloration on a metal or even a slight loss or alteration of the

surface finish or lustre. Tarnish generally occurs in the oral cavity due to
1. Formation of hard and soft deposits on the surface of the restoration, e.g. calculus, mucin and
plaque.
2. Pigment producing bacteria, produce stains.
3. Formation of thin films of oxides, sulfides or chlorides. Tarnish is often the forerunner of
corrosion.

Corrosion
It is not a surface discoloration but actual deterioration of a metal by reaction with the
environment. It can be defined as the deterioration of metals by chemical interaction with their
environment.
Most metals exist in their stable oxide state in nature except for some of the noble metals like
gold. The pure state of metals is unstable.
Corrosion is a natural process, which converts refined metal to their more stable forms.
In the most common use of the word, this means electrochemical oxidation of metal in reaction
with an oxidant such as oxygen.
Rusting, the formation of iron oxides, is a well-known example of electrochemical corrosion. This
type of damage typically produces oxides or salts of the original metal.

Composite composition

Delayed expansion
If a zinc-containing-low-copper or high-copper amalgam is contaminated by moisture during
trituration or condensation, a large expansion can take place.
It usually starts after 3-5 days and may continue for months, reaching values greater than 400
µm (4%). This is known as delayed expansion or secondary expansion.
The expansion is caused by the releases of hydrogen gas from the reaction of zinc with water.

H2 O + Zn → ZnO + H2 (gas)

This hydrogen gas does not combine with the amalgam, but collects within the restoration,
creating extreme internal pressure and expansion of the mass.
This causes protrusion of the restoration out of the cavity, increased creep, increased
microleakage, pitted surfaces and corrosion.
Dental pain, recurrence of caries, and fracture of the restoration are seen as a result of these
poorly inserted restorations.

Note Moisture contamination after the cavity has been filled does not cause delayed expansion.
Nonzinc alloys do not show this type of expansion when contaminated with water. However,
moisture contamination of the mix of any alloy results in inferior physical properties.

C-factor
Cavity configuration factor (C-factor) is the ratio of the bonded surface area in a cavity to the
unbonded surface area. This means that, in a box-like class I cavity, there may be five times
more bonded surface area than the unbonded surface area.

Generations of composite
1. Temporary cementation
2. Permanent cementation
TEMPORARY CEMENTATION
Temporary cementation of crowns and fixed partial dentures (FDP) are often required.
Temporary crowns and FDPs are required to stay in place only until the permanent structure is
ready. Therefore, it must be weak enough to be easily removed when the permanent structure is
ready for cementation.
PERMANENT CEMENTATION
A permanent cementing material on the other hand should be strong and insoluble in oral fluids.
It would also be advantageous if it had some chemical bonding to the tooth structure. In
addition, it should be fluid enough to flow well to ensure the complete seating of the restoration.
Examples of permanent cementing materials are zinc phosphate cement, glass ionomer
cement, resin cement, polycarboxylate cement, etc.

Properties of luting cement:

1. They should be nontoxic and nonirritant to pulp and tissues.
2. They should be insoluble in saliva and liquids taken into the mouth.
3. Mechanical properties: a cement base should develop sufficient strength rapidly to enable a
filling material to be packed on it.
4. Protection of the pulp from insults.
5. Optical properties: For cementation of a translucent restorations (e.g. porcelain) the cement
should match the color and translucency of tooth substance.
6. Dental cements should ideally be adhesive to both tooth structure and restorative material
7. They should be bacteriostatic in a cavity with residual caries
BASES
A base is a layer of cement placed beneath a permanent restoration to encourage recovery of
the injured pulp and to protect it against numerous types of insults to which it may be subjected.
The type of insults depends upon the particular restorative material. It may be thermal or
chemical or galvanic. The base serves as replacement or substitute for the protective dentin,
that has been destroyed by caries or cavity preparation. Nonvital teeth do not require a base.

Examples of
High strength bases: Zinc phosphate, Zinc polycarboxylate, glass ionomer and reinforced ZOE
cements
Low strength bases calcium hydroxide and zinc oxide eugenol.

● Liners are thin layers of material applied to the deepest portion of a cavity preparation,
usually in proximity to the pulp
● Bases are thicker than liners and are placed on the floor of the cavity preparation before
the restorative material is added
● Luting cement, is used to bond restorations, such as crowns, bridges, inlays, or onlays,
to the tooth structure.

Cavity liner:
A cavity liner is used like a cavity varnish to provide a barrier against the passage of irritants
from cements or other restorative materials and to reduce the sensitivity of freshly cut dentin.
They are usually suspensions of calcium hydroxide in a volatile solvent. Upon the evaporation of
the volatile solvent, the liner forms a thin film on the prepared tooth surface.
Classification of composite
Glass ionomer cement composition

POLYMERIZATION (SETTING) MECHANISMS

They polymerize by the addition mechanism that is initiated by free radicals. The free radicals
can be generated by chemical activation or external energy (heat, light or microwave). Based on
the mode of activation of polymerization, there are three main types
A. Chemically activated resins
B. Light-activated resins
C. Combination of the above (dual cure).

