ONIAZ et Touau Stuer HeLree UBLICATION®. an’ SUNIL Poowia Course Code: MCS-013 Course Title : Discrete Mathematics Assignment Number : BCA (II]/013/Assignment/2023-24 aa Maximum Marks : 100 fees wWesghtages 25% wie Races cH: Last Date of Submission : 34st October, 2023 (For July, 2023 sean ae 30th April, 2024 (For January, 2024 Session) Note: This assignment only for students, not for sell orre-apload any media or website: Allightreserve to "TGNOU Study Helper’ iis Mega to share or ‘reupload it if anything like this found, then appropriate action wil be taker and apply copyight ACT to you. You vil be responsible for Hlagal work So don't share and upload on ny mela. QL, (a) What is Set? Explain use of Set with examples, Ans, Set: In discrete mathematics, a set isa fundamental concept used to represent a collection or group of distinct objects. These objects are referred to’as elements or members of the set. Sets are widely used in various branches of mathematics, computer science, and other fiekds to model and analyze different scenarios. Asset is denoted by enclosing its elements within curly braces {). if a set has no elements, its referred to as the empty set or the null set, denoted by ©. Use of Set: Sets support various operations that allow us to manipulate and combine sets. Some common set operations include: 1. Union: The union of two sets A and B, denoted by AU 8, is.a set that contains all the elements that aren either A, 8, or both. Example: Let A= {1, 2, 3) and B ={3, 4, 5}. Then, AU B={1,2,3,4,5}. 2. Intersection: The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by An 8, isa set that contains all he elements that are present in both A and 8, Example: Let A= {21, 2, 3} and B = (3,4, 5}. Then, An B= (3). 3. Complement: The complement of a set AWwith respect to'a universal set U, denoted by A’, isa set that contains all the elements in U but not in A. Example: Let U be the set ofall integers, and A = (1, 2, 3}. Then, A’= (0, -2, -2,-3,..). 4. Difference: The difference between two sets A and B, denoted by AB, isa set that contains all the elements that are in but not in B. Exemple: Let A = {2, 2, 3} and B = (3, 4, 5). Then, A-B={1, 2} 5. Subset: A set A is 2 subset of set B (denoted by A & B) if every element of A is also an element of 8, Example: Let A= {1, 2}and B= {1, 2, 3}. Then, ASB Examples: 1. Set of Natural Numbers: Let’s define a set of natural numbers as follows: A= {1, 2,3, 4,5) ‘Set of Even Numbers: We can create a set of even numbers as: B = {2, 4,6, 8, 10} Set of Vowels: Consider a set of vowels in the English alphabet: C= (a, €, i, 0, u} Set of Colors: A set representing primary colors could be: D = {"red!", "blue", "yellow") Empty Set: The set with no elements: {b) Make truth table for followings. i) peragaceyy i) p> (-rv~@)v(pa~) ‘Ans. To create truth tables for the given propositions, we need to consider all possible combinations of truth values for the variables involved (p, q, and r). There are 2°3 = 8 possible combinations since each variable can take two truth values (True or False), Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 1JPoonsg UBLICATIONS Dpoerag ace yey tT] ttle F F T F Ti t[r|t T F F F tTlelt{e F F T F tTletr[ tT F F E F e[t[ tle F T 7" a F[t[rl[t T T T Th a F T rT T a F T i T p> Cry~a y(BA=9). m/ala{ala|a)—|4 =|>|>]]5]5]5|5 | -n]a]a]-n]=]a]4 a ni nja}n|a|n/a|n 4) 4]4]4/4}4|4]4 4))a|a)a}4)4|4 4)n|a|n)aln|a|n 4] fa oe] 5] (c) Give geometric representation for followings: 145, -3)x(-2, 2) - ii) (4,3) «( 2,3) ‘Ans. Apologies for the confusion earlier. Since the given points are 2D points, we can interpret the operation as finding the cross product of two vectors in 2D space! However, in 2D space, the eross product results in a scalar value (not.a vector), and it represents the magnitude of the cross product between the two vectors, 1) (5, -3) x (-2, -2) To find the cross product in 2D, we use the following formula: (a,b) x|c,d) =ad-be In this case: (5,3) (-2,-2)=(5*-2)-(-3 *-2)=(40)-6=-16 So, the cross product of (5, -3) and (-2, -2) is-16. fi) (1, 3) x (-2, 3) Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 2= 1's Touou Stuy HeLree poo EY sume Poowia Using the cross product formula: (4,3) x(-2,3)=(-1*3)-8*-2 So, the cross product of (-1, 3) and (-2, 3) is 3. H represents the magnitude of the cross product, which indicates the relative orientation or "twist" between the two vectors, I the cross product is positive, it means the vectors have a counterclockwise orientation; if negative, they have a clockwise orientation; and if t's zero, they are collinear (parallel or anti-parallel). For example, in case i), the cross product is -16, which means the vectors (5, -3) and (-2, -2) have 2 clockwise orientation. In case i), the cross product is 3, indicating a counterclockwise orientation between the vectors (-2, 3) and (-2, 3). 