Respiration

- Exothermic reaction which transfers energy from glucose and is

occurring in all living cells - release energy/heat; breaks glucose
molecules to release energy trapped inside
- Energy is NOT being made, it is transferred from glucose
molecules to energy
- Energy to build larger molecules (e.g. amino acid → protein), can
move about (muscular contraction), maintain body temperature
- Aerobic respiration- more efficient way to transfer energy, happens
continuously in plants and animals, takes place in mitochondria -
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water(C6H12O6 + 602 →
6CO2 + 6H2O) 6 molecules of others except glucose because
glucose is much larger
- Anaerobic respiration- only when we have to, can’t get enough
oxygen to keep up with aerobic respiration, glucose → lactic acid,
we don’t prefer to use it because it is an incomplete breakdown of
glucose molecule (no oxygen to oxidise)
- Anaerobic respiration in plants and yeast- glucose → ethanol +
carbon dioxide (pockets of air), yeast (fermentation)- yeast used in
bread (pockets of air makes it fluffy and light) and wine (ethanol is
a type of alcohol)
- Nasal cavity→ larynx → trachea → bronchus → bronchiole → air
sacs
- Blood- plasma- mostly water - transport red and white blood cells
around the body and other dissolved substances like glucose,
water, minerals or CO2; red blood cells- transport oxygen; white
blood cells- fight pathogens and platelets- form clots to stop
bleeding
Properties of materials
- Chromatography- place filter paper into water without submerging
the pencil line and spot of ink, can place lid on top to stop solvent
from evaporating- solvent seep up the paper and as it does,
different dyes that make up the ink will dissolve in the solvent and
move up with it, each dye travel at different rates - will be
separated because each one is a different substance and have
different solubility- not soluble dyes won’t move up, will only stay at
the baseline- less soluble moves more slowly (bottom)- how far
 each of the chemical travels is dependent on the properties of that
substance
Forces and energy
- Balanced and unbalanced forces- balanced: forces equal in size
and opposite in direction, unbalanced: makes objects slow down or
move or change direction
- Moments- rotational or turning effect of a force - pivot = central
point - moment = force * distance- REMEMBER TO CHANGE
DISTANCE TO M - perpendicular distance is between the pivot
and the force, Total anti-clockwise moment = total clockwise
moment (balanced, seesaw won’t move)
- Pressure in liquids and gases- when particles collide with the walls
of the container
- Diffusion- the movement of a substance from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration
- When particles heated, they can more energy and move faster,
increased collision frequency and rate of diffusion
- Brownian motion- the random movements of particles as they
collide with air particles
Ecosystems
- All organisms have relationships (animals with plants they eat,
predators, prey, other animals of their same species and all other
animals that live nearby)
- Habitat- where an organism lives
- Population- all the organisms of a particular species that live in that
habitat
- Community- all the populations of different species that live
together in a habitat
- Biotic factors- living factors (e.g. availability of food/number of
predators)
- Abiotic- non-living factors of the environment (e.g. temperature,
soil pH)
- Ecosystem- the interaction of a community of living organisms with
the non-living parts of their environment
- Competition- need different resources to survive (animals- space,
food, water and mates; plants- light, space, minerals, water) - all
 resources are limited - organisms have to compete - can occur
between organisms of different or same species
- Interdependence- all species depend on each species in some
way - food web
- Pyramids of biomass- everytime an organism is consumed by
another and we move up the tropic level, most of the biomass and
energy is either lost or used (e.g. only 10% of the biomass of the
grass is passed on to the rabbit, 10% of the biomass of the rabbit
is passed on to the snake, etc)- organism don’t normally eat every
part (won’t eat skeleton or teeth), bits they eat might not be
absorbed (egested as faeces), most of the nutrients that animals
absorb used to release energy through respiration (biomass gets
released as waste products like carbon dioxide and urea, doesn’t
store in the organism forever)- so when the organism gets eaten, it
doesn’t pass all the biomass it consumed throughout its life
because it’s been using it for everyday functions
- Intruders in an ecosystem- invasive species- moved to a new
ecosystem where they are not naturally found- can spread quickly
and outcompete or prey on native species- their population will
grow in an uncontrollable rate and eliminate native species-
because new location is free from predators and competitors that
would normally limit/control their population in their natural
environment- severe negative effect on the biodiversity of an
ecosystem
- Bioaccumulation- e.g. all the algae that a shrimp eats over its
lifetime accumulates in its body, the longer it leaves, the more
insecticides it takes in. All the shrimps that a fish eats accumulates
in its body (bioaccumulation). The concentration of insecticide in
an animal’s body increases/multiplies as you go up the food chain
(biomagnification)
Light
- Reflection- angle of incidence = angle of reflection
- Diffuse/scattered- light scattered in different directions; normals will
all be different
- Colours- red (longest wavelength), violet (shortest wavelength),
white is a combination of all wavelengths, black is the absence of
light
 - Light can either be absorbed, reflected or transmitted- opaque
objects don’t transmit any light (either absorbed or reflected)- an
object is blue because the blue wavelengths is reflected while the
other wavelengths are absorbed- transparent/translucent- transmit
lots of light/transmit some of the light
- Colour filters- only allow certain wavelengths to pass through-
allows one of the three primary colours to be transmitted (red,
green or blue)- look at white paper through green filter, white paper
will appear green because only green light is transmitted; blue
paper will appear black in green filter because the paper only
reflects blue wavelengths and the green filter only allows green
light to transmit, so it is absorbed and no light will be reflected into
the eye - also allows wavelengths of the primary colours to be
added together (red + blue = magenta, red + green = yellow, blue
+ green = cyan)
- Refraction- waves change direction as they pass from one medium
to another with different densities- waves travel at different speeds
in different materials with different densities- higher density, slower
the wave- when light passes from air into a glass slab, it is bent
towards the normal as the glass slab is more dense
- White light on prism- different colours will be bent to different
angles- shorter wavelength, refracted more- colours spread
out/diffuse like a rainbow
- Shapes of galaxies- spiral, elliptical and irregular
- Galaxies are made of stellar dust, gas, stars and solar systems
held together by gravity
- Asteroids- objects made from rock that orbit the sun- asteroid belt
where most asteroids of the solar system orbit
Diet and growth
- Nutrients