Polymerization shrinkage in GIC:

GICs have very low polymerization shrinkage and are thermally compatible with tooth structure.
.Who discovered GIC?
The first usable glass ionomer system was formulated in 1972 by Wilson and Kent

Which instrument is used for placing GIC in preparation cavity

The mix is packed into the cavity without delay using a plastic filling instrument.

Contraindications of gic

Setting time of GIC

Types of GIC

Zinc phosphate cement

Zinc phosphate is the oldest of the luting cements and thus serves as a standard with which
newer cements can be compared. The terms ‘Crown and Bridge’ and ‘Zinc Oxyphosphate’ have
also been used for this cement.
Dew point
When the glass slab is cooled, it maintains the temperature for a longer period of time and it
permits incorporation of all the powder, maintaining the plasticity of the mix. But it should not be
cooled below the dew point, to preserve the acid- water balance.
The "dew point" in glass ionomer cement (GIC) refers to the stage during its setting process
when it has absorbed enough moisture from the environment to initiate the reaction that
hardens it. It's a critical step for the cement to achieve its final strength and properties.

Frozen glass slab

A frozen glass slab can be used as a cooling surface during the mixing of materials like zinc
phosphate cement. When mixing zinc phosphate cement on a frozen glass slab, the motion
typically involves spatulation, which is the process of blending the powder and liquid
components of the cement together. The frozen glass slab helps to slow down the setting
reaction of the cement by maintaining a lower temperature, allowing for better manipulation and
control of the mixing process.

GIC mixing
The powder bottle is tumbled gently. The powder and liquid is dispensed just prior to mixing. A
nonabsorbent paper pad or a cool and dry glass slab may be used. The powder is divided into
two or more increments (Figs. 8.16A to C). The first increment is incorporated rapidly into the
mix with a stiff bladed spatula in about 5–10 seconds. The material should not be spread over a
large area. Subsequent increments are incorporated and mixed using a swiping and folding
technique. The material is collected and folded on to itself. Total mixing time should not exceed
30–40 seconds. A good mix should have a glossy surface (Fig. 8.17A). This indicates the
presence of residual polyacid (which has not been used up in the setting reaction) and ensures
proper bonding to the tooth. A mix with dull surface (Fig. 8.17B)is discarded as it indicates
prolonged mixing
Eames’ technique
The better method of reducing mercury content is to reduce the original mercury/alloy ratio. In
1959 Dr. Wilmer Eames proposed 1:1 ratio of mercury: alloy. This is came to be known as the
minimal mercury or Eames’ technique (mercury/alloy 1:1). Hence, with this technique, 50% or
less mercury will be in the final restoration, with obvious advantages.
Mercury alloy ratios ranges from 43 to 54%. In preproportioned capsule the mercury/alloy ratio
is determined by the manufacturer and is usually less than 50%. Low mercury/alloy ratios are
not easy to triturate manually. In order to benefit from a low mercury/alloy ratio a high speed
mechanical triturator (amalgamator) is absolutely essential.

Initial and final setting of amalgam

Initial Setting: The initial setting of dental amalgam occurs shortly after the material has been
mixed and placed in the prepared cavity. During this stage, the amalgam begins to harden and
gains sufficient strength to resist deformation under pressure. It marks the point at which the
material transitions from a pliable mass to a semi-rigid state. The initial setting time for dental
amalgam typically ranges from a few minutes after placement, during which the material is still
workable.

Final Setting: The final setting of dental amalgam occurs when the material has fully hardened
and reached its maximum strength. At this stage, the amalgam is considered fully set and stable
within the tooth structure.
Amalgam fillings set weakly in 1 hour and are at full strength in about 24 hours

An inlay will incorporate the pits and fissures of a tooth, mainly encompassing the chewing
surface between the cusps. An onlay will involve one or more cusps being covered. If all cusps
and the entire surface of the tooth is covered this is then known as a crown.
Classification of amalgam

Polymerization shrinkage in composite:

Polymerization in composite resins is accompanied by a shrinkage which varies between
different composites depending on the resin to fillerratio.Thus,the polymerization shrinkage
rangesfrom 0.6–1.4% (in composites with higher filler content) to 2–3% (in composites with
lower filler content like microfilled composites).
Why plastic spatula is used for mixin gic
Mixing is performed with an agate spatula. A stainless steel spatula is not used
because its surface gets abraded by glass particles, contaminating the mixture. Which
means, the Glass ionomer powder is powdered glass. If you use a metal spatula some
of the metal will be abraded off into your mix. This will make it grey.