corrosion and

materials degradation

Review
Mechanical Properties Decay of Corroded Reinforcement in
Concrete—An Overview
Stefania Imperatore

Department of Civil Engineering, “Niccolò Cusano” University, Via Don Carlo Gnocchi, 3, 00166 Rome, Italy;
[email protected]

Abstract: Among the leading consequences of corrosion in reinforced concrete structures (RCS) the
cross section reduction in steel bars should be mentioned, coupled to a decay of their mechanical
material properties. This paper recalls the main literature findings on the topic and describes a wide
collected database of experimental tensile tests performed on naturally corroded reinforcements.
The principal predictive degradation laws available in the scientific literature to assess the residual
mechanical properties of the corroded reinforcements are synthesized. A first attempt to evaluate the
reliability of the literature decay laws to simulate the mechanical performance of naturally corroded
steel reinforcement subjected to both uniform and pitting corrosion is performed. Finally, some
remarks are suggested on both the tested naturally corroded steel reinforcement and the available
degradation laws.

Keywords: corrosion; reinforcing steel bars; mechanical properties; degradation laws

1. Introduction
Citation: Imperatore, S. Mechanical
Corrosion is one of the most common causes of deterioration in reinforced concrete
Properties Decay of Corroded structures (RCS), affecting 70–90% of building heritage [1]. The main macroscopic effects
Reinforcement in Concrete—An of corrosion in RCS are [2]: (i) steel-to-concrete interaction variation, (ii) cracking and
Overview. Corros. Mater. Degrad. spalling of the concrete cover, and (iii) reinforcement cross section reduction. Each factor
2022, 3, 210–220. https://doi.org/ corresponds to a mechanical performance deterioration at the material level (i.e., the bond-
10.3390/cmd3020012 slip law [3], the strength of the cracked concrete [4], and the reinforcement constitutive
law [5]). Consequently, the structural response of corroded RCS gradually worsens over
Academic Editors: Miguel-Ángel
time (increasing the corrosion level) and their service life can be compromised [6].
Climent and Carmen Andrade
A deep understanding of the materials’ mechanical properties decay is essential to
Received: 31 March 2022 assess and foresee the performance of existing corroded RCS. With specific reference to the
Accepted: 16 May 2022 performance of corroded reinforcements, several experimental studies have been carried
Published: 20 May 2022 out in the last few decades [7–43], most of the time analyzing the behavior of artificially
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
corroded specimens. In the pioneering work by Almusallam [7], steel reinforcement
with regard to jurisdictional claims in embedded in concrete was subjected to a high anodic current (2 mA/cm2 ), obtaining a
published maps and institutional affil- considerable pitting corrosion. Apostolopulos et al. [8–20] carried out several experimental
iations. campaigns on steel reinforcements differing in technical classes and diameters, damaged
by means of laboratory salt spray corrosion. The research involved steel reinforcements,
bare or embedded in concrete, exposed to different salt spray environments for variable
time slots, and tested in both monotonic and low-fatigue tests. Chemical, metallographic,
Copyright: © 2022 by the author. and fractographic analyses were typically performed. In some cases, the pits formed
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. on the reinforcement surface were measured and statistically analyzed. Moreover, the
This article is an open access article effects of a plastic deformation applied before the corrosion were investigated [9], as well
distributed under the terms and
as the performance of naturally corroded reinforcements [12]. In the latter case, efforts
conditions of the Creative Commons
were made to correlate the mass loss due to the artificial corrosion process with the one
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
measured in exposed rebars subjected to natural corrosion. Caprili et al. [21–24] analyzed
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
the corrosion effects on reinforcements belonging to the most representative typologies
4.0/).

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3, 210–220. https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd3020012 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/cmd

Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 211

of the actual European scenario. The experimental research included tensile and low-
cycle fatigue tests, different specimen diameters, and exposure conditions. Moreover, the
performance of dual-phase steel grades reinforcements subjected to corrosion degradation
was investigated. Monotonic and fatigue tests were performed by Ref. [25] on corroded
reinforcement extracted from beams exposed to an electrolytic procedure. The weight loss
and the pit geometrical characteristics (depth and length) were measured. A trend for the
mechanical properties decay of the corroded reinforcements was identified and related to
the corrosion penetration; unfortunately, no formulation relating mechanical degradation
and corrosion damage was provided. In Ref. [26], the mechanical performance of naturally
and artificially corroded reinforcements embedded in concrete was compared, finding
significant differences attributable to the different corrosion morphology. In fact, according
to tensile test results performed on mechanically indented bars [27,28], the pit geometry
influences the reinforcements mechanical performance.
Starting from the experimental outcomes, different degradation laws for the me-
chanical properties in tension of corroded steel reinforcements have been statistically
assessed [26–35] to define a useful tool for estimating the residual performance of corroded
RCS. In the present paper, the studies on the topic available in the scientific scene are
recalled, and a database of naturally corroded steel reinforcement subjected to tensile tests
is collected. Finally, a comparison between the database and the literature degradation
laws is performed [26–35], with the main aim to give a first indication on their reliability in
assessing the structural performance of existing corroded RCS.

