TRAINING SAFE AND EFFECTIVE SPACEFLIGHT OPERATIONS

USING TERRESTRIAL ANALOGUES

Bessone, L.(1), Sauro, F.(2), Stevenin, H.(1)

(1)
European Astronaut Centre (EAC), European Space Agency, Linder Höhe, 51147 Cologne, Germany,
Email: [email protected], [email protected]
(2)
Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, Bologna University, Via Zamboni 67, 40126 Bologna, Italy
Email:[email protected]

ABSTRACT and which replicate stressors similar to those of long

duration spaceflight [1]. The need to find relevant
In the absence of short-term spaceflight opportunities,
terrestrial analogues to prepare teams operating in long-
astronauts find themselves involved in long term
term missions is driven by extraordinary demands for
flights as their first exposure to space operations,
safety and mission success [2].
within multicultural crews with which they have rarely
spent more than a few consecutive hours together. This
Several analogue extreme environments have been
has prompted space agencies to identify opportunities
proposed as potential candidates, as isolated deserts, base
for terrestrial analogue training events which foster
camps on Antarctica, stations built on the bottom of the
expeditionary behavior and increase operational safety
sea, or confined modules resembling space vehicles.
and efficiency. These training events shall recreate
However, analogue team training needs to be based on
situations that are spaceflight analogue in terms of
the concept of operations [3], and provide real
perception of risk, crew composition, isolation,
challenges, risks, stressors and a credible programme.
confinement and at the same time provide a real
opportunity for spaceflight-like operations, science,
Currently, the most challenging and recognized
equipment testing, and exploration, in preparation of
terrestrial analogue training programmes for ISS
future planetary endeavours.
astronauts and cosmonauts are NEEMO (NASA
Extreme Environment Mission Operations) and
In this paper we analyze the specific case of safety
CAVES (Cooperative Adventure for Valuing and
issues and progression techniques training in
Exercising human behaviour and performance Skills).
underground and underwater environments employed
Both are designed as real mission analogues with
in terrestrial analogues for astronaut training (e.g. ESA
similarities in the environmental conditions, requiring
CAVES), and the similarities and differences with
similar space-analogue safety protocols and operations,
extra vehicular activity operations, and how training
as well as presenting real “controlled” risks.
for similar operations allows to instill a modus
operandi that promotes safe and effective behavior.
In this article we analyze the similarities and also the
benefits derived from this kind of trainings, in terms of
1. INTRODUCTION
safety, operations, crew effectiveness, performance, and
team dynamics.
The first spaceflight was several decades ago, and yet
extraterrestrial exploration is only at the beginning and
1. CHALLENGES OF HUMAN
it has mainly been carried out by robotic probes and
SPACEFLIGHT
rovers sent to extraterrestrial planets and deep space.
Human space exploration was limited to the Apollo
Known challenges associated with human spaceflight
Program, and currently it is confined to orbiting Space
come from the salient moments of the flight itself: the
Stations.
launch, landing, dockings, tele-operation (robotic arms),
and extra vehicular activities. However, since the start of
Since the end of the Space Shuttle Program (STS) in
Long Duration Missions (LDM) operated by international
2011, astronauts from western countries do not have
agencies, behavioral issues known from other isolated
the opportunity to train in short term flights, and are
and confined environments have been recognized and
directly designated to up to 6 months permanence in
studied from all space agencies [5].
the International Space Station (ISS). This lack of
previous space experience for the new crews, requires
Spaceflight bring humans to alien environments, which
the individuation of terrestrial environments for
do not offer life-sustaining ecosystems, where both
training, in which extreme conditions are encountered,
protection from the outside and life-supporting

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015, T. Sgobba, I. Rongier (eds.), Space Safety is No Accident, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-15982-9_37 313
314 L. Bessone et al.