2. (a) Draw Venn diagram to represent followings: DP AEBAOO(ANBaC) i) (AN BOOQUBUC) Hi) (A BUC) ‘Ans. To draw Venn diagrams for the given sets, we need to visualize'the intersection and union operations between the sets A,B, and C. I'll assume that A, B, and Care three distinct sets, Let's use the following notations for the Venn diagrams: + A: Represents the set A + 8: Represents the sot 8 + C:Represents the set C + Intersection (A n 8 1m C}: Represents the common elements in sets A, 8, and C. + Union (AU 8): Represents all the elements that belong to either A or B. DAD BAgNANBNG: In this case, the expression is simply (A 0B 0 C) itself since the intersection of a set with itself is the set itself, Venn diagram for (An B.C) {AN BAC): 2 OQ AnBAOUBLC) Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 3ONIAZ aS UBLICATIONS maf SUNIL POONA In this case, we need to represent the union of the sets (An B.C) and [BU C). Venn diagram for (AN B.C) U (BUC): 2OQ@ iii) (AQ BUG) In this case, we need to represent the intersection of sets A and B.and then take the union with set C. Venn diagram for{An BUC): 2 Og (b) Write down suitable mathemat (A939 (4 9P sre IMA ¥Q fey one | statement that can be represented by the following symbolic properties. Ans. i039) (3 y) (22) P The statement can be read as “There exist some elements x, y, and z in the domain such that the predicate P is true for these elements. ii)az(ay(v2)Q) ‘The statement can be read as "There exists an element 2 In the domain such that for any element y, the predicate Qs true forall elements 7." In both cases, the symbol "3" represents the existential quantifier, which asserts the existence of at least one element satisfying the given condition. The symbol "y" represents the universal quantifier, which asserts that the given condition Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 4ONIAZ aS UBLICATIONS maf SUMIL POONA holds for all elements in the domain. The variables (x, y, and 2) represent elements in the domain of discourse, and the predicates (P and Q) are propositions or conditions involving these variables. (c) Show whether v7 is rational or irrational. Ans. To determine whether V7 is rational or irrational, we need to understand the definitions of rational and irrational numbers. 1, Rational Numbers: A number is rational if it can be expressed as. fraction of two integers (a/b), where 'a' and 'b! are integers and 'b' is not equal to 0. 2. Irrational Numbers: A number is irrational if it cannot be expressed as a fraction of two integers and its decimal representation goes on infinitely without repeating. Now, let's analyze v7: V7 isthe positive square root of 7. If v7 were rational, it could be expressed as 2 fraction a/b where 'a' and ‘b! are integers with no common factors other than 1, and ‘bis not equal to 0, Assume v7 is Ta) = naw Mol EA} Squaring both sides: a 7= (a/v)? Cross-multiplying 7b! =a? This implies that's is divisible by 7, which means'a! must also be divisible by 7. Let's write ‘a! as 7k (where k is an integer) (7k)? = 75" 4942 = 7b? Dividing both sides by 7: 7e= be This means 'b* is divisible by 7, and thus 'b! must also be divisible by 7. Now, both ‘a' and 'b’ are divisible by 7, which contradicts the assumption that 'a' and 'b’ have no common factors other than 1. Hence, our initial assumption that V7 is rational s false. ‘Therefore, ¥7 is an irrational number since it cannot be expressed as a fraction of two integers, and its decimal representation goes on infinitely without repeating. {Q3, (2) Explain use of inclusion-exclusion principle with example. Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 5ONIAZ eh Touou STubY eLPee ee ma? Sune Poowta Ans. Inclusion-Exclusion: The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle is a fundamental counting principle used in combinatorics to find the cardinality (number of elements) of the union of multiple sets. it provides a systematic way to count elements that are present in one or more sets, while also handling cases where elements might be counted multiple times. The principle can be stated as follows: Inclusion-Exclusion Principle: For any finite Sets As, Az, ., Ans the cardinality of their union is given by: TAU ALU oO Bal = (1A) 2A 1 ByL) #2) 1A, Ak) © ob TMD) [As 1A Mae An where: + [Al represents the cardinality (number of elements) of set A. * Erepresents surimatian, which means adding up the elements over the specified conditions, an The principle essentially breaks down the counting into a series of steps: fy i Siin up theaiendtt each individisalsce A) ey Subtract the sizes of the intersections of all pairs of sets (A; (| Aj) to cortect for double-counting. ‘Add back the sizes of the intersections of all triplets of sets (A. 1) A, 1 Ax) to account for elements that were subtracted more than once. 4. Continue this process for all possible combinations of intersections, alternating between addition and subtraction. Example: Let's consider a simple example to illustrate the use of the Inclusion-Exclusion Principle. Suppose we have a set A containing numbers divisible by 2, a set 8 containing numbers divisible by 3, and a set containing numbers divisible by 5. The question is, how many numbers between 1 and 30 (inclusive) are divisible by either 2, 3, or 5? + JA|: Numbers divisible by 2 between 1 and 36:A={2)4)6) ., 30} There are 15 such numbers + [8]: Numbers divisible by 3 between 1 and 30:8 ={3,6,9, .., 30). There are 10 such numbers. + [C|: Numbers divisible by 5 between 1 and 30: C= {5, 10,15. 