2. Mechanical Performance of Corroded Ribbed Reinforcements

There is a general agreement about the reduction in the nominal constitutive law when
a steel reinforcement corrodes: as the load capacity reduces together with the reinforcement
cross section loss, the nominal stresses necessary decrease. The first work concerning the
mechanical performance of corroded reinforcement was performed by Almusallam, on
6 mm and 12 mm diameters bars affected by highly localized corrosion [7]. A slight decrease
in the yield and ultimate strengths and a significant reduction in the collapse elongation was
detected. Subsequently, the Hellenic school analyzed the mechanical performance corroded
steel reinforcements [8–20], finding that specimens embedded in concrete present stronger
superficial severe localized pitting corrosion in contrast to the bare specimens. Moreover,
the experimental outcomes [8–20] highlight a trend for the mechanical properties decay as a
function of the corrosion level: both the residual ductility and the collapse strength reduce,
and the yield plateau progressively disappears. It is worth noting that in Refs. [8–20]
the specimens were artificially corroded through a laboratory salt spray chamber, with
the main aim to simulate the effects of a natural coastal environment, rich in chlorides.
Similar outcomes were observed in other studies analyzing the mechanical performance of
reinforcements artificially damaged by accelerated electrolytic corrosion [25,26,29–35]. An
example of constitutive law obtained for reinforcements subjected to uniform corrosion is
reported in Figure 1, where a comparison between the performance of ribbed and smooth
bars is moreover reported. Excepting the obvious differences in terms of both strength and
ductility in absence of the corrosion, the performance of the two reinforcement typologies
is similar once the degradation occurs.
The mechanical properties decay can be observed in both the nominal and effective
stresses (evaluated referring to the corroded cross section). Obviously, in the latter case the
reduction is less evident. Regarding this aim, it is worth noting that a proper definition
of the reference cross section plays a key role for a correct evaluation of the stress of a
corroded reinforcement (Figure 2). Even if the minimum cross section governs the collapse,
the adoption of this parameter is evidently not eligible in evaluating the constitutive law
of the corroded reinforcement; this choice meant obtaining strength and elastic modulus
higher than the uncorroded reinforcements (Figure 2b). By adopting the average cross
section (evaluated on the gauge length), reasonable constitutive laws could instead be
obtained (Figure 2c).
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 3
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 3

cross section (evaluated on the gauge length), reasonable constitutive laws could instead
cross section (evaluated on the gauge length), reasonable constitutive laws could instead
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 be obtained (Figure 2c). 212
be obtained (Figure 2c).

700 500
700 500
600 0.00%
0.00%

[MPa]
600 400 0.00%
0.00%
[MPa]

[MPa]
500 400 5.95%
7.90%
[MPa]

500 5.95%
7.90%

Stress
300 6.01%
400 8.50%
Stress

Stress
300 6.01%
400 8.50%
Stress

9.00% 7.18%
300

Nominal
9.00% 7.18%
300 200
Nominal

Nominal
11.55% 9.62%
200
Nominal

200 9.62%
11.55%
200 13.75%
12.20% 100
100 12.20% 13.75%
100
100 19.00% 15.73%
0 19.00% 15.73%
0
0 0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18% 20% 22%
0 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%
0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16% 18% 20% 22%
Average Strain[‐] 0% 5% 10% Average
15% Strain[‐]
20% 25% 30% 35%
Average Strain[‐] Average Strain[‐]
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 1. Comparison between the mechanical performance of steel reinforcements subjected to
Figure
uniform1. corrosion:
Comparison (a)between
ribbed the mechanical
bars, smooth performance of steellevel
reinforcements
is expressedsubjected
terms to
Figure 1. Comparison between the(b)
mechanicalbars. The corrosion
performance of steel reinforcements insubjected
of to
uniform corrosion:
mass loss. (a) ribbed bars, (b) smooth bars. The corrosion level is expressed in terms of
uniform corrosion: (a) ribbed bars, (b) smooth bars. The corrosion level is expressed in terms of
mass loss.
mass loss.

