ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER 6: Managing natural hazards

1. Earthquakes and volcanoes

The Structure of the Earth

Layer Temperature (⁰C) State Material

Inner Core 5000 – 6000 Solid Iron and nickel

Outer Core 4000 – 5000 Liquid Iron and nickel

Mantle 1000 – 1200 Liquid Silicate minerals

Plate Boundaries and Tectonic Activity:

Plate boundaries define many natural phenomena like earthquakes and volcanoes.

 Constructive (Divergent) Plate Boundary:

 Two plates move away from each other.

 Magma rises to the surface, solidifying into new basaltic ocean crust.
 Can form shield or basic volcanoes with non-explosive eruptions under the sea
(sea-floor spreading occurs under the sea, rift valley on earth)

 Destructive (Converging) Plate Boundary:

 Two plates move towards each other.

 Oceanic plate subduction under continental plate, forming ocean trenches and
volcanoes.

 Fold Mountains may also form.

 Conservative (Transform) Plate Boundary:

 Two plates slide past each other.

 Pressure builds up, released as earthquakes.

 Volcanoes

 Causes: At divergent (constructive) plate boundaries, magma rises to the surface, creating new
crust. At convergent (destructive) plate boundaries, one plate is forced beneath another
(subduction), leading to melting of rock and magma generation. (The friction between the plates
can trigger Earthquakes). The heat produced due to friction turns the descending plate into
magma. The magma starts to rise and erupt (due to pressure) through a faults.

 Distribution: Found on constructive and destructive plate boundaries.

 Earthquakes

 Causes and Distribution: Caused by Tectonic activity at plate boundaries. Mostly on destructive
and conservative (transform) plate boundaries. A sudden release of energy along faults(cracks in
the earth crust), caused by tectonic activity at plate boundaries. As plates move past, collide
with, or separate from each other, stress builds up along faults until it is released in the form of
seismic waves, causing the ground to shake.

 Intensity: measured using Richter’s Scale.

2. Tropical Cyclones
A Tropical cyclones is an intense circular storm that originates over warm tropical oceans and is
characterized by low atmospheric pressure, can cause widespread devastation to coastal areas and
inland regions, posing significant risks to life, infrastructure, and economies.
 Causes of Tropical Cyclones

 Ocean Surface Temperature: at least 27°C to provide energy for evaporation and condensation,
releasing large amounts of energy.

 Ocean Depth: Requires a depth of at least 60 meters.

 Latitude Range: Occur between 5° and 20° north and south to have sufficient Coriolis Effect
(force from earth rotation motion) for air spin.

 Wind Shear: Minimal wind shear allows for vertical development of the storm.

Note: Tropical cyclones do not form on the equator due to lack of Coriolis Effect; air flows straight from
high to low pressure without rotation.

3. Flooding

Flooding is when water overflows onto land that is normally dry.

Floods can happen during heavy rains, when ocean waves come on shore, when snow melts etc.

PHYSICAL CAUSES EFFECTS

HUMAN CAUSES EFFECTS
Heavy Rainfall Reduces soil infiltration capacity Deforestation Reduces interception and infiltration
Increases overland flow Cultivation Ploughing down slopes increases
Prolonged Saturates soil water flow
Rainfall Raises water table, reducing (compared to across slopes)
infiltration
Snowmelt Leads to rapid overland flow
Urbanization Concrete and tarmac prevent
Land Relief Steeper gradients accelerate infiltration,
overland flow leading to overland flow
Saturated Soil Reduced infiltration, increased Climate Change Global warming may raise sea levels
overland flow and lead
Storm Surges, Flooding of low-lying coastal areas to increased rainfall in some areas
Tsunamis

4. Droughts
Droughts are prolonged periods of abnormally low precipitation leading to water scarcity, reduced soil
moisture, and agricultural and ecological stress.

Main Causes:

 Lack of Rainfall: Prolonged high-pressure systems inhibit the formation of rain clouds.

 El Niño and La Niña: Oceanic temperature anomalies disturb weather patterns, which causes droughts in
various regions.

 Climate Change: Global warming contributes to decreased precipitation in some areas, exacerbating
drought conditions.
 5. The impact of Natural Hazards
Natural hazards share some common consequences like destruction of buildings and infrastructure,
loss of life, displacement of populations, services disruption (electricity, water, transportation etc.).
Logically, economic losses are included. Additionally, environmental degradation (loss of wildlife
habitats, contamination of water sources, and soil erosion) and the aftermath effects (often health
challenges like water-borne diseases, malnutrition, and psychological trauma).