30). There are 6 such numbers. Now, let's find the intersections: + |A11B}: Numbers divisible by both 2 and 3 between tiand 30:A (1 B= (6, 12 28, 24, 30}. Thereare 5 such numbers. ‘+ [AMCL: Numbers divisible by both 2 and 5 between Lend 30:A (1 C= (10, 20, 30}. There are 3'such numbers. + [8 Cl: Numbers divisible by both 3 and 5 between 2 and 30: 8) C= (15, 30}. There are 2 such numbers. Finally, find the intersection of all three sets: * IAB Cl: Numbers divisible by 2, 3, and S between 1 and 30: A MB (1'C = (30}. There ts only 1 such number. Now, using the inclusion-Exclusion Principle: IAUBUC|= IA] +18] + {Cl -|AMB]-|AME|- [BNC +{ANBNC| =15+30+6-5-3-2+1=22 So, there are 22 numbers between 1 and 30 (inclusive) that are divisible by either 2, 3, or 5. Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 6ONIAZ aS UBLICATIONS maf SUNIL POONA (b) Make logic circuit for the following Boolean expressions: i) Gxye) + (yz) + Ge'y) il) (82) (ye) (y'2) ‘Ans. To create logic circuits for the given Boolean expressions, we need to convert them into logical gates or combinations of gates. The basic logic gates are AND, OR, and NOT gates. We can use these gates to implement the given expressions. Let's start with the first expression: (xyz) + (xy2)' + (x2'y) i) (xyz) + [pey2)' + Ge'y) Step 1: Implement the term xyz using AND gates. Step 2: Implement the term (xy2)' using an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. Step 3: Implement the term x2'y using an AND gate followed by an OR gate, Step 4: Combine the outputs of al three terms using OR gates, The logic circuit for the expression (xyz) + {xy2)'+ (x2'y) is as follows: Ai) ( x'y2) (xy2') (oy'2) Step 1: Implement the term x'yz using AND gates. Step 2: Implement the term xyz! using AND gates. Step 3: Implement the term xy'z using AND gates. ‘Step 4: Combine the outputs of all three terms using AND gates. ‘The logic circuit for the expression (x'yz) (xy2') (ny'2) is as follows: Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 7sess Ya Sra Weve = ONIAS a’ SUNIL POONA UBLICATIONS In both cases, each input (x,y, 2.x, y', 2!) corresponds to a single input in the circuit, and the outputs of the gates are combined to obtain the final output of the expression. The logical operations described in the circuits correctly implement the respective Boolean expressions, (c) What is a tautology? If P and Qare statements, show whether the statement, (P>Q)v(-3~ P) is a tautology or not. Ans. Tautology: A tautology is a statement in logle that is always true, regardless of the truth values of its individual components. In other words, a tautology is a statement that is true under all possible interpretations of its propositional variables. To show whether the statement "|? > Q)V {-P]" isa tautology or not, we need to construct a truth table for all possible truth value combinations of P and Qafd evaluate the given expression foreach combination. Here's the truth table for the given statement: n|nfa]s a|a}a]s Sla}=)~ s|4)R]|4 fe In the truth table, T represents true, and F represents false. The last column represents the evaluation of the st=*2tnent "(P > Q)V CPI" for each truth value combination. ‘As we can see, the final column is entirely filled with "T” (true) values, This means that the given statement is true for all possible truth value combinations of P and Q. Therefore, "(P > Q) V (-P)" is a tautology. Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 8ONIAZ eH Reicsrrion® may SUNIL POOwIA Q4, (a) How many words can be formed using letter of “EXCELLENT” using each letter at most once? i) If each letter must be used, ii) If some or all the letters may be omitted. Ans. es taal The word "EXCELLENT" contains 9 letters, and we want to form words using each letter at most once. In this case, we need to use all 9 letters. Te number of words tat con be tried ng ote AML Erase sets Since‘ the eters ee aie, the number of permutations can be calculated as 9!, which is 9 factorial. 9D] = 9xBx7%6x 5x 4x3 x2 x1 = 362,880 So, if each letter must be used, there are 362,880 words that can be formed. li) 'some or all the letters may be omitted: In this case, we can form words with any number of letters from the given letters in "EXCELLENT," including words with just one letter, two letters, three letters, and so on, up to using all 9 letters. To calculate the total number of words, we sum up the possible combinations for each word length: * For words with one letter: C(9, 1) {since we can choose any 1 letter out of 9) + For words with two letters: CI9,2) = 36 (since we can choose ny 2 letters out of) * For words with three letters: C(9, 3) = 84, + Forwords with four letters: cl, 4) = + For words with five letters: C(9, 5) = 126 eee a + For