600 800 600

stress

0.00 % 800 600 0.00 %

600
stress

0.00 % 700 12.60 % 0.00 %

500 12.60 % 500
[MPa]

700

[MPa]
500
cross‐section

500
[MPa]

600 0.00 %

[MPa]
cross‐section

400 600 0.00 % 400

400 500 400 12.60 %
stress

[MPa]

stress
500 12.60 %
stress

[MPa]

stress
300 400 31.60 % 300
300 400 31.60 % 300
Nominal

300 31.60 %
12.60 % Average
Nominal

200
Minimum

300 200 31.60 %

Average
200 12.60 %
Minimum

200 200
100 200 100
31.60 %
100 31.60 %
100 100
100
0 0 0
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0 0 0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Strain [%] Strain [%] Strain [%]
Strain [%] Strain [%] Strain [%]
(a) (b) (c)
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.
2. Local
Local constitutive
constitutivelaws
lawsreferred
referredtotothe
the mostcorroded
corrodedzone:
zone:(a)(a) stressevaluated
evaluated by consid‐
Figure
Figure
ering 2. Local
the constitutive
nominal cross laws(b)
section, referred
stress to the most
mostby
evaluated corroded zone:the
considering (a)stress
stresscorroded
most evaluatedbybyconsider-
cross consid‐
section,
ing the
ering thenominal
nominal cross
crosssection,
section,(b)
(b)stress
stressevaluated
evaluated by
by considering
considering the
the most
most corroded cross
corroded cross section,
section,
and (c) stress evaluated by considering the average cross section in the gauge length.
and (c)
and (c) stress
stress evaluated
evaluated byby considering
considering thethe average
average cross
cross section
section in
in the
the gauge
gauge length.
length.
The variation
The variation of of the
the reinforcement
reinforcement constitutive
constitutive laws
laws after
after the
the corrosion
corrosion degradation
The variation of the reinforcement constitutive laws after the corrosion degradation
degradation
is ascribed
is ascribed
ascribedto to the
tothe steel
thesteel bar
steelbarbar microstructure
microstructure [14–20,26–33].
[14–20,26–33]. However,
However, it should be noted
it should that
be noted
is microstructure [14–20,26–33]. However, it should be noted that
the studies
that the studiesintroducing
introducing this topic are based
this topic on specimens
are based on specimens realized with steel steel
realized reinforce‐
the studies introducing this topic are based on specimens realized with with rein-
steel reinforce‐
ments belonging
forcements belongingto thetoactual
the manufacturing
actual manufacturing scenario, therefore
scenario, characterized
therefore by a lay‐
characterized by
ments belonging to the actual manufacturing scenario, therefore characterized by a lay‐
ered microstructure.
a layered microstructure.As eachAs layer has
eachhas a
layerproper mechanical
has amechanical behavior
proper mechanical [36,37],
behavior the reinforce‐
ered microstructure. As each layer a proper behavior [36,37], the[36,37], the
reinforce‐
ment constitutive
reinforcement law depends
constitutive law on the proportions
depends between the
on the proportions layers’ the
between volume:
layers’depending
volume:
ment constitutive law depends on the proportions between the layers’ volume: depending
on the residual
depending on thecorroded
residual layers, the constitutive
corroded layers, thelaw inevitablylaw
constitutive changes. A quite
inevitably homoge‐
changes. A
on the residual corroded layers, the constitutive law inevitably changes. A quite homoge‐
neoushomogeneous
quite layer reduction occurs
layer in case occurs
reduction of uniform corrosion,
in case of uniformand corrosion,
a smooth degradation
and a smooth of
neous layer reduction occurs in case of uniform corrosion, and a smooth degradation of
the mechanical
degradation properties
of the mechanical increasing the corrosion
properties increasinglevel can be observed.
the corrosion level canIf,be instead,
observed.the
the mechanical properties increasing the corrosion level can be observed. If, instead, the
pitting
If, corrosion
instead, develops,
the pitting corrosiona greater dispersion
develops, of mechanical
a greater dispersion properties
of mechanical can also be de‐
properties
pitting corrosion develops, a greater dispersion of mechanical properties can also be de‐
tected
can alsoforbethe same corrosion
detected for the same level or pit depth,
corrosion level due todepth,
or pit the variable
due toshape of pits shape
the variable affectingof
tected for the same corrosion level or pit depth, due to the variable shape of pits affecting
different
pits layers
affecting at the layers
different same time.
at theTo better
same time. understand how pittinghow
To better understand corrosion
pittingaffects the
corrosion
different layers at the same time. To better understand how pitting corrosion affects the
reinforcement
affects mechanical
the reinforcement properties,properties,
mechanical experimental studies were
experimental performed
studies on mechani‐
were performed on
reinforcement mechanical properties, experimental studies were performed on mechani‐
mechanically
cally indentedindented
bars [27,28].barsTogether
[27,28]. Together
with thewith well the well assessed
assessed reduction reduction
in residualin residual
ductility
cally indented bars [27,28]. Together with the well assessed reduction in residual ductility
ductility
and collapseand strength,
collapse strength,
it was found it was found
that that the
the deeper anddeeper
moreand more asymmetrical
asymmetrical the pittingthe is,
and collapse
pitting is, thestrength,
worse the it was found that
mechanical the deeper
behavior and
of the more asymmetrical
corroded reinforcement. the The
pitting is,
latter
outcome is confirmed observing reinforcements extracted from naturally corroded beams
subjected to static loads and characterized by high pit depth [38].
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 213