technologies are required. 2.1. Training for Extra Vehicular

Activities
The need to move in unknown territories, which pose
unknown or unmitigated risks, and require to re-learn To perform a spacewalk safely and efficiently, an astronaut
how to walk (reduced gravity, space suits), pose shall rigorously follow a standard set of guidelines, rules
challenges not just to the final operators - the astronauts and techniques, identified as the rules of engagement of
- but to all those who need to design systems and EVAs.
operations, and create training programs and support Mastering them to the level of excellence can only be
systems that enable those endeavors, having little or no achieved through an extensive training programme, most
direct experience, and often limited knowledge of those of which is implemented underwater to simulate
environments, and few available strategies on how to weightlessness or partial gravity.
deal with them.
For spacewalks in weightlessness, the main challenge of
Space exploration is an endeavor that requires large the astronaut is to remain attached to the structure of the
infrastructures, diverse facilities and multidisciplinary vehicle and to ensure that all equipment to be operated
teams located in different countries, working according remains tethered at all times. The standard
to differing operating procedures and within different recommendation for a spacewalker is to be always double
legal frameworks. Those teams need to work in tethered to the structure/surface. The tethering protocols
cooperation and coordination, often without a unique and procedures of the NASA EMU spacesuit and of the
structure governing them. Russian Orlan spacesuit rely on different tool concepts and
tether designs but the “double tethering” rule is applicable
Many of those challenges exist also in operations to both spacesuit operations.
carried out in extreme environments on earth (ocean
studies, Antarctica research, speleological exploration). This constraint does not exist for surface exploration
Terrestrial analogues offer a unique opportunity to spacewalks on planetary ground. The “double tethering”
learn, test and train spaceflight operations. constraint would nevertheless need to be reconsidered for a
surface EVA requiring the astronaut to explore a terrain
2. TRAINING FOR CRITICAL featuring deep slopes or a path through a confined
OPERATIONS environment.

The key to train for critical operations is fidelity for the Besides that, being efficient in EVA (which means being
steps or skills which require most attention, having able to perform all the scheduled tasks in the allocated
impact or consequences on the final outcome, and time, while respecting safety rules) requires the mastering
especially on safety, always considering safety of the of a set of skills applicable to any kind of spacewalks (in
crew first, then of the vehicle and finally achievement of weightlessness or on a planetary surface): a sharp situation
mission objectives [6]. awareness, a controlled translation and body orientation, a
safe and smart set-up of all tools and hardware used, a
This often results in splitting the training in increasing deep knowledge of the equipment used, a clear and concise
levels of difficulty, and/or using increasing levels of communication with the EVA buddy and Mission Control,
fidelity in the equipment, facilities, protocols and a meticulous planification and anticipation of the situation,
procedures used. The realism of the environment in a clear analysis of the work site limitations and constraints,
which the training is performed is fundamental also in a sharp judgement, a strong adaptability, a fast decision
recreating the stressors which will, in the end, influence making and an excellent teamwork capability are
the final operations. Those stressors will use part of the amongst the key skills to be mastered by the spacewalkers
cognitive abilities of the operator thus reducing the [7].
overall performance, unless coping methods have been
already incorporated in the operational strategies, and 2.2. Training human performance
training, thereby reducing the influence on final
outcome. The number and variety of skills required by astronauts
during spaceflight imply a complex and lengthy training
An example of this is training for robotic tele- programme, which at the time of the writing of this
operations, which starts with low-fidelity Virtual article includes, for the mission only, fifteen months of
Reality (VR) trainers, and proceeds to higher fidelity preparation. Many of the skills required within all
VR simulators, to actual physical trainers of real size, to disciplines include however a common base of
a combination of real size used in an operationally individual and team behavioral skills, which have been
relevant situation (Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory in captured, for ISS, within a Competency Model [8].
combination with Extra Vehicular Activity (EVA or
simulation of night/day sequence). The basic behavioral skills are trained by each space
Training Safe and Effective Spaceflight Operations using Terrestrial Analogues 315