words with six letters: (6 veo * For words with seven letters: C(9, fe 36 « For words with eight letters: C(9, 8) = © For words with nine letters: C(9, 9) = 1 (only one way to choose all 9 letters) Total number of words = 9 + 36 +84 +126 +126 +84+36+941=S1L So, if some or all the letters may be oftitted, there are 511 words that can be formed. (b) What is a relation? What are different types of relation? Explain equivalence relation with the help of example. ‘Ans. Relatios defines how the elements of one set are rejated to the elements of another set. In a relation, we identify pai from different sets that satisfy @ specific condition. In mathematies, aFelation is a connection or association between two or more elements or objects. A relation of elements There are various types of relations, and each type has its own characteristics: 1. Binary Relation: A binary relation is a relation between two sets, and it associates each element of the first set with one or more elements of the second set. For example, if we have two sets A={1, 2, 3) and B= (a,b), 2 binary relation R between A and B can be {(1, a), (2, a, (2, b), (3, b)) 2. Ternary Relation: A ternary relation is a relation between three sets, associating each element of the first set with ordered pairs from the other two sets. For example, if A = {1, 2}, B = {a, b}, and C= (x, y}, a ternary relation R between ‘A,B, and Can be { (1, a,x), (1, by) (2,2, yl (2, b, X)) Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page?ONIAZ ge Uauou Suny Henree Reacicront Sa’ SUMiL Poowa 3, Equivalence Relation: An equivalence relation is a special type of binery relation that has three properties: reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity. For a relation R on a set A to be an equivalence relation, it must satisfy the following conditions: © Reflexivity: For every element a in A, (a, aj must be in 8 © symmetry: if (a,b) is in R, then (b, a) must also be in R, © Transitivity: If (a, b) and (b, c) are in R, then (a, ¢) must also be in R. Example of Equivalence Relati Let's consider a set A= (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), and define a relation R on A as follows: (a, b) isin R if and only ifthe difference between a and b is divisible by 2 (1,1), (2, 2), 8, 31-(4,4), (5,5), (1, 3), (3, 1), (2,4), (4, 21, (1, 5) (5,1), (2.4), (4, 2) This relation satisfies the three properties of an equivalence relation: . Reflexivity: Every element is related to itself. For example, (1, 1), (2, 2}, and s0 on are in R 2. Symmetry: For every pair (a, b) in R, the pair (b, a) is also in R. For example, (1, 3) implies (3, 1) and vice versa. 3. Transitivity: If (a, b) and (b,c) are in R, then (a, c} must also betin R. For example, (1, 3) and (3, 5) are in R, so (1, 5) must also be in R. (c) Prove that 1° 4243"... n? = nfn+ay2ns1y/6; Vn EN Wie Ans. To prove the given formula by mathematical induction, we will follow these steps: Step 1: Show the base case (n=1) istrue. Step 2: Assume the formula holds for some positive integer k (indUctive hypothesis). Step 3: Prove that if the formula holds for k, then it also holds for k#a. Let's start the proof: Step 1 (Base case): For n=1: LHS = = LRHS = 4(1+1)(2°4+1)/6=1 The formula holds for n=1. Step 2 (Inductive Hypothesis): Assume the formula holds for some positive integer k: That is, 27+ 2°43? #.+12= kkea)(akeay/6 Step 3 (Inductive Step): Now, we need to prove that if the formula holds for k, then it also holds for k+1. Let's consider the sum up to {ke1)?:1?+ 22+ 32+... #2 (ke)? Using the inductive bypathests, we can replace the sum up tok with k(ket\(2k=1)/6: = k{k+1)(2k+1)/6 + (kee)? Now, let's simplify: = (k+T)[(k(2k+1)/6) + {k+)] Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 10gest TOMou Stuer HeLpee = ONIAS a’ SUNIL POONA UBLICATIONS +1) [[2K+k?)/6 + (6k2+6k+1)/6) = (kr t)[(2kHK2612+6k+1)/6] = (et 1)[(2k+7K2+6k+1)/6] = (+1) (K1)(2443)/6] = (1) k42)(2443)/6 This is exactly the formula we want to prove forn =k #1. Hence, by mathematical induction, we have proven that for all n €N: 1?+2?+3?+... +n? = n{n4d)(2n+4)/6. (4) What is counterexample? Explain its use with the help of an example. Ans. A counterexample is an example or situation that disproves a statement, hypothesis, or conjecture; It is a specific case where the glven'statement falls to hold true. By providing a counterexample, we show that the statement is not universally valid and that there exists at least one situation where itis false. The use of a counterexample is particularly important in mathematics and logic because it allows us to identify the limitations or boundaty conditions of a statement, Ifa statement is found to be false for even a single case, it cannot be considered a universally true theorem, Example: To disprove this statement, we need to find a counterexample, which would be a prime number that is not odd, A prime number is @ number greater than 1 that has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself. Let's exemine the number 2 1s 2 odd? No, itis not; its an even number. Since 2isa number and it is not odd, we have found a counterexample that numbers are odd.” roves the statement “All prime Thus, the statement is false, and the counterexample of the prime number 2'shows that not all prime numbers are odd. In this case, providing a counterexample has helped us understand the limitations of the intial statement and modify it to a more accurate one: "All prime numbers greater than 2 are odd." This revised statement is true and does not have a counterexample. 