3. Literature’s Degradation Laws for Corroded Ribbed Reinforcements and

Comparison with the Mechanical Properties of Naturally Corroded Reinforcements
The experimental results on artificially corroded reinforcements allowed the derivation
of some degradation laws, characterized by statistical errors depending on the considered
database as well as on the corrosion morphology: the mechanical properties of corroded
reinforcement are slightly scattered in case of uniform corrosion, while pitting corrosion
is typically characterized by more dispersed results. In the scientific literature, different
relationships can be found, derived for: (i) mechanically indented bars [27,28], (ii) artifi-
cially corroded bars by means of salt spray or electrolytic procedures [26,29–33,35], and
(iii) naturally corroded bars [26,34,35]. In all cases, linear correlations between the strength
and the corrosion level (CL) expressed in terms of mass loss are derived for both uniform
and localized corroded reinforcements, that can be generalized as:

σcorr = σ0 · (1 − β · CL) (1)

where β is a coefficient statistically defined by means of the ordinary least squares method
(OLS), and its values calibrated by different researchers is reported in Table 1.
Concerning the ultimate deformation, the decay laws assessed in the scientific litera-
ture can follow a linear or an exponential trend, as synthesized in Table 2.

Table 1. Yield and Ultimate Strength correlation coefficients β for degradation laws (EQ. 1) derived
for uniform and pitting corrosion.

Uniform Corrosion Pitting Corrosion

Specimen Author
βσy βσu βσy βσu
Cairns et al., 2005 [27] - - 0.012 0.011
Mechanically indented bars
Finozzi et al., 2018 [28] - - 0.129 0.0182
Du et al., 2005 [29,30] 0.014 0.014 0.015 0.015
Lee and Cho, 2009 [31] 0.0124 0.0107 0.0198 0.0157
Ou et al., 2016 [26] - - 0.0127 0.0116
Artificially corroded bars
Moreno et al., 2014 [32] - - 0.0067 0.0053
Imperatore et al., 2017 [33] 0.01435 0.01253 0.01996 0.01864
Vanama and Ramakrishnan, 2020 [35] 0.01363 0.0128 - -
Ou et al., 2016 [26] - - 0.0123 0.0115
Naturally corroded bars Fernandez and Berrocal, 2019 [34] - - 0.0136 0.0143
Vanama and Ramakrishnan, 2020 [35] - - 0.0122 0.0119

Table 2. Ultimate Strain degradation laws for uniform and pitting corrosion.

Specimen Author Uniform Corrosion Pitting Corrosion

Mechanically Cairns et al., 2005 [27] - ε u,corr = ε u,0 · (1 − 0.03 · CL)

indented bars Finozzi et al., 2018 [28] - ε u,corr = ε u,0 · e−0.041·CL
Du et al., 2005 [29,30] ε u,corr = ε u,0 · (1 − 0.029 · CL) ε u,corr = ε u,0 · (1 − 0.044 · CL)
Lee and Cho, 2009 [31] ε u,corr = ε u,0 · (1 − 0.0195 · CL) ε u,corr = ε u,0 · (1 − 0.0259 · CL)
Artificially Ou et al., 2016 [26] - ε u,corr = ε u,0 · (1 − 0.0281 · CL)
corroded bars Moreno et al., 2014 [32] - -
Imperatore et al., 2017 [33] ε u,corr = ε u,0 · e−0.0205·CL ε u,corr = ε u,0 · e−0.0547·CL
Vanama and Ramakrishnan, 2020 [35] - -
Ou et al., 2016 [26] - ε u,corr = ε u,0 · (1 − 0.0125 · CL)
Naturally
Fernandez and Berrocal, 2019 [34] - -
corroded bars
Vanama and Ramakrishnan, 2020 [35] - ε u,corr = ε u,0 · e−0.0292·CL
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 214