agency during their basic training programme [9] and 3.1. NASA NEEMO
they are reinforced during technical training. Some of
those skills require however to be reinforced during NEEMO - the NASA Extreme Environment Mission
specific team training events, some of which have Operations project - is a NASA analogue mission that
been identified and recommended as prerequisites sends groups of 3-4 astronauts to simulate a space
before astronauts are assigned to ISS flights [8]. exploration mission inside Aquarius, an undersea
Individual and team learning happens through research station, located 6 kilometers off Key Largo
feedback and debriefings, as well as mentoring from (Florida Keys) on the ocean floor, 20 meters below the
experienced crewmembers and instructors. surface.
NEEMO incorporates an environmental as well as
The environments in which such training events are mission analogies.
carried out shall enable the execution of complex
technical tasks, as well as common living in isolated From an environmental perspective, the astronauts deal
and/or confined environments. This requires the with an extreme environment: they live underwater
identification of suitable terrestrial analogue under a permanent pressure of 2.5 bars for several days,
environments and the design of high-fidelity training their bodies are fully saturated with nitrogen preventing
courses / mission scenarios with representative an immediate return to surface (a rigorous protocol of
operational set-up. de-nitrogenisation including breathing pure oxygen for
1.5 hour and the habitat slow decompression during 17
3. TERRESTRIAL hours). The risk associated with this environment
ANALOGUES requires a high and steady percentage of crew attention
focusing on all safety considerations.
Access to space is limited, and with that our ability to
study such an environment, to test equipment and to The confinement factor is also high, as the crew is
learn from experience. Performing operational tests, stranded in this habitat, far away from the coast and
studying team dynamics and performing training in virtually far away from the surface because of the
terrestrial extreme environments as analogues has saturation constraint. The outside environment allows
provided insight [2] as well as the ability to improve surface excursions in reduced gravity or even neutral
effectiveness and safety of spaceflight operations. buoyancy, comparable to the working conditions of
spacewalks and allows the testing of concept,
Analogues for human performance in space have techniques, procedures and tools required for space
involved either constructing an environment within a exploration EVAs. On top of that, the habitat has the
laboratory setting or studying naturally occurring real- approximate size and lay-out of a module of a space
world groups in real environments and situations [2]. station and the crew is totally dependant on mechanical
life support systems, with possibility of critical and life
Extreme environments are characterized by: reliance threatening failures (fire, smoke, air contamination and
on technology; physical and social isolation and rapid depressurization) very similar to the ones that
confinement; high physical and cognitive demands; could affect a spacecraft and which would require from
critical human-machine interfaces and requirements the NEEMO crew immediate emergency responses to
for team coordination, cooperation, and stay alive.
communication [2].
From a mission perspective, the NEEMO crew follows
However, operations in those environments usually a highly structured and heavy loaded timeline similar to
lack the control, and procedural thoroughness which the ones experienced by space crews. The NEEMO
characterize space operations. In addition, personnel is crew is under constant mission pressure from Mission
usually selected based on specific technical abilities, Control (like during a spaceflight), has to achieve
and reliance as well as training in multidisciplinary concrete relevant and challenging objectives with a high
skills as well as team dynamics is limited. Also, level of expectations from the support teams and
operations are usually performed by field specialists. Mission Control, uses tools, hardware, procedures fully
identical or very similar to the ones used in spaceflight
Although these characteristics indicate that potential and is exposed to a high visibility and strong media
changes in operations with respect to current interest (like during a space mission).
spaceflight may be required for planetary exploration,
for purposes of testing novel operational scenarios and This combination of Environmental and Mission
training space crews within the current established analogies is the key feature of the success of the NASA-
space operations adaptation and customisations are NEEMO missions, providing astronaut crews with an
required. excellent training experience very valuable for
spaceflight mission and a convincing and very realistic
316 L. Bessone et al.