5, (a) How many different professionals committees of 8 people can be formed, cach containing at least 2 Doctors, at least 2 Public Servants and 1 IT Expert from list of 7 Doctors, 6 Public Servants and 6 IT Experts? Ans. To find the number of different professional committees of 8 people that can be formed, each containing at least 2 Doctors, at least 2 Public Servants, and 1 IT Expert, we can use the concept of combinations with certain restrictions. ‘We will break down the problem into cases based on the number of each type of professional in the committee. Case 1:2 Doctors, 2 Public Servants, 4 IT Experts Case 2: 3 Doctors, 2 Public Servants, 3 IT Experts Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 11ONIAZ eH Raatiesrion® ca? Sumit Poowia Case 3: 4 Doctors, 2 Public Servants, 2 IT Experts. Cose 4:2 Doctor, 3 Publ Servants, 3 Experts Case 5: 3 Doctors, 3 Public Servants, 2 IT Experts: Case 6: 4 Doctors, 3 Public Servants, 1 IT Expert Casta nacoin a Pile sania apa A813 Docs Pub SevatiCEapart cae Dorms Pblesetvarts CetSleiceaeh cae Case 1: Select 2 Doctors from 7, 2 Public Servants from 6, and IT Experts from 6: C7, 2) * C(6, 2) * C{6, 4) =21*15*15 = 4725 Case 2: Select 3 Doctors from 7, 2 Public Servants from 6, and 3 IT Experts from 6: C{7, 3) * Cl6, 2) * (6, 3) = 35° 15 * 20= 10500 Case 3: Select 4 Doctors from 7, 2 Public Servants from 6, and 2 IT Experts from 6: C{7, 4) * C(6, 2) * (6, 2) = 35 * 15 * 15 = 7875 Case 4: Select 2 Doctors from 7, 3 Public Servants from 6, and 3 IT Expeits from 6: C(7, 2)*C{6, 3) * C{6, 3)=21* 20* 20= 8400 Case 5; Select'3 Doctors from 7, 3 Public Servants from 6, and 2 IT Experts from 6: C(7, 3) * C{6, 3) * C{6, 2)= 35 * 2015 = 10500 Case 6; Select 4 Doctors from 7, 3 Public Servants from 6, and 1 IT Expert from 6:C(7, 4) * C(6, 3] * C{6, 1) = 35 * 20 * 6 = 4200 Case 7: Select 2 Doctors from 7, 4 Public Servants from/6y and 2\T Experts from 6: €{7, 2)* Cl6, 4) * C(6, 2)=21* 15* 15 = ans Case 8: Select 3 Doctors from 7, 4 Public Servants from 6, and 1 IT Expert from 6: C(7, 3) * C(6, 4) * C{6, 1)=35 *15* 6 =3150 Case 9: Select 4 Doctors from 7, 4 Public Servants from 6: C(7, 4) * C{6, 4) =35 * 15 = 525 Now, sum up the results from all cases to get the total number of different professional committees: Total = 4725 + 10500 + 7875 + 8400 + 10500 + 4200 + 4725 + 3150 +525 = 53250 So, there are 53,250 different professional committees of 8 people that can be formed, each containing at least 2 Doctors, at least 2 Public Servants, and 2 IT Expeft from the given lists. (b) A and 8 are mutually exclusive events such that P(A) = 1/2 and P(B) = 4/3 arid P (AUB)= 1/4. What is the probability of PAN BI? ‘Ans. Since events A-and & are mutually exchusive, it means that they eannet occur simultaneously. In other words, if event A happens, event B cannot happen, and vice versa. The probability of the union of two mutually exclusive events (A and B) is the sum of their individual probabilities Mathematically, for mutually exclusive events A and 8: P(A.UB) = P(A) + PB) Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 12ONIAZ aS UBLICATIONS maf SUNIL POONA Given that P(A) = 1/2, P(B) = 1/3, and P(A U 8) = 1/4, we can calculate the probability of their union (P(A U B)) as follows: P(A UB) = P(A) + P(B) P(A U B)= 1/2 + 1/3 P(A U B) = (3/6) + (2/6) PIAU B) =5/6 Therefore, the probability oF PIAL B) 55/6. cat 4 > (c) Find how many 3 digit numbers are odd? oe ‘Ans. To find the number of odd three-digit numbers, We need to consider the possible choices for each digit, 1. Forthe hundreds digit (the first digit), we can choose any digit from 1 to 9, So, there are 9.choices (excluding 0). 2. For the tens digit (the second digit), we can choose any digit from 0 to 9. So, there are 40 choices. 3. For the units digit (the third digit), we need to choose an odd digit (1, 3, 5, 7, or 9}.S0, there are’ choices. Now, using the counting principle, the total number of three-digit odd numbers is obtained by multiplying the number of choices for each digit: Total odd three-digit numbers = 9 (hundreds digit} * 10 (tens digit) * 5 (units digit) = 450 There are 450 three-digit odd numbers, (d) Explain whether the function f(x) = x + 1 is one-one or not. Ans. To determine whether the function f(y) =x + 1 fs one-to-one (injective), we need to check if each unique input (x-value) maps to a unique output (y-value). ‘Afunction is one-to-one if and only if for every pair of distinct inputs (x1 and x2), their corresponding outputs (§(x1) ane f(x2)) are also distinct. Let's