With the purpose of evaluating the reliability of the available predictive laws in assess-
ing the performance of naturally corroded reinforcements, a database of 398 experimental
tests performed on bars extracted from deteriorated structural elements has been collected.
In detail, the following cases are considered:
• n. 7 rebars from an offshore house (about 40 years old) located the coastal area of
Athens, Greece [13]. The specimens (ribbed bars) had a nominal diameter of 10 mm, a
mass loss varying between 9.67% and 16.00%, and the technical class comparable with
the BSt 420 of DIN 488-1.
• n. 16 rebars from an industrial building (about 30 years old) located in the Aegion
area, Greece, mainly subjected to carbonation and high humidity environment [13].
The specimens (ribbed bars) belong to a technical class comparable with the BSt 420
of DIN 488-1 and are characterized by a nominal diameter of 10 mm and mass losses
variable between 0.25% and 9.74.
• n. 24 rebars from structures aged up to 96 years old and located less than 10 km
from the coastal area of the Corinthian gulf in Greece [17]. The specimens (ribbed
bars) are characterized by 8 mm and 10 mm diameters and belonged to the technical
classes comparable with Grades B St III S (according to Din 488) and BSt I (according
to DIN 1045). The corrosion attack rate varies between 0.013 and 0.024 mm/year.
• n. 18 rebars extracted from a residential building complex located close to the coastline
of northern Taiwan [26]. The specimens’ diameters were 13, 16, and 19 mm, the mass
loss ranged from 27% to 82% for specimen characterized by a nominal diameter of
13 mm (D13), and 6% to 39% and 23% to 51% for D16 and D19 steel bars, respectively.
• n. 74 rebars extracted from a real bridge after 30 years of service [34]. The structure,
located in Sweden, was exposed to chlorides from deicing salts and showed signs of
frost deterioration. The specimens (ribbed bars with 16 mm nominal diameter with
a corrosion level ranging between 0 and 19%) belong to the steel class Ks60 and are
divided into two typologies according to the rib pattern (straight and skewed).
• n. 40 rebars extracted from an inland building (54 years old) located in Mumbai,
India, mainly subjected to carbonation [35]. Collected specimens belong to different
technical class (22 rebars of MS 250 and 16 rebars of MS 350 grade), all having a
nominal diameter and 12.7 mm and a round cross section.
• n. 103 rebars extracted from the deck of an overpass in Montreal, Canada, subjected to
freezing and thawing cycles coupled to chloride attack due to deicing salts [39]. The
specimens are characterized by a pitting corrosion, cross section reductions up 80%,
and residual section shapes varying from roughly elliptic to quadrilateral.
• n. 45 rebars extracted from an existing building (more than 30 years old) mainly sub-
jected to carbonation [40]. The specimen consisted of plain round rebars with a nominal
diameter of 6.5 mm, the measured mass loss ranged between 15.6% and 31.2%.
• n. 13 rebars extracted from a beam subjected to 27 years of exposition in aggressive
chloride environment and wetting–drying cycles [41]. In detail, after applying a
constant load twice the design one for Service Limit State, the beams were first stored
in a saline fog for 6 years and then subjected to wetting–drying cycles for 13 years;
subsequently, the load was removed and exposed to the climate of southwest France
for the rest of the time. The diameter losses vary between 9% and 22%.
• n. 17 rebars covered with a layer of soft clay containing chlorides for a period of
60 years [42]. The specimens (ribbed bars) are characterized by pit depth varying
between 0.13 and 2.07 mm, maximum pit length between 4.07 and 23.46 mm, and
maximum pit area between 12.55 and 276.01 mm2 . Corrosion rates ranging between
0.01 and 0.05 mm/year were evaluated.
• n. 41 rebars extracted from a reinforced concrete bridge located in eastern Shenzhen,
China, and subjected to 30 years of exposition in a marine environment [43]. The
collected specimens (ribbed bars) belong to reinforcement located in the “underwater
zone”, “tidal zone”, “splash zone”, and “atmosphere zone”. The mass loss ratio of the
tested rebar was in a range from 3.41% to 49.09%.
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 215

The naturally corroded reinforcements are different in terms of: (i) corrosion mor-
phology, (ii) chemical composition, and (iii) manufacturing process and initial mechanical
properties. Considering the collected database, no studies state the manufacturing process,
but differences are expected as naturally corroded rebars can present different chemical
composition (listed in Table 3, where available) and different initial mechanical properties.
Differences in terms of manufacturing process could be a key issue in interpreting the me-
chanical performance of naturally corroded reinforcements, as Ref. [12] demonstrate that
the mechanical decay is most significant in TEMPCORE bars containing high proportions
of carbon. Concerning the corrosion morphology, some authors discuss the occurrence
of the pitting corrosion [17,34,35,39,41,42], but few works give a measurement of the pit
features such as the pitting factor [42], or the pit dimensions [34,41].