testbed to pave the road for future space exploration achievement and confirm plans ahead.
missions.
The scientific tasks that the astronauts are asked to carry
3.2. ESA CAVES out are numerous: microbiological sampling of air,
water, and solid material, monitoring of cave air
CAVES is a multidisciplinary exploration mission in a temperature, relative humidity, CO2 concentration, and
cave environment. Developed by the European Space wind speed and direction, sampling of waters and
Agency (ESA) since 2008, this course puts together minerals for successive laboratory analyses, and
technical challenges, human performance and monitoring (and, in some cases, sampling) of cave
teamwork skills, and a complex scientific programme, dwelling fauna (mainly troglobites). Scientific results
run according to space operation protocols [10]. from past missions have included the identification of
new animal species.
CAVES sends a crew of up to 6 astronauts to perform
an extended speleological exploration, scientific Equipment testing is also a common task during space
research and documentation of large cave systems in missions. To increase safety of cave exploration
Sardinia, Italy. operations, a new digital wireless underground radio
communication system (TEDRA) was also tested.
Caves are a hostile and dangerous environment that
require a specific training on progression techniques Differently than in other similar analogue environments,
and clear operational safety rules. The environment is communication inside a cave is rather unreliable,
however just a “container”: analogies should be based forcing the development of very autonomous mission
on similarities in experiences, not just in environment operations, with reduced reliance on the control and
[2]. directions of the “ground” team. This offers a rather
interesting testbed for future planetary exploration
The crew benefits from full immersion into topics such scenarios, which will include delayed communication.
as how to explore subterranean environments, how
caves are formed or what are the best ways to 4. HAZARDS AND TRAINING
communicate with each other. Technical lectures also FOR SAFETY IN ESA CAVES
cover emergency procedures and the science of
speleology. During the course, they learn to orient The cave environment naturally provides many space-
themselves and how to manage off-nominal situations. relevant conditions. There is isolation from the outside
world, confinement, minimal privacy, technical
During CAVES, astronauts are trained to use simple challenges and limited equipment and supplies for
rope ascending and descending tools and to negotiate hygiene and comfort – just like in space. The absence of
difficult and long traverses rigged with iron cables [4]. natural time parameters disrupts the circadian rhythm
This technical training resembles skills and protocols and lead to changing sleep patterns.
that are required to move and operate in extravehicular
activity, with reduced field of view, shadows, tri- A real risk perception, induces in the astronauts a
dimensional progression through viable paths, learning process and a safety procedural approach much
confused perception of obstacles and distances, and more effective than in a simulated situation.
no-touch zones.
The risks in a cave are real and they have to be taken
This preparatory training is propedeutical to an into account and controlled. There are environmental
extended caves exploration phase, where the hazards (rocks fall, obstructions, flooding, hypoxia,
astronauts autonomously perform a real expedition as radiation from radon, etc.) but also equipment failure
a multicultural and multidisciplinary team. Astronauts related hazards (e.g. failure of ropes or anchors).
are trained to use a buddy system and to maintain team Continuous monitoring of the environment and the
situational awareness through briefings and equipment can keep these hazards under control. This
debriefings in order to maintain control on the safety happens for radon and CO2 concentrations, which are
of the whole group, to allow informed decision making measured and monitored regularly inside the cave
for each member of the team, and to enable team during the course.
learning through analysis of failures and successes.
However, as in space and aviation, the most important
As for space missions, astronauts are trained to carry and likely hazards are those related to human decisions,
out a scientific programme, according to a flexible both personal (e.g. trip or fall for equipment misuse)
operational timeline and space-like procedures. and as a crew (e.g. loss of orientation, lack of
Twice/day the astronauts hold planning conferences consumables because of inappropriate management of
with a “ground” control team to report on daily supplies). Appropriate training on safety protocols, self-
Training Safe and Effective Spaceflight Operations using Terrestrial Analogues 317

reliance and situation awareness is fundamental to dark during approximately 60% of the time) and to the
reduce potential risks. difficult movements due to the bulky suit, harness and
backpack (life support system in EVA).
A strong analogy exists between cave progression and
extravehicular operations, with similar hazards, safety Not only the environmental conditions, but also the
protocols and training. progression tools and their configuration have several
similarities. During cavewalking a harness is used to
Also team interaction, decision making process, attach the body to rope handrails or anchors and to link
leadership and followship have a great impact in the bags and tools. Similarly, outside the American spacesuit,
overall safety of the expedition. Reinforcing these a metallic arm is protruding, called mini-work station,
behavioral skills in strict combination with technical that together with other two rings at the pelvis level, is
skills which have actual impact on risk reduction, and used to attach the astronaut to the station by means of
a strong analogy with spacewalking skills increases safety tethers, or the tools needed for the operation with
motivation for learning and retention of safe additional service tethers. The main safety point is an up
operational protocols. to 50 meters-extendible tether that is also used as a
guideline for the way back to the hatch (as an Arianne’s
4.1. Spacewalking vs Cavewalking thread, compared to labyrinth cave diving exploration).