examine the function f(x] =x+ 4: Suppose we have two distinct inputs x1 and x2 such that x1 x2. We need to check if (xt) + f[x2), fix) =x1 +1 fa] =x2 +4 Now, if f(xt) = f(22), it would imply that x1 + 1 = 12 +1, and after subtracting 1 from both sides, we get x1 = 2. But this contradicts our initial assumption that x1 x2. Therefore, we can conclude that flx1) = f(x2} for all distinct inputs x1 and x2. Since every distinct input has a distinct output, the function fix) = x+ 1 is one-to-one {injective}. Q6. (a) How many ways are there to distribute 21 district items into 6 distinct boxes with: i) Atleast two empty box. {i No empty box. ‘Ans, Let's solve the problems one by one: i) At least two empty boxes: Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 13,ONIAZ aS UBLICATIONS aa? SUNIL POONA To find the number of ways to distribute 21 distinct items into 6 distinct boxes with at least two empty boxes, we can use the principle of inclusion-exclusion, First, let's find the total number of ways to distribute the items without any restrictions. For each item, we have 6 choices {to put it in any of the 6 boxes). Since the items are distinct, the total number of ways is 6*21. Next, let's find the number of ways where exactly one box is used. There are 6 ways to choose which box will be used, and then we have only one choice far each item. So, the number of ways is 6. Now, let's find the number of ways where no box is empty. This is equivalent to finding the number of derangements of 21 elements with respect to 6 boxes. A derangement is a permutation of elements where none of them are in their original position, The number of derangements of 21 items with 6 boxes can be calculated using the formula: 1 5((-1)"k (ki), for k= 0 to 6 where D(n,r) is the number of derangements of n items with r boxes. Now, let's apply the iniclusion-exclusion principle Total ways = 6424 -6 + D(21, 6) Calculate D{24, 6) using the formula above: (24, 6)=61* (1-1/1! + 4/21 -1/31+ 1/41-4/5! + 1/61) se Now, caleulate the final result ae mone Total ways = 6°21 -6 + 1634592960 = 1634592960, = So, there are approximately 1,634,592,960 ways to distribute 21 distinct items into 6 distinct boxes with at least two empty boxes, ii) No empty box: To find the number of ways to distribute 21 distinct items into 6 di Stirling numbers of the second kind, The Stirling number of the second kind, denoted as (n, 1), gives the number of ways to partition a set of nitems into r non- empty subsets. inct boxes with no empty box, we can use the principle of The number of ways to distribute 21 items into 6 non-empty boxes is given by S{21, 6). We can caleulate this using the formula: S(21, 6) = 1/6! * B((-1)4e* (6- k)?21), for k= O06 Now, calculate S{21, 6) using the formula S(21, 6) = 1/720 (6A21-15 * 5921 +10* 4421-20 * 3421 +15 * 2421-6) So, the number of ways to distribute 21 distinct items into 6 distinct boxes with no empty box is: S(24, 6) = 1/720" (6421-15 5821 + 10" 4421-20 * 3421+ 15 * 2421 -6)= 31,315,312 Therefore, there are approximately 31,315,312 ways to distribute 21 distinct items into 6 distinct boxes with no empty box. Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 14ONIAZ aS UBLICATIONS maf SUNIL POONA (b) Explain principle of multiplication with an example. Ans. The principle of multiplication is a fundamental concept in counting and combinatorics. it states that if there are m ways to perform one task and n ways to perform another task independently, then there are m* n ways to perform both tasks together. In other words, when two or more tasks are performed sequentially or independently, the total number of outcomes for the combined tasks can be calculated by multiplying the number of aitcornes for each individual task, Example: f, zs Letccoside an example etre the principle nf mutation. 4 EN # conto oa Suppose you are going to a restaurant, and there are 3 choices of appetizers [A1, A2, A3) and 4 choices of main courses (M1, ‘M2, M3, Ma). How many different meals can you order if you choose one appetizer and one main course? To apply the principle of multiplication, we consider the number of choices for each part separately and then multiply them. Number of choices for appetizer = 3 (A, A2, A3) Number of choices for main course = 4 (M1, M2, M3, Mia) Now, by the principle of multiplication, the total number of different meals you can order is: Total number of meals = Number of choices for appetizer * Number of choices for main course Total number of meals = Total number of meals = 12 So, you have 12 different meals to choose from by combining the 3 appetizer choices and the 4 main course choices. (e) Three Sets A, Band Ca 1, 2,348, 8.9,12)15,17}, B= (1.2, 3 48,9 10} and € {1,2,7, 9 10, 11, 13}, Find AUB AC; AA~BUC AMBU Cand (AN ~C). ‘Ans. Let's find the given sets step by step: 1. AUBAC(Union of A, Intersection of 8 and C): (1, 2, 3, 4, 8,8, 9,12, 15, 17} B= (4, 2, 3, 4, 8,9, Lo} 2, 7, 9,10, 44, 13) First, find the intersection of sets B and C: Bm C={1,2,9, 10} Now, find the union of set