Table 3. Chemical composition of naturally corroded reinforcements (% of mass).

Author C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Cu
Pallson and Mirza, 2002 [39] 0.306 0.032 0.772 0.062 0.055 0.018 0.043 -
Papadopoulos et al., 2011 [17] 0.38 0.15 1.07 0.041 0.036 12 0.13 0.38
Zhang et al., 2013 [40] 0.44 0.22 0.58 0.015 0.008 - - -
Balestra et al., 2016 [42] 0.103 0.023 0.385 0.034 0.03 - - -
Fernandez and Berrocal, 2019 [34]—Straight 2.84 0.22 1.08 - - 0.19 0.17 0.51
Fernandez and Berrocal, 2019 [34]—Skewed 3.05 0.30 0.64 - - 0.25 0.28 0.32

Not all collected data dispose of sufficient data to perform a comparison with the degra-
dation laws available in the scientific literature. In the dataset, the majority of the samples
are correlated to the average mass loss, with some exceptions. Only 24 naturally corroded
reinforcements are categorized by means of the age of exposition [17]; for 103 samples,
the corrosion level is defined by comparing the minimum and maximum cross-sectional
areas on the gauge length by the measured diameter [39]. In several cases (61 experimental
data) no mechanical properties are defined as initial reference [13,42,43], therefore the out-
comes cannot be made nondimensional with the aim to perform proper comparisons. Only
Ref. [34] considers a number of uncorroded reinforcement sufficient to statistically assess
the initial mechanical characteristics, while in all other cases nominal [35], average [40,41],
or estimated [13,26,39] values are available. Finally, it is important to underline that the
ultimate strain values are provided only for 132 rebars of all the 203 naturally corroded
reinforcements belonging to the complete sets [26,34,35].
The comparison between the literature degradation laws and the performance of
naturally corroded reinforcements is presented in Figures 3 and 4 for the uniform and
the pitting corrosion, respectively. If all sets are considered together, the mechanical
properties of naturally corroded reinforcements do not follow a systematic trend. In fact,
environmental aggressiveness differently affects the mechanical performance of corroded
reinforcements. As demonstrated in Refs. [18,33], reinforced concrete elements subjected
to chloride environments are characterized by the worst deterioration, in terms of both
pit depth and mechanical properties decay. On the contrary, carbonation induces a less
severe degradation [33,35]. This is one of the reasons for which the collected dataset is
characterized by scattered mechanical properties.
Analyzing the entire dataset, the yielding and ultimate strength of naturally corroded
reinforcements fit into bands containing the decay laws developed for uniform or pitting
corrosion. Concerning the ultimate strain, instead, an excessive dispersion of the exper-
imental results can be observed, which prevent any general consideration. Probably, as
suggested in Ref. [26], the pit features (the minimum cross section and the pits distribution
along the bar) are the main parameters affecting the deformation capacity of the naturally
corroded reinforcements. Therefore, the ultimate strength is the most scattered mechanical
parameter in natural corrosion and requires additional investigations.
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 7