Detailed table of Natural hazards and their impact

Natural Hazard Consequences

Tectonic Events - Damage to buildings and infrastructure
- Fires from ruptured gas pipes
- Tsunamis hitting coastlines
- Landslides covering buildings and roads
- Destruction of farmland, leading to starvation
- Loss of wildlife habitats
- Water-related diseases due to lack of sanitation or clean water
- Water contamination from broken sewage pipes or untreated sewage
- Loss of life
- Trauma and poor mental health
- Financial losses during repair and recovery efforts
Tropical Cyclones - Flooding from storm surges and heavy rainfall
- Loss of life
- Damage to buildings and infrastructure
- Disruption of electricity, transport, and water supply
- Water-borne diseases
- Economic loss due to halted production, damage to crops, and loss of export earnings
- Loss of wildlife habitats

Flooding - Loss of life

- Damage to buildings and infrastructure
- Contamination of water supplies leading to disease
- Loss of crops and livestock leading to food shortages
- Deposition of silt from floodwaters
- Recharge of groundwater stores
- Rivers may change course
- Financial losses during repair and recovery efforts
Droughts - Depletion of water sources, requiring long travel distances for water
- Decline in crop yields
- Loss of crops, livestock, plants, and wildlife
- Decrease in land prices as production declines and farmers lose money
- Migration from rural to urban areas
- Unemployment
- Increase in food prices
- Health problems due to malnutrition
- Soil erosion and desertification
- Increased risk of wildfires and poor air quality
- Conflicts over water usage and food
6. Management of Natural Hazards:

Volcanoes Earthquakes

Prediction: Prediction:

 Monitoring tremors using seismometers.  Monitoring tremors, groundwater levels,

and radon gas.
 Heat-seeking cameras on satellites for
ground temperature changes.  Mapping epicenters and frequencies of past
events.
 Tiltmeters (measures if ground surface is
straight or tilted), and GPS to monitor  Measurement of local magnetic fields
volcano shape changes. changes (from plates motions).

 Monitoring emissions of steam and gas.  Drawing hazard zone maps based on
geological data.

Preparation and Protection:

Preparation and Protection:
 Creation of volcano hazard maps based on
past eruptions.  Construction of earthquake-proof buildings.

 Construction of lava diversion channels and  Installation of smart meters to switch off gas
barriers. supplies.

 Spraying lava with water.  Land-use planning to avoid critical services

in high-risk areas.
 Using concrete slabs to stop lava advance.

 Building reinforcements like sloping roofs to

protect against ash fall.

Some features of an earthquake-proof building:

 rubber shock absorbers at the base to absorb tremors

 deep foundations (into bedrock)

 cross-bracing steel beams to allow the building to move more flexibly without breaking

 computer-controlled weights on the roof to reduce shaking

 construction using fire-resistant materials

 flexible pipes for electricity, water and gas (helps prevent fires, blackouts etc.)
Tropical Cyclones

Prediction:

 Tracking using satellites.

Preparation and Protection:

 Construction of cyclone shelters.

 Building embankments along the coast.

 Preservation of mangrove swamps for storm surge absorption.

Flooding

Prediction:

 Monitoring rainfall and river discharge.

 Assessing drainage basin features and storm severity.

Preparation and Protection:

 Implementing hard engineering projects (levees and flood barriers).

 Implementing soft engineering projects (afforestation and storage basins).

 Land-use planning (restrict development on regions at risk - floodplains).

Droughts

Prediction:

 Monitoring precipitation and temperature.

Preparation and Protection:

 Increasing water supplies through dams, reservoirs, and desalination.

 Water conservation methods like storage tanks and drought-tolerant crops.

 Agricultural improvements such as shelterbelts and bunds.

 Government stockpiling of water, food, and medicine supplies.

 7. Opportunities presented by natural hazards:

Natural hazards represent a menace to humanity, as they have the potential to exterminate
mankind. On the other hand, if we were to talk about the good sides that they bring, the
following could be mentioned:
 Employment Opportunities: demand for various services such as disaster relief, reconstruction,
and restoration; lead to job opportunities in sectors like construction, emergency services,
healthcare, and logistics as it was the case in Turkey.

 Infrastructure Development: Following a natural disaster, regions at risk incorporate

technologies that can resist earthquakes, floods, etc.
Japan is a leader in earthquake resistant buildings as they experience more than 1000
earthquakes per year.

 Technological Innovation: engineering solutions to mitigate and respond to hazards: early

detection and warning systems, disaster-resistant construction materials, and remote sensing
technologies for monitoring and prediction.

 Resources: Certain natural hazards, such as volcanic eruptions, may create opportunities for
resource utilization. For example, volcanic ash can be used as fertilizer, and geothermal energy
from volcanic activity can be converted into electricity.

 Environmental Restoration: Some natural hazards, such as wildfires and floods, may create
opportunities for environmental restoration and conservation efforts.

 Tourism and Education: Areas affected by natural hazards, particularly those with unique
geological features or post-disaster recovery efforts, may attract tourists interested in
witnessing the aftermath or learning about resilience and disaster management practices.

 Scientific Research: Natural disasters provide opportunities for scientific research and data
collection to better understand the underlying processes, improve prediction models, and
develop more effective mitigation strategies. This contributes to advancing scientific knowledge
and enhancing disaster risk management practices globally.

Good luck!!!