A with the intersection of 8 and ¢: AU(BAC)={2,2,3,4,5,8, 9, 10, 12, 15,17} 2. AN~BU intersection of A, complement of B, Union with C): Az{1,2,3,4,5,8,9, 12, 15, 17} B= (1, 2, 3,4, 8, 9, 10] “B (complement of B) = (5, 12, 15, 17}C= (1, 2, 7,9, 10, 11, 13} First, find the intersection of A with the complement of B: Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 15ONIAZ aS 3 = UBLICATION®. mat Sumit Pooma An~B={5, 12, 15, 17} Now, find the union of the above result with set C: (Aq~B)UC=(1, 2, 5, 7,9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17} 3. An BUC (Intersection of A and B, Union with C}: A={1,2,3,4,5,8,9, 12, 15, 17}B=(1, 2, 3, 4,89, 10}C={1, 2,7,9, 10, 11,13) First, find the intersection of sets A and B: Ps * AnB=(1,2,3,4,8,9) v = Now, find the union of the above result with set C: (an8)UC={2,2,3,4, 7,8, 9, 10, 11, 13) 4, ANC (Intersection of A and complement of C): A= 41, 2,3,4,5,8, 9,12, 15, 17}~C (complementiof ¢)={3)'45)8)22, 15, 17) Find the intersection of A with the complement of €: A0~C={3,4,5, 8, 12,15, 17) ‘These are the results for the given set operations. 7. (a) Explain addition theorem in probability. Ans. The addition theorem in probability, also known as the adgition rule, provides a way to calculate the probability of the Union of two or more events. it states that the probability of the union of two events A and & (denoted as PIA U B)) is equal to the sum of the individual probabilities of A and 8, minus the probability of their intersection (P(A'A B)). Mathematically, the addition theorem is expressed as follows: P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B) -P(A 0B) where: © P(AUB) represents the probability that either event & or event 8 or both occur. + P(A) le the probability of event A-oceurring. + P{B) is the probability of event B occurring. * PAN B)is the probability of both events & and 8 occurring simultaneously. The addition theorem is widely used when dealing with events that are not mutually exclusive (ie, events that can occur together). It helps to find the overall probability of the union of such events, Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 16ONIAZ aS UBLICATIONS maf SUNIL POONA Exampli Let's consider 2 simple example to illustrate the addition theorem in probability: Suppose we have two events, A and B, and we know their individual probabilities: P(A) = 0.6 (the probability of event A occurring) P(B) = 0.4 (the probability of event B occurring) Also, suppose we know the probability of their intersection: P(A” B) =0.2 (the probability of both events A and Baccurring simultaneously) Now, using the addition theorem, we can calculate the probability of the union of events A and B [P(A U B)): PUAU B) = P(A) + P(B} - PAD B) PAU B) =0.6 + 0.4 - 0.2 P(AUB) = 8 So, the probability that either event 4 or event B or both occur (P(A U B)) is 0.8 or 80%. srvoy, (b) Make Pascal's triangle up to n = 6. fey Ans. Here's Pascalstriangle up ton= 6: ‘wenead 1 ra led 1331 14641 15 10 10 5 1 16 15 20 15 6 1 In Pascal's triangle, each number is the sum of the two numbers directly above it. The fist and last numbers in each row are always 1. it has many interesting properties and applications in mathematics and combinatorics. (c) What is a function? Explain different types of functions with example. ‘Ans, Function: In mathematics, a function is a relation that maps each element from one set (called the domain) to a unique element in another set (called the codomain). in simpler terms, a function takes input values and produces corresponding output values in such a way that each input has exactly one output. Mathematically, 2 function f can be represented as: F: Domain -> Codomain where "Domain’ is the set of input values, "Cogemain" is theset of possible output values, and the symbol ">" indicates the mapping or association. Example of a Funetion: Consider the function f(x) = 2x, where xis a real number. In this case, the domain can be any real ‘number, and the codomain is also any real number. For each input value of x, the function f{x) multiplies it by 2to give the corresponding output value. Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 17ONIAZ foes fs oy Suny Hexee UBLICATIONS ea? SUNIL POOMIA Types of Functions: There are various types of functions based on their characteristics and properties. Here are some common types of functions: 1, One-to-One (Injective) Function: A function is one-to-one if each distinct element in the domain maps to a distinct element in the codomain. in other words, no two different elements in the domain have the same image in the codomain, Example: f(x} = 2x, where x isa real number. This function is one-to-one because for any two distinct real numbers x and y, if fix) = fly), then x= y. 2. Onto (Surjective) Funct element in the domaii : A function is onto if every element in the codomain has at least one pre-image (an that maps to it}. In other words, the function covers the entire codomain. Example: g(x) = x2, where xis a real number. This function is onto because for any real numbery, we can find a real number x (both positive and negative) such that glx) = v. 3. Bijective Function: A function is bijective if itis both one-to-one and onto, It means that each element in the domain has a unique element in the codomain, and every element in the codomain has exactly one pre-image in the domain. Example: h(x) = 3x, where x is @ real number. This funetion is bijective because it is one-to-one (different x values give different 3x values) and onto (any real number y can be represented as y = 3x for some x). 