corroded reinforcements. Therefore, the ultimate strength is the most scattered mechani-
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 216
cal parameter in natural corrosion and requires additional investigations.
If single sets of naturally corroded reinforcements are considered, the most scattered
yielding and ultimate strength results are obtained by Ref. [13], while the tests presented
If single
in Ref. sets
[26] are of naturally by
characterized corroded reinforcements
the higher dispersion of arethe
considered, the most
ultimate strain. scattered
Concerning
yielding and ultimate strength results are obtained by Ref. [13], while the
the remaining outcomes, each series follows its own trend, characterized by a variable tests presented in
Ref. [26] are characterized by the higher dispersion of the ultimate strain. Concerning
standard deviation of the experimental results. In detail, the yielding strengths obtained the
remaining
by Ref. [40] outcomes,
have theeach series
greater follows itsRegarding
dispersion. own trend,this characterized
aim, it shouldby a be
variable
notedstandard
that the
deviation of the experimental results. In detail, the yielding strengths
considered samples have the lower diameter of whole database. Concerning the obtained by ultimate
Ref. [40]
have the and
strength greater dispersion.
strain, instead, Regarding this aim,results
the most scattered it should
are be noted to
referred that
thethe considered
straight rein-
samples have the lower diameter of whole database. Concerning the ultimate
forcements presented in Ref. [34], characterized by a high carbon content. The same dis- strength
and strain,
persion caninstead, the most by
also be observed scattered resultsthe
considering arepit
referred to theasstraight
dimensions reinforcements
identification parame-
presented in Ref. [34], characterized by a high carbon content. The same dispersion can also
ter of the suffered corrosion. It is worth noting that scattered ultimate strains also charac-
be observed by considering the pit dimensions as identification parameter of the suffered
terize skewed samples. Therefore, the mechanical performance variability should be as-
corrosion. It is worth noting that scattered ultimate strains also characterize skewed
cribed to the manufacturing process, i.e., differences in terms of carbon content and rebar
samples. Therefore, the mechanical performance variability should be ascribed to the
microstructure.
manufacturing process, i.e., differences in terms of carbon content and rebar microstructure.

1 1
0.95 0.95
0.9 0.9
0.85 0.85
0.8 0.8
0.75 0.75
0.7 0.7
σy, corr/σy, 0 [-]

σu, corr/σu, 0 [-]

0.65 0.65
0.6 0.6
0.55 0.55
0.5 0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
0.3 0.3
0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50

Mcorr [%] Mcorr [%]

(a) (b)

1
0.95 Du et al., 2005 [29,30]
0.9
0.85 Lee and Cho, 2009 [31]
0.8
Imperatore et al., 2017 [33]
0.75
0.7 Vanama and Ramakrishnan, 2020 [35]
0.65
εu, corr/εu, 0 [-]

0.6 Apostolopoulos and Papadakis, 2007 [13]

0.55
0.5
Zhang et al, 2012 - Naturally corroded [40]
0.45 François et al, 2013 - Naturally corroded [41]
0.4
0.35 Ou et al., 2016 - Naturally corroded [26]
0.3
0.25 Fernandez and Berrocal, 2019 - Naturally corroded - Skewed [34]
0.2
Fernandez and Berrocal, 2019 - Naturally corroded - Straigth [34]
0.15
0.1 Vanama and Ramakrishnan, 2020 - Set A [35]
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50

Mcorr [%] Vanama and Ramakrishnan, 2020 - Set B [35]

(c) (d)
Figure 3. Comparison between the literature decay laws for uniform corrosion and the mechanical
Figure 3. Comparison between the literature decay laws for uniform corrosion and the mechani-
properties of naturally corroded rebars: (a) yielding and (b) ultimate strength and (c) ultimate strain;
cal properties of naturally corroded rebars [13,26,29–31,33–35,40,41]: (a) yielding and (b) ultimate
(d) charts’ legend.
strength and (c) ultimate strain; (d) charts’ legend.
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3, FOR PEER REVIEW 8
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 217

1 1
0.95 0.95
0.9 0.9
0.85 0.85
0.8 0.8
0.75 0.75
0.7 0.7

σu, corr/σu, 0 [-]

0.65
σy, corr/σy, 0 [-]

0.65
0.6 0.6
0.55 0.55
0.5 0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
0.3 0.3
0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
Mcorr [%] Mcorr [%]

(a) (b)

1 Cairns et al., 2005 [27]

.95 Finozzi et al., 2008 [28]
1 0.9
0.95 Du et al., 2005 [29,30]
.85
0.9 Lee and Cho, 2009 [31]
0.8
0.85
0.8 .75 Moreno et al., 2014 [32]
0.75 0.7
Ou et al., 2016 (for naturally corroded reinforcements) [26]
0.7 .65
0.65 Imperatore et al., 2017 [33]
εu, corr/εu, 0 [-]

0.6
0.6
0.55 .55 Fernandez and Berrocal, 2019 [34]
0.5 0.5 Vanama and Ramakrishnan, 2020 (for naturally corroded reinforcements) [35]
0.45 .45
0.4 Apostolopoulos and Papadakis, 2007 [13]
0.4
0.35
.35 Zhang et al, 2012 - Naturally corroded [40]
0.3
0.25 0.3 François et al, 2013 - Naturally corroded [41]
0.2 .25 Ou et al., 2016 - Naturally corroded [26]
0.15
0.2
0.1 Fernandez and Berrocal, 2019 - Naturally corroded - Skewed [34]
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 .15
0.1 Fernandez and Berrocal, 2019 - Naturally corroded - Straigth [34]
Mcorr [%]
0Vanama
2 4 and
6 8Ramakrishnan,
10 12 14 16 2020
18 20- Set
22 A24[35]
26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46