Nutrient Function

carbhoydrates Energy

proteins Growth and repair

fats Energy and to make cell membranes

vitamins In small amounts to make body chemicals

minerals In small amounts for cells to work properly

water Chemical reactions and transport

fibre To keep the bowels working properly

- Balanced diet
- Moving the body
- Digestive system- nutrients we need- proteins, carbohydrates
(starch and glucose) and fats- locked up inside large molecules in
food- need to break these food down into smaller molecules so
that the body can absorb them through physical and chemical
digestion- mouth (salivary glands make saliva) → stomach →
small intestines (mixes with pancreatic juices and bile) → large
intestines
a) mouth - physical breakdown- chewing- break down
carbohydrate
b) Stomach - contracts muscular walls- produces pepsin which
breaks down proteins- produces HCl which kills bacteria
c) Small intestines- digested food further digested until small
enough to be absorbed into bloodstream- most digestion
takes place- pancreas produces lots of digestive enzymes for
the small intestines in pancreatic juices- bile produced by
liver and stored in the gallbladder neutralise acid from
stomach and emulsify fats from big surface area
d) Large intestines- absorbs excess water → rectum

Chemical reactions
- Exothermic reaction- release heat (combustion when fuels burned
in oxygen; oxidation; neutralisation- products less energy than
reactants- energy released
 - Endothermic reaction- take in heat energy from the surroundings
(CaCO3 → CaO + CO2, needs heat to break down)- reactants less
energy than products- energy absorbed
- Metals have electrons in their outermost shell that they want to get
rid of during reactions- form positive ions- reactivity of metals is
how easily it loses its electrons- more reactive, faster it reacts-
group 1 metals are most reactive followed by group 2 and so on- to
figure how reactive it is, needs to react with acid or water and see
how fast or vigorous the reactions are
- Metals + acid = salt + hydrogen (2K+2HCL → 2KCL + H2)
- Potassium is so reactive that it reacts explosively, possibly
catching fire as it produces lots of hydrogen- reactions will be less
violent as we go down the series- when it reaches magnesium, just
produce bubbles, fewer bubbles in zinc and iron, and copper
usually won’t react at all
- Most reactive metals also will produce most heat- can check
temperature change to see which is more reactive- to create fair
test, metals need to have same mass/surface area and must use
same type/volume of acid
- Metals + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen (2Li + 2H2O →
2LiOH + H2)
- Only most reactive metals can react with water
- Displacement reaction- more reactive metals can displace less
reactive ones (Mg + FeSO4 → MgSO4 + Fe magnesium displaces
iron because more reactive); (Cu + FeSO4 → no reaction, iron is
more reactive than copper, copper cannot displace it)
- Acids- HCl, HNO3, H2SO4
- Metals + oxygen = metal oxide (Fe + O2 → FeO2)
Magnetism
- Magnet produces a magnetic field
- Magnets have two poles and are surrounded by a magnetic field-
field lines used to represent magnetic fields- from north pole to
south pole- show us the direction it is acting in and the strength of
it in different places- more concentrated/lines closer, stronger
magnetic field in that area, so magnetic field is strongest at the
poles
- Can find field lines using a compass- needle of the compass is a
tiny bar magnet- will line up with the field lines of whichever
magnetic field it is put in, always point towards south pole of a
magnet (north pole of the compass attracts south pole of magnet);
if compass needle points to the magnet means that is the south
pole and if it points away then it is the north pole
- Permanent magnet produces a magnetic field and magnetic
material is influenced by the magnetic field/attracted to a magnet;
temporary magnet only have magnetic field temporarily when
magnetised, permanent magnet produce their own magnetic field
all the time
- Magnetic materials (nickel, cobalt, steel and iron)- nickels and
irons are soft metals because they lose and gain their magnetism
very quickly
- Electromagnets- temporary magnet- can be switched the magnetic
field on and off again- permanent magnet cannot- electromagnets
are magnetised using electricity- made by wrapping wire (coil)
around a magnetic material (core)- when current passes through
the coil, the magnetic material becomes magnetised, when current
is switched off, magnetic material loses its magnetism
- Reversing the poles of an electromagnet- wrap the coil in opposite
direction ; reverse the connections on the cell or power supply
- Strength of electromagnets is determined by: number of turns in
the coil (more turns, stronger); material of the core (iron and some
types of steel makes the strongest electromagnets- soft iron is
stronger because it can be magnetised easily); the current in the
coil (greater current, stronger)