4, Constant Function: A constant function always produces the same output regardless of the input. it hasa constant value in the codomain for all elements in the domain. Example: f(x} = 4, where x is any real number. This function is constant becouse it always returns the value 4 for any input. These are just a few examples of the different types of functions. There are many more types of functions with various properties and characteristics, each serving different purposes in mathematics and its applications. fet (d) Write the following statements in symbolic form: ae en pels ‘eoor (i) Mr. Xis poor but happy. (ii) Either eat healthy food or be ready for poor health. ‘Ans. Let's write the given statements in symbolic form: (i) Let P represent "Mr. X is poor" and H represent "Mr. X is happy.” The statement "Mr. poor but happy" can be represented as the conjunction (AND) of P and H: PAH (ii) Let H represent “eat healthy food” and P represent "be ready for poor health.” ‘The statement "Either eat healthy food or be ready for poor health” can be represented as the disjunction (OR) of H and P. Hye Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 18Poon; wat Sumit Poowia in symbolic logic, A represents the logical AND operator, and v represents the logical OR operator. These symbols are used to construct compound statements based on the logical relationships between individual statements or propositions, 8, (a) Find inverse of the following functions. Ans. To find the inverse of the function f(x) = [x°+ 2) /(x- 3), where x#3, we need to interchange the roles of x and y and solve for y. Step 1: Replace f(x) with y. c0y, Spe +2)/ -3) fey ‘ : Step 2: Swap xand y.x= (y24.2)/ (y-3) oe Step 3: Solve for y. Multiply both sides by (y- 3) to eliminate the denominator: x{y-3) = +2 Expand and bring all terms to one side: xy -3x=y*+2 Move all y terms to/one side andiall nomy terms to the ather side: y¥~ xy + 3x-2 Step 4: Solve for y. Ths i @ cubie equation in y, and finding the inverse function explicitly can be complex. However, ve can leave the equition in this form as the inverse function: Yioxy+3x-2=0 So, the inverse function of f(x) = (x? + 2) / (K=3);where x 3, is given by the cubic equation y?~ xy + 3x- (b) Find dual of Boolean Expression for the output (Y) of the following logic circuit. [> Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 195 fs Towou Sry Wena ONIAS eS Sumit. Poowia UBLICATIONS. The given 270 Jeon lege Crrevits 9 = 84H) Dval gf (ABC is given be)owe CAB) = Ged CAecerdoy be pe mogart) CAB=A) = A'D-c weget Cnlag eC Ac) rCBC) ay CR HAL) +(BL) pe fet: (c) What is a proper subset ? Write the number of proper subsets of the Set Noe a,b, ¢,d,e,f). Ans. Proper subset: A proper subset is @ subset of @ set that contains fewer elements than the original set and does not include all the elements of the original set: In other words, if Bis a proper subset of set'A, then every element of Bis alsoiin A, ‘but A contains atleast one element that is notin 8, For example: * Set A={L, 2, 3} and set B ={1, 2} 8 isa proper subset of A. # Set C= (1,2, 3}and set 0 ={1, 2, 3} D is NOT a proper subset of C, itis just a subset (equal to C} Now, let's find the number of proper subsets of the set {2, 6, d,, fl To find the number of subsets of a set with nelements, we Use the formula 2*n. However, this includes the set itself and the ‘empty set, which are not proper subsets. ‘The set {a, b, c,d, €, has 6 elements. So, the number of proper subset: 64-2= 62, There ate 62 proper subsets of the set {2, b, ¢ d,¢, f). Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 20ONIAZ teeta far lene UBLICaTIONS mae? SUM Poowia {d) “f it rains, then you will play”. Write inverse and contrapositive for this sentence. Ans, The original statement is: "If it rains, then you will play." Inverse: inverse of a conditional statement involves negating both the hypothesis and the conclusion. Original Statement: If trains, then you will play. Inverse: fit does not rain, then you will not play. Contrapositive: The contrapositive of a conditional statement involves negating both the hypothests and the conclusion and then reversing their order. Original Statement: fit rains, then you will play. Contrapositive: If you do not play, then it did not rai So, the inverse of the statement "ifit rains, then you will play"is “iit does not rain, then you'will not play," and the contrapositive is “if youdo not play, then it did not rain." 4 Ignou Study Helper - Sunil Poonia Page 21