Mcorr
Vanama and Ramakrishnan, 2020 - Set [%]
B [35]

(c) (d)
Figure 4. Comparison between the literature decay laws for pitting corrosion and the mechanical
Figure 4. Comparison between the literature decay laws for pitting corrosion and the mechanical
properties of naturally corroded rebars: (a) yielding and (b) ultimate strength and (c) ultimate strain;
properties of naturally corroded rebars [13,26–35,40,41]: (a) yielding and (b) ultimate strength and (c)
(d) charts’ legend.
ultimate strain; (d) charts’ legend.
4. Conclusions and Final Remarks
4. Remarks
This work
This work presents a synthesis of the main findings available in the scientific litera-
ture on
ture on the
the mechanical
mechanical performance
performance of of corroded
corroded reinforcement
reinforcement in in concrete.
concrete. Experimental
Experimental
studies performed over the years on both naturally and artificially corroded steel rein-
studies
forcements demonstrate that corrosion not only reduces the steel
forcements steel cross
cross section,
section, but
but also
also
changes the material
changes material constitutive
constitutivelaw.
law.Therefore,
Therefore,thetheevaluation
evaluation ofof
thethe
corrosion
corrosion effects on
effects
thethe
on mechanical
mechanical performance
performance of deteriorated steel
of deteriorated reinforcement
steel reinforcement is aiscrucial aspect
a crucial for for
aspect as-
assessing
sessing thethe effective
effective structural
structural capacity
capacity of existing
of existing corroded
corroded RCS.RCS.With With this purpose,
this purpose, some
some degradation
degradation laws have
laws have been been proposed
proposed by different
by different authors
authors to estimate
to estimate the residual
the residual me-
mechanical properties
chanical properties in tension,
in tension, starting
starting from
from thethe knowledge
knowledge of the
of the corrosion
corrosion level
level andandthe
the morphology of the deterioration phenomenon. All the decay laws
morphology of the deterioration phenomenon. All the decay laws available for the mon- available for the
monotonic tensile
otonic tensile behavior
behavior of corroded
of corroded steel
steel reinforcement
reinforcement arerecalled
are recalledininthe
thepresent
presentpaper.
paper.
Moreover,
Moreover, aa wide
wide database
database of of 398
398 tensile
tensile tests
tests performed
performed on on corroded
corroded reinforcements
reinforcements
extracted from reinforced concrete elements subjected to different aggressive environments
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2022, 3 218

for several years has been collected. The comparison between the mechanical properties of
naturally corroded bars highlights that, with some exceptions, each set of reinforcements
follows its own trend, not simulated by any literature degradation law. In detail, the
scattering observed among the experimental results of the same series depends on the
corrosion morphology, which itself is related to the environmental attack: severe pitting
corrosion, such as the one occurring for a chloride attack from deicing salts coupled to
frost damages [34], can result in a significant scattering of the experimental results; on
the contrary, more uniform corrosion, occurring in case of concrete carbonation, induces
a smooth degradation of the reinforcement mechanical properties, as can be observed in
Ref. [35]. Moreover, the carbon content and the manufacture process seem to influence the
residual mechanical performance. As observed in Ref. [12] and confirmed by the naturally
corroded reinforcements presented in Ref. [34], high carbon contents promote a higher
deterioration in terms of material properties.
Therefore, the proper assessment of the residual mechanical characteristics of naturally
corroded reinforcements cannot be separated from:
• The evaluation of corrosion morphology due to the specific environmental attack,
including the measurement of the pit features.
• The declaration of the reinforcement manufacturing process, including the carbon content,
that affects the rebars microstructure and consequently the material properties decay.
• The exact evaluation of the initial mechanical properties, disregarding the nominal
characteristics and hopefully assessing the sound mechanical parameters according to
statistical approaches.
All points listed above would allow the achievement of a correct interpretation of
the experimental results on naturally corroded reinforcements. This should be a key issue
to assess decay laws appropriate in case of natural corrosion. In fact, those available are
defined according to the results obtained for artificially corroded rebars, that in some cases
seem to be unconservative, probably due to the less variable distribution of corrosion along
the length of the specimens.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot
be shared at this time as the data also form part of an ongoing study.
Acknowledgments: The paper is part of the research “OPTION—The corrosion effects on the struc-
tural integrity of reinforced concrete beams” between Niccolò Cusano University and Oslo Metropoli-
tan University.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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