Spacewalking is a complex activity, with frequent The Russian Orlan spacesuit uses progression protocols
human decision related risks, exactly as cave even more similar to the common cave progression: two
progression. tethers, one long and one short, are used to attach to a sort
of “traverse handrails”, as usually done in caving with
One of the most important analogies between two tethers (named longes) connected to the safety ropes
extravehicular activity and cave progression is the three- handrails (and “via ferrata” rigging).
dimensionality of the environment. In space, astronauts
operate in microgravity, where there are no up-down With respect to pace of the progression, in a cave as in
references, working in anomalous positions where all EVA, the body temperature and energy spent are strongly
the objects, and also their bodies, maintain inertial correlated with the effort done by the individual. A fast
movement. Everything going ahead from the station, pace means a lot of effort, high temperature, lots of
and not properly attached with tethers, can be lost in energy spent. Slow and regular pace means efficiency of
space. Astronauts shall remain attached to the vehicles operations “slow means faster” is the rule.
or walls at all times. Very specific protocols have been
developed to ensure that during the whole EVA the These similarities induce the enforcement of safety rules,
astronauts and all the equipment they carry is always progression protocols and behaviors which are very
attached, even during equipment transfer. For these similar. To this we must add the need for constant
reasons EVA requires adaptation, the use of strict safety attention to dangerous areas (identified as Keep Out
protocols and long training in buoyancy facilities. Zones in EVA), fragile cave formations (No Touch Zones
in EVA), and the need to move through squeezes or in
In cave progression, gravity is the most important force, between equipment, making cavewalking a real effective
guiding all movements and operations. In caves training analogue for spacewalks.
movements are also three-dimensional, with the need to
climb walls, traverse over deep canyons, descend into 5. CONCLUSIONS
shafts. In cavewalking all the attention is focused on
how to control the attraction of gravity to avoid falling, Both NEEMO and CAVES have been recognised by all
or to loose bags and tools if not attached with tethers. participant astronauts and, in particular, by experienced
As in spacewalks, the focus is on never getting spacefares, as very realistic spaceflight analogues,
separated from the walls, ropes and rigging support, and providing unique ISS-representative multicultural
never loose equipment. Strict safety protocols, very operational team training opportunities, where
similar to those employed in EVA, adaptation and experienced flown astronauts can share their knowledge
continuous training are also needed to move safely in with younger crewmates.
the cave environment.
Like the underwater laboratory Aquarius, the cave
Another similarity is related to the demanding operating environment requires adaptation and induces stress and
conditions, and associated both to a limited vision of the fatigue, requiring constant attention to operational safety
worksite due to the limited field of view (helmet and procedures.
closeness to the wall during EVA, light beam of helmet
light during caving) and darkness (during a normal In CAVES, exploration and documentation tasks and
EVA of 8 hours the astronauts have to operate in the scientific activities provide a realistic set of technical
318 L. Bessone et al.

challenges which, carried out in spaceflight-like format, 9. Bessone L., & Klein N., 2008 Training for
allow the build-up of spaceflight operationally relevant space endeavors: designing behavioural
expertise. training for individuals and teams in high risk
environments. 3rd IAASS Conference, Rome
Behavioral briefings and debriefings enable an Conference Proceedings
invaluable team learning experience, carried out in an 10. Bessone L., Beblo-Vranesevic K., Cossu Q.
environment where the effects of mistaken decisions A., De Waele J., Leuko S., Marcia P., Rettberg
can have severe impact on safety and mission goals. P., Sanna L., Sauro F., Taiti S., 2013 ESA
CAVES: training astronauts for SPACE
With the advancement of spaceflight, and as exploration exploration, 16th International Congress of
of other planets becomes reality, space agencies around Speleology, Brno, Czech Republic Conference
the world shall learn to rely on and learn more from Proceedings
terrestrial analogues. Identifying the right environments,
adapting equipment, operational concepts and also
training strategies to match the challenges of those
environments will become a key to safe and